2. Syllabus
Basic architecture of CPU,
RTL,
common bus system,
different micro-operations,
ALU design,
stored program organization,
instruction format,
instruction set,
timing and control,
instruction cycle,
concept of interrupt.
Basic CPU design considerations.
3. Bus Unit in micro processor/microcomputer
• Address bus
• Data bus
• Control bus
6. Common Bus system in CPU:
Common bus: Shared by all blocks of the Microcomputer
Common Data Bus
Common Address Bus
Common Control Bus
7. Stored Program Architecture:
Machine reying on their performance on instruction and data stored in
the memory of the system.
1. Von Neuman Architecture
2. Harvard Architecture
Von Neuman Architecture
• It is also known as stored-program computer architecture
• Instruction and data share the same data bus
• Hence instruction fetch and a data operation cannot occur at the same time
• This limits the performance of the system.
8. The Harvard architecture
• Stored Program Architecture
• With separate storage and signal pathways for instructions and data.
Courtesy: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_architecture
• Modern processors appear to the user to be systems with von Neumann
architectures, with the program code stored in the same main memory as
the data.
• For performance reasons, internally and largely invisible to the user, most
designs have separate processor caches for the instructions and data,
with separate pathways into the processor for each. This is one form of
what is known as the modified Harvard architecture.
11. Characteristic Table of flip flops
• Describes output for a given input of flip flop.
• Useful for analysis and for defining the operation of
f/f
J K Q(t+1) Comment
0 0 Q(t) No change
0 1 0 Reset
1 0 1 Set
1 1 Q’(t) Compliment
S R Q(t+1) Comment
0 0 Q(t) No change
0 1 0 Reset
1 0 1 Set
1 1 ? Unpredictable
J-K
Flip
Flop
R-S
Flip
Flop
12.
13. Excitation Table
• This lists the required input for the given
transition of output state.
Q(t) Q(t+1) J K
0 0 0 X
0 1 1 X
1 0 X 1
1 1 X 0
J-K
Flip
Flop
R-S
Flip
Flop
Q(t) Q(t+1) S R
0 0 0 X
0 1 1 X
1 0 0 1
1 1 X 0
14.
15. Sequential Circuits
State equations
• Input: x(t)
• Output: y(t)
• State: (A(t), B(t))
• What is the Output
Function?
• What is the Next State
Function?
A
C
D Q
Q
C
D Q
Q
y
x A
B
CP
16. Sequential Circuits
Example (continued)
• Boolean equations
for the functions:
– A(t+1) = A(t)x(t) +
B(t)x(t)
– B(t+1) = A’(t)x(t)
– y(t) = x’(t)(B(t) + A(t))
– These may be reduced
using K-map
C
D Q
Q
C
D Q
Q'
y
x
A
A’
B
CP
Next State
Output
17. Sequential Circuits
State Table
• State table – a multiple variable table with the following
four sections:
– Present State – the values of the state variables for each allowed
state.
– Input – the input combinations allowed.
– Next-state – the value of the state at time (t+1) based on the
present state and the input.
– Output – the value of the output as a function of the present state
and (sometimes) the input.
• From the viewpoint of a truth table:
– the inputs are Input, Present State
– and the outputs are Output, Next State
18. Sequential Circuits
Example : State Table
The state table can be filled in using the next state and
output equations:
– A(t+1) = A(t)x(t) + B(t)x(t)
– B(t+1) =A (t)x(t);
– y(t) =x (t)(A(t) + B(t))
Present state Next state Output
X=0 X=1 X=0 X=1
AB A(t+1)B(t+1) A(t+1)B(t+1) Y Y
00 00 01 0 0
01 00 11 1 0
10 00 10 1 0
11 00 10 1 0
19. Sequential Circuits
State Diagram
• The sequential circuit function can be represented in graphical
form as a state diagram with the following components:
– A circle with the state name in it for each state
– A directed arc from the Present State to the Next State for each state
transition
– A label on each directed arc with the Input values which causes the
state transition, and
– A label:
• On each circle with the output value produced, or
• On each directed arc with the output value produced.
20. Example: State Diagram
• Which type?
• Diagram gets
confusing for
large circuits
• For small circuits,
usually easier to
understand than
the state table
• Pictorial view of state
transitions
• Used as initial design
specifications for a
sequential circuits.
A B
0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0
x=0/y=1 x=1/y=0
x=1/y=0
x=1/y=0
x=0/y=1
x=0/y=1
x=1/y=0
x=0/y=0
21. State reduction
• Reducing the no. of f/f in circuit is known as state
reduction
• Cost # of states
• In switching theory various algorithms are
designed to reduce the # of states in design.
• m flip flops produce 2m states.
• State reduction may or may not produce
reduction in no of gates.
• Sometimes it may increase no. of gates.
23. Obtain state table from state diagram
Two states are said to be equivalent if for each member
of the set of inputs they give exactly the same output and
send the circuit either to the same state or to an
equivalent state. One of them can be removed
24. • Look for the two present states that go to the same
next state and have the same output for both input
combination.
• (similar rows except present state columns)
• Row for e and g are same hence equivalent states
one of them may be removed.
25. Modify the state table
• Remove last row and Replace state g by e at all
place.
• Look for new equivalency of states in a similar
fashion.
• States d and f become equivalent now
• Repeat the procedure till possible.
26. We can verify this by taking same sequence of input and we
observe that the same out comes—
State a a b c d e f f g f g a
Input 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
Output0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
27. Reduced state diagram
•State reduction is possible only if input and out put relationship
is concerned.
•Output must be independent of number of states
28. State Assignment
• Size of combinational circuit associated with the
design may be reduced by using K-map or other
techniques.
• This may further be reduced by proper state
assignment.
• Assigning binary value to states is known as state
assignment.
• Minimization not applicable to circuit whose
external output are taken directly from f/f (circuit
viewed as external input output terminals).
29. • Sequence of state is immaterial as long as
their input and output relationships are
maintained.
• Any binary number assignment is satisfactory
as long as states are unique.
30. State table with binary state
assignment1
The combinational circuit obtained depends upon
the binary state assignment chosen
31. Optimal state assignment
• The most common criterion is that the chosen
assignment should result in a simple
combinational circuit.
• No state assignment procedure to guarantee
minimal-cost combinational circuit.
32. Q(t) Q(t+1) D
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
Q(t) Q(t+1) T
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
D Flip
Flop
T Flip
Flop
39. • Description:
• reset state(S0) (initial state of machine)
• From S0 to S1 if input is 1 S0 otherwise
• From state S1 to S2 if input is 1 S0 otherwise.
• From S2 to S3 if input is 1 S0 otherwise
• From S3 to S3 if input is 1 S0 otherwise
40. Step1: Obtaining the State Diagram
•A very important step in the
design procedure.
•Requires experience!
•Example: Design a circuit that
detects a sequence of three
consecutive 1’s in a string of bits
coming through an input line (serial
bit stream)
KFUPM
41. Step2: Obtaining the State Table
•Assign binary codes for the states
•We choose 2 D-FF
•Next state specifies what should be
the input to each FF
•Example: Design a circuit that
detects a sequence of three
consecutive 1’s in a string of bits
coming through an input line (serial
bit stream)
42. Step3: Obtaining the State Equations
•Using K-Maps
•A(t + 1) = DA = ∑(3,5,7) = A x + B x
•B(t + 1) = DB = ∑(1,5,7) = A x + B’ x
•y = ∑(6,7) = A B
•Example: Design a circuit that
detects a sequence of three
consecutive 1’s in a string of bits
coming through an input line (serial
bit stream)
KFUPM
43. Step4: Draw Circuits
•Using K-Maps
•A(t + 1) = DA = ∑(3,5,7) = A x + B x
•B(t + 1) = DB = ∑(1,5,7) = A x + B’ x
•y = ∑(6,7) = A B
•Example: Design a circuit that
detects a sequence of three
consecutive 1’s in a string of bits
coming through an input line (serial
bit stream)
KFUPM
48. Example 2 (cont.)
KFUPM
• Step 2: State Table
• state assignment
Q: How many FF?
log2(no. of states)
49. Example 2 (cont.)
KFUPM
• Step 2: State Table
• choose FF
• In this example, lets use JK–FF for
A and D-FF for B
50. Example 2 (cont.)
KFUPM
• Step 2: State Table
• complete state table
• use excitation tables for JK–FF and
D-FF
D–FF excitation table
JK–FF excitation table
Next
State
output
51. Example 2 (cont.)
KFUPM
• Step 3: State Equations
• use k-map
• JA = BX’
• KA = BX + B’X’
• DB = X
• Y = ABX’
59. Example 4
KFUPM
N
S
E
W
Traffic Action
EW only EW Signal green
NS Signal red
NS only NS Signal green
EW Signal red
EW & NS Alternate
No traffic Previous state
• Problem: Design a traffic light controller for a 2-way
intersection. In each way, there is a sensor and a light
60. Example 4 (cont.)
KFUPM
EW / 10
NS / 01
INPUTS
• Sensors X1, X0
X0: car coming on NS
X1 : car coming on EW
11, 10
00, 01 00, 10
11, 01
OUTPUTS
• Light S1, S0
S0 : NS is green
S1 : EW is green
STATES
• NS: NS is green
• EW: EW is green
• Step1: State Diagram
61. Example 4 (cont.)
• Exercise: Complete the design using:
• D-FF
• JK-FF
• T-FF
KFUPM
62. Example 5
• Problem: Design Up/Down counter with Enable
• Design a sequential circuit with two JK flip-flops A
and B and two inputs X and E. If E = 0, the circuit
remains in the same state, regardless of the input
X. When E = 1 and X = 1, the circuit goes through
the state transitions from 00 to 01 to 10 to 11,
back to 00, and then repeats. When E = 1 and X =
0, the circuit goes through the state transitions
from 00 to 11 to 10 to 01, back to 00 and then
repeats.
•
KFUPM
63. Example 5 (cont.)
00 01
10
11
00
01
10 11 10
11
10
11
11
00
01
00
01
10
00
01
Present
State
Inputs Next
State
FF Inputs
A B E X A B JA KA JB KB
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 X 0 X
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 X 1 X
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 X 1 X
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 X X 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 X X 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 X X 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 X X 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 X 0 0 X
1 0 0 1 1 0 X 0 0 X
1 0 1 0 0 1 X 1 1 X
1 0 1 1 1 1 X 0 1 X
1 1 0 0 1 1 X 0 X 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 X 0 X 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 X 0 X 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 X 1 X 1
KFUPM
64. Example 5 (cont.)
JA = BEX + B’EX’
EX
AB
00 01 11 10
00 x x x x
01 x x x x
11 0 0 1 0
10 0 0 0 1
KA = BEX + B’EX’
EX
AB
00 01 11 10
00 0 0 0 1
01 0 0 1 0
11 x x x x
10 x x x x
JB = E
EX
AB
00 01 11 10
00 x x x x
01 0 0 1 1
11 0 0 1 1
10 x x x X
KB = E
EX
AB
00 01 11 10
00 0 0 1 1
01 x x x x
11 x x x x
10 0 0 1 1
Y
X
JA
C
A
A’
KA
E
clock
JB
C
B
B’
KB
KFUPM
66. Summary
• To design a synchronous sequential circuit:
• Obtain a state diagram
• State reduction if necessary
• Obtain State Table
• State Assignment
• Choose type of flip-flops
• Use FF’s excitation table to complete the table
• Derive state equations
• Use K-Maps
• Obtain the FF input equations and the output equations
• Draw the circuit diagram
KFUPM
67. 67 / 17
Example: Detect 3 Consecutive 1
inputs (Moore)
State S0: zero 1s detected
State S1: one 1 detected
State S2: two 1s detected
State S3: three 1s detected
0
● Note that each state has 2 output arrows
● Two bits needed to encode state
68. 68 / 17
State Table for Sequence Detector
● Sequence of inputs, outputs, and flip flop
states in state table
● Present state indicates current value of
flip flops
● Next state indicates state after next rising
clock edge
● Output is current output value
Present
State
Next
State
A B x A B y
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Output
Input
S0 = 00
S1 = 01
S2 = 10
S3 = 11
69. Finding Expressions for Next State
and Output Value
● Create K-map directly from state table (3 columns = 3 K-maps)
● Minimize K-maps to find SOP representations
● Separate circuit for each next state and output value
70. Circuit for Consecutive
1s Detector
● Note location of state flip
flops
● Output value (y) is function
of state
● This is a Moore machine
75. Example... There are 4 states
( 2 bit for each let A & B)
state assignment done.
1 input (let x)
No output (f/f states may
be taken as out put)
Step 1: formation of
diagram already given
Step 2: Obtain State
Table
76. • State reduction not possible (due to out
put directly taken from f/f and no two rows of
state table are identical)
• state assignment not required
• No of flip flops for 4 states 2 f/f will be
required
• Type of f/f not mentioned in problem let us
take J-K f/f ( most versatile)
79. • Simplify for each f/f input variable using K-
map.
Take A, B & x
as input and
JA as output
Take A, B &
x as input
and KA as
output
Take A, B &
x as input
and JB as
output
Take A, B &
x as input
and KB as
output
80. Boolean function for each variable...
• JA=Bx’ (J input of f/f A)
• KA=Bx (K input of f/f A)
• JB=x (J input of f/f B)
• KB=Ax+A’x’
• =A(X-NOR)x (K input of f/f B)
86. State Table
Present state
A(t)
Present state
B(t)
Output next
state Q(t+1)
Output next
state Q(t+1)
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
There is no external input nor output so present state is taken as
only input and next state as only output
Input to T-f/f A TA=A+B next state toggles if TA is 1
A(t+1)=A’(A+B)+A(A+B)’=A’B=>(next state is A’ if (A+B ) is 1 otherwise
unchanged)
Input to T-f/f B TB=A’+B next state toggles if TB is 1
B(t+1)=B’(A’+B)+B(A’+B)’=A’B’
87. State diagram
• It is modulo 3
binary counter
• Counts as
0120
• If started from 11
resets
automatically to
00
00
01 10
11
95. • A typical digital computer h a s many registers, and paths must b e
provided to transfer information from one register to another.
• The number of wires will be excessive if separate lines are used
between each register and all other registers in the system.
• A more efficient scheme for transferring information between
registers in a multiple-register configuration is a common bus
system.
• A bus structure consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit
of a register, through which binary information is transferred one at
a time.
• Control signals determine which register is selected by the bus
during each particular register transfer.
96.
97. Register transfer Language
• Information transfer from one register to
another is designated in symbolic form by
means of a replacement operator.
• The statement
R2 R1
101. Micro-operations
• Data Transfer micro-operations
– Register to memory (write)
– Memory to register (Read)
– Register to register
– Memory to memory (x)
• Arithmetic micro-operations
• Logical micro-operations
• Shift micro-operations
Micro-operations are
the functional or
atomic, operations of
a processor.
102. Memory transfer
• Memory Read:
• CPU put address on address bus, [AR is address Register]
• activate control line [Memory read],
• data comes out of memory and kept on data bus and
transferred to CPU [DR is data Register]
103. Animation of sequence of operations for memory read
operation:
https://electro-nx.blogspot.com/2019/02/instruction-
fetch-in-microprocessor.html
104. Memory transfer
• Memory Read: DR M[AR]
• CPU put address on address bus,
• activate control line [Memory Read],
• Put data on data bus
• Save into DR (activate load input of DR)
113. s2 s1 s0 output
0 0 0 AND
0 0 1 OR
0 1 0 X-OR
0 1 1 NOT
1 0 0 NAND
1 0 1 NOR
1 1 0 Left shift (upward )
1 1 1 Right shift (downward)
114. Shift micro operations
Arithmetic shift
Ashr shifts right with
sign bit LSB lost, sign bit
remains unchanged
Ashl shifts left with 0
inserted at LSB, sign may
change overflow
Over flow detection
rotate
119. Opcode: tells operation to be performed
Address: gives address of operand, this may be used in
some operations like complement Accumulator, clear AC,
increment AC
129. Timing and Control
Master clock pulse to all sequential ckts
Just clock will change the state of seq ckt cotrol signal also required
Control signal gen from control unit and given to MUXes etc.
Control Unit:
1. Hard wired
2. microprogrammed
134. To provide the data path fro AR PC we must use T0 signal to
get following:
During next clock pulse (T1):
Hence T1 is used to make following connection paths:
