In fluid Mechanics course pressure measurement with different devices is much important. In this slides we will learn different pressure measuring devices.
Pressure Handbook for Industrial Process Measurement and ControlMiller Energy, Inc.
Illustrated handbook provides clear explanation of pressure concepts and measurement. Various sensor technologies are explained and compared. Good quick reference.
In fluid Mechanics course pressure measurement with different devices is much important. In this slides we will learn different pressure measuring devices.
Pressure Handbook for Industrial Process Measurement and ControlMiller Energy, Inc.
Illustrated handbook provides clear explanation of pressure concepts and measurement. Various sensor technologies are explained and compared. Good quick reference.
VENTURIMETER -Application of Bernoulli's LawKundan Kumar
A venturimeter is essentially a short pipe consisting of two conical parts with a short portion of uniform cross-section in between. This short portion has the minimum area and is known as the throat. The two conical portions have the same base diameter, but one is having a shorter length with a larger cone angle while the other is having a larger length with a smaller cone angle.
PLEASE NOTE THIS IS PART-1
By Referring or said Learning This Presentation You Can Clear Your Basics Fundamental Doubts about Fluid Mechanics. In this Presentation You Will Learn about Fluid Pressure, Pressure at Point, Pascal's Law, Types Of Pressure and Pressure Measurements.
Pressure and Pressure head is one of the major branch in Fluid Mechanics Engineering. It includes Pascal's and Hydro static law, which are the basic of Fluid Mechanics.
Rev. August 2014 ME495 - Pipe Flow Characteristics… Page .docxjoyjonna282
Rev. August 2014 ME495 - Pipe Flow Characteristics… Page 2
2
ME495—Thermo Fluids Laboratory
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PIPE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
AND PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
CALIBRATION
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PREPARED BY: GROUP LEADER’S NAME
LAB PARTNERS: NAME
NAME
NAME
TIME/DATE OF EXPERIMENT: TIME , DATE
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
OBJECTIVE— The objectives of this experiment are
to: a) observe the characteristics of flow in a pipe,
b) evaluate the flow rate in a pipe using velocity
and pressure difference measurements, and c)
perform the calibration of a pressure transducer.
Upon completing this experiment you should have
learned (i) how to measure the flow rate and average
velocity in a pipe using a Pitot tube and/or a resistance
flow meter, and (ii) how to classify the general
characteristics of a pipe flow.
Nomenclature
a = speed of sound, m/s
A = area, m
2
C = discharge coefficient, dimensionless
d = pipe diameter, m
d0 = orifice diameter, m
E = velocity approach factor, dimensionless
f = Darcy friction factor, dimensionless
K0 = flow coefficient, dimensionless
k = ratio of specific heats (cp/cv), dimensionless
L = length of pipe, m
M = Mach number, dimensionless
p = pressure, Pa
p0 = stagnation pressure, Pa
p1, p2 = pressure at two axial locations along a
pipe, Pa
Q = volumetric flow rate, m
3
/s
R = specific gas constant, J·kg/K
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
T = temperature, K
V = local velocity, m/s
V = average velocity, m/s
Y = adiabatic expansion factor, dimensionless
= ratio of orifice diameter to pipe diameter,
dimensionless
p = pressure drop across an orifice meter, Pa
= dynamic viscosity, Pa·s
= air density, kg/m3
INTRODUCTION— The flow of a fluid (liquid or
gas) through pipes or ducts is a common part of many
engineering systems. Household applications include
the flow of water in copper pipes, the flow of natural
gas in steel pipes, and the flow of heated air through
metal ducts of rectangular cross-section in a forced-air
furnace system. Industrial applications range from the
flow of liquid plastics in a manufacturing plant, to the
flow of yogurt in a food-processing plant. Because the
purpose of a piping system is to transport a desired
quantity of fluid, it is important to understand the
various methods of measuring the flow rate.
In order to work with a fluid system, and certainly to
design a fluid system that will deliver a prescribed
flow, it is necessary to understand certain fundamental
aspects of the fluid flow. For this, one should be able
to answer questions like: Are compressibility effects
important? Is the flow laminar or turbulent? Is the
viscosity of the fluid important or not? Is the flow
steady or varying with time? What are the primary
forces of importance? For internal ...
VENTURIMETER -Application of Bernoulli's LawKundan Kumar
A venturimeter is essentially a short pipe consisting of two conical parts with a short portion of uniform cross-section in between. This short portion has the minimum area and is known as the throat. The two conical portions have the same base diameter, but one is having a shorter length with a larger cone angle while the other is having a larger length with a smaller cone angle.
PLEASE NOTE THIS IS PART-1
By Referring or said Learning This Presentation You Can Clear Your Basics Fundamental Doubts about Fluid Mechanics. In this Presentation You Will Learn about Fluid Pressure, Pressure at Point, Pascal's Law, Types Of Pressure and Pressure Measurements.
Pressure and Pressure head is one of the major branch in Fluid Mechanics Engineering. It includes Pascal's and Hydro static law, which are the basic of Fluid Mechanics.
Rev. August 2014 ME495 - Pipe Flow Characteristics… Page .docxjoyjonna282
Rev. August 2014 ME495 - Pipe Flow Characteristics… Page 2
2
ME495—Thermo Fluids Laboratory
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PIPE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
AND PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
CALIBRATION
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PREPARED BY: GROUP LEADER’S NAME
LAB PARTNERS: NAME
NAME
NAME
TIME/DATE OF EXPERIMENT: TIME , DATE
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
OBJECTIVE— The objectives of this experiment are
to: a) observe the characteristics of flow in a pipe,
b) evaluate the flow rate in a pipe using velocity
and pressure difference measurements, and c)
perform the calibration of a pressure transducer.
Upon completing this experiment you should have
learned (i) how to measure the flow rate and average
velocity in a pipe using a Pitot tube and/or a resistance
flow meter, and (ii) how to classify the general
characteristics of a pipe flow.
Nomenclature
a = speed of sound, m/s
A = area, m
2
C = discharge coefficient, dimensionless
d = pipe diameter, m
d0 = orifice diameter, m
E = velocity approach factor, dimensionless
f = Darcy friction factor, dimensionless
K0 = flow coefficient, dimensionless
k = ratio of specific heats (cp/cv), dimensionless
L = length of pipe, m
M = Mach number, dimensionless
p = pressure, Pa
p0 = stagnation pressure, Pa
p1, p2 = pressure at two axial locations along a
pipe, Pa
Q = volumetric flow rate, m
3
/s
R = specific gas constant, J·kg/K
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
T = temperature, K
V = local velocity, m/s
V = average velocity, m/s
Y = adiabatic expansion factor, dimensionless
= ratio of orifice diameter to pipe diameter,
dimensionless
p = pressure drop across an orifice meter, Pa
= dynamic viscosity, Pa·s
= air density, kg/m3
INTRODUCTION— The flow of a fluid (liquid or
gas) through pipes or ducts is a common part of many
engineering systems. Household applications include
the flow of water in copper pipes, the flow of natural
gas in steel pipes, and the flow of heated air through
metal ducts of rectangular cross-section in a forced-air
furnace system. Industrial applications range from the
flow of liquid plastics in a manufacturing plant, to the
flow of yogurt in a food-processing plant. Because the
purpose of a piping system is to transport a desired
quantity of fluid, it is important to understand the
various methods of measuring the flow rate.
In order to work with a fluid system, and certainly to
design a fluid system that will deliver a prescribed
flow, it is necessary to understand certain fundamental
aspects of the fluid flow. For this, one should be able
to answer questions like: Are compressibility effects
important? Is the flow laminar or turbulent? Is the
viscosity of the fluid important or not? Is the flow
steady or varying with time? What are the primary
forces of importance? For internal ...
Onda de presión documento sobre las variaciones de presión y las ondas de choque When the positive part of a wave meets the negative part of another one the two parts nullify each other producing the “node” of the standing wave (i.e. a minimum of amplitude).
Associated to the pressure variations there are also the speed variations: to an “anti-node” of pressure corresponds a “node” of speed and vice versa.
Dimensions of piping, frequencies of the excitation source, characteristics and status of the fluid in suitable combinations can give rise to stationary waves: the appearance of a standing wave set up an “acoustic resonance”.
In absence of damping the amplitude of the standing wave tends to the infinite. The damping is produced by the same devices that produce pressure losses (in motion equation).The reciprocating compressor, with its pulsating flow, introduces a periodical excitation with harmonic components, referred to its rotational speed, predominant according to the number of the effects operating in each stage.“Vibration refers to mechanical oscillation about an equilibrium point”
The oscillations may be periodic such as the motion of a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road.
Oscillations often occur together with the motion of mechanical part of a machine.
By the energy standpoint, vibration is the transfer phenomena from elastic potential energy to kinetic energy.
When a guitar string is pulled, it stores elastic potential energy and when the string is released this energy is converted into kinetic energy (movement).
Sound is strictly related to vibration. Sound, i.e. pressure waves, is generated by vibrating structures (e.g. vocal cords) and pressure waves can generate vibration of structures (e.g. ear drum). Free vibration occurs when a mechanical system is set off with an initial input and then allowed to vibrate freely. The mechanical system will then vibrate at one or more of its natural frequencies and damp down to zero.
An examples of this type of vibration is hitting a tuning fork and letting it ring, when the beginning energy is totally wasted (hit), no sound is produced.The natural frequencies of a mechanical system are proper of the system itself and they are connected to the masses, the stiffness and the involved constraints.
In some way the natural frequency is an oscillating frequency of the system where the inertial forces and the elastic forces are equivalent: this means that any oscillation amplitude satisfy the system.
ROLE OF CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION IN THERMAL POWER PLANTGaurav Rai
Role of control and instrumentation in thermal power plant.
Use of various instruments for the measurements of flow, pressure and temperature in industries.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
This presentation explores the concept of inductive bias in machine learning. It explains how algorithms come with built-in assumptions and preferences that guide the learning process. You'll learn about the different types of inductive bias and how they can impact the performance and generalizability of machine learning models.
The presentation also covers the positive and negative aspects of inductive bias, along with strategies for mitigating potential drawbacks. We'll explore examples of how bias manifests in algorithms like neural networks and decision trees.
By understanding inductive bias, you can gain valuable insights into how machine learning models work and make informed decisions when building and deploying them.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
source for obtaining much needed cooling water for a power
plant. If a power plant could recover and reuse a portion of this
moisture, it could reduce its total cooling water intake
requirement. One of the most practical way to recover water
from flue gas is to use a condensing heat exchanger. The power
plant could also recover latent heat due to condensation as well
as sensible heat due to lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation. reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation.
Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen. Design of a
condenser depends on the knowledge and understanding of the
heat and mass transfer processes. A computer program for
numerical simulations of water (H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
water outlet temperature, mole fraction and condensation rates
of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
using an iterative solution technique with calculations of heat
and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
HEAP SORT ILLUSTRATED WITH HEAPIFY, BUILD HEAP FOR DYNAMIC ARRAYS.
Heap sort is a comparison-based sorting technique based on Binary Heap data structure. It is similar to the selection sort where we first find the minimum element and place the minimum element at the beginning. Repeat the same process for the remaining elements.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Online aptitude test management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
The purpose of on-line aptitude test system is to take online test in an efficient manner and no time wasting for checking the paper. The main objective of on-line aptitude test system is to efficiently evaluate the candidate thoroughly through a fully automated system that not only saves lot of time but also gives fast results. For students they give papers according to their convenience and time and there is no need of using extra thing like paper, pen etc. This can be used in educational institutions as well as in corporate world. Can be used anywhere any time as it is a web based application (user Location doesn’t matter). No restriction that examiner has to be present when the candidate takes the test.
Every time when lecturers/professors need to conduct examinations they have to sit down think about the questions and then create a whole new set of questions for each and every exam. In some cases the professor may want to give an open book online exam that is the student can take the exam any time anywhere, but the student might have to answer the questions in a limited time period. The professor may want to change the sequence of questions for every student. The problem that a student has is whenever a date for the exam is declared the student has to take it and there is no way he can take it at some other time. This project will create an interface for the examiner to create and store questions in a repository. It will also create an interface for the student to take examinations at his convenience and the questions and/or exams may be timed. Thereby creating an application which can be used by examiners and examinee’s simultaneously.
Examination System is very useful for Teachers/Professors. As in the teaching profession, you are responsible for writing question papers. In the conventional method, you write the question paper on paper, keep question papers separate from answers and all this information you have to keep in a locker to avoid unauthorized access. Using the Examination System you can create a question paper and everything will be written to a single exam file in encrypted format. You can set the General and Administrator password to avoid unauthorized access to your question paper. Every time you start the examination, the program shuffles all the questions and selects them randomly from the database, which reduces the chances of memorizing the questions.
An Approach to Detecting Writing Styles Based on Clustering Techniquesambekarshweta25
An Approach to Detecting Writing Styles Based on Clustering Techniques
Authors:
-Devkinandan Jagtap
-Shweta Ambekar
-Harshit Singh
-Nakul Sharma (Assistant Professor)
Institution:
VIIT Pune, India
Abstract:
This paper proposes a system to differentiate between human-generated and AI-generated texts using stylometric analysis. The system analyzes text files and classifies writing styles by employing various clustering algorithms, such as k-means, k-means++, hierarchical, and DBSCAN. The effectiveness of these algorithms is measured using silhouette scores. The system successfully identifies distinct writing styles within documents, demonstrating its potential for plagiarism detection.
Introduction:
Stylometry, the study of linguistic and structural features in texts, is used for tasks like plagiarism detection, genre separation, and author verification. This paper leverages stylometric analysis to identify different writing styles and improve plagiarism detection methods.
Methodology:
The system includes data collection, preprocessing, feature extraction, dimensional reduction, machine learning models for clustering, and performance comparison using silhouette scores. Feature extraction focuses on lexical features, vocabulary richness, and readability scores. The study uses a small dataset of texts from various authors and employs algorithms like k-means, k-means++, hierarchical clustering, and DBSCAN for clustering.
Results:
Experiments show that the system effectively identifies writing styles, with silhouette scores indicating reasonable to strong clustering when k=2. As the number of clusters increases, the silhouette scores decrease, indicating a drop in accuracy. K-means and k-means++ perform similarly, while hierarchical clustering is less optimized.
Conclusion and Future Work:
The system works well for distinguishing writing styles with two clusters but becomes less accurate as the number of clusters increases. Future research could focus on adding more parameters and optimizing the methodology to improve accuracy with higher cluster values. This system can enhance existing plagiarism detection tools, especially in academic settings.
KuberTENes Birthday Bash Guadalajara - K8sGPT first impressionsVictor Morales
K8sGPT is a tool that analyzes and diagnoses Kubernetes clusters. This presentation was used to share the requirements and dependencies to deploy K8sGPT in a local environment.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
2. Total Pressure Measurements
A correct total pressure measurement is a prerequisite for an accurate
determination of velocity fields.
The total or stagnation pressure is defined as the pressure obtained by
isentropically decelerating the flow to rest. The quality of the probe depends
on how well it performs this process.
The main parameters influencing the measurements are:
- incidence
- Reynolds number
- Mach number
- velocity gradients
- proximity of walls
- unsteadiness of the flow and probe geometry
3. Total Pressure Measurements
An obstacle with a blunt nose
decelerates the flow adequately at
subsonic Mach number if the blunt
nose is perpendicular to the flow
direction.
This is not the case for supersonic
flows because a bow shock will be
formed and the entropy increase
through this shock results in a
measured pressure which is lower than
the isentropic value.
Details of Pitot tube noses are shown
on Fig 2.1. They can be circular (a),
square (b, c) with different ratios of
internal over external diameter d/D,
with internal bevel (e,f,g).
Sensitivity angles for
different Mach numbers
4. Total Pressure Measurements
A. Incidence effect:
Pitot tubes are not very sensitive to
angles of attack for which the
measured total pressure deviates less
than 1% of the dynamic pressure from
the true one.
This sensitivity angle depends on the
nose shape and Mach number.
The influence of orifice-over-external
diameter is summarized on Fig. 2.2.
The sensitivity angle is normally
increasing with Mach number
5. Total Pressure Measurements
A. Incidence effect:
Extreme values of unsensitivity are
reached with the Kiel probes.
They are well suited for total
pressure measurements in flows of
variable or unknown direction.
It allows to measure the radial or
circumferential total pressure
distribution downstream of a
compressor or turbine or in the
wake of bluff bodies.
6. Total Pressure Measurements
B. Reynolds number effect:
The viscous interaction between
the free stream and stagnation
fluid results in an energy transfer
and as a consequence, in a
pressure measurement which is
too high.
Fig. 2.4 shows the calibration
curves for different types of nose
shapes. Measurements start to be
incorrect for Red<100.
Such low Re number is reached if
small probes are used or if the
velocity is low (boundary layer
measurements).
7. Total Pressure Measurements
B. Reynolds number effect:
Flattening the tube allows a decrease of the critical Reynolds number at which the
viscous effects have an influence.
Flat Pitot tubes allow correct boundary layer measurements up to low Reynolds
numbers.
8. Total Pressure Measurements
C. Velocity gradient effect:
The transverse velocity gradient will cause a measurement error which could be
due to the following effects:
• The stagnation pressure is proportional to
the square of the velocity. Integrating this
over the orifice will result in a higher value
than the stagnation pressure calculated from
the square of the average velocity at the
geometrical center of the orifice
• The presence of a probe in a velocity
gradient causes deflection of the streamlines
toward the region of lower velocity. This
deflection causes the probe to indicate a
bigger stagnation pressure than the existing
at the probe location.
9. Velocity profiles obtained from Pitot measurements in a wake close to the trailing
edge using probes of similar geometry but with varying diameter.
10. Total Pressure Measurements
D. Wall proximity effect:
The streamline shift due to the velocity
gradient in the boundary layer is limited by the
proximity of the wall and the measured total
pressure is closer to the exact value.
Fig. 2.7 indicate the velocity correction for
Z/D<2. This correction has to be deduced from
the velocity.
11. Total Pressure Measurements
D. Wall proximity effect:
Preston (1954) has indicated that a
Pitot tube resting on the wall can be
used for skin friction measurements.
Cf=f (UP/U, UD/ν)
Up is the velocity corresponding to
the dynamic pressure defined by the
Preston tube measurement minus
static pressure measurement on the
wall. U is the free stream velocity.
12. Total Pressure Measurements
E. Turbulence effects:
Turbulence or flow unsteadiness may influence Pitot tube readings in two
ways:
A. The fluctuating velocity component influences the direction of the flow
approaching the orifice (like effect of incidence).
B. The fluctuating velocity components may contribute to the stagnation
pressure. Expressing the velocity as the sum of the mean velocity and
the fluctuating components u’, v’ and w’
Utotal=Umean+u’’+v’’+w’’
results for incompressible flows, into a stagnation pressure defined by
Po=Ps+1/2ρ U2
total
Turbulence intensities of 20%, which are high, will result into a maximum
total pressure change of 2%.
13. Total Pressure Measurements
F. Mach number effect:
A Mach number variation does not
substantially affect the Pitot tube pressure
measurements if the flow is subsonic.
However, shocks appearing at supersonic
Mach numbers, result in pressure losses and a
Pitot pressure reading below the isentropic
stagnation pressure.
Total pressure measurement corrections in
supersonic flows are based on the assumption
that the shock is normal to the flow.
15. United Sensor stainless steel Boundary
Layer Probes measure total pressure of a
fluid near solid boundaries.
A Traverse unit measures distance in
increments of 0.01" on a scale graduated in
divisions of 0.1" with a vernier.
Angle of rotation of the probe, used for
measuring flow direction, is measured in
movements of 0.2° over a full 360° on a
protractor graduated in 2° divisions for easy
readability and a special large scale vernier.
16. United Sensor Pressure
and / or Temperature
Rakes measure a cross-section
of total pressure,
static pressure and / or
total temperature of a
moving fluid. Rakes offer
the advantage of
providing many separate
readings simultaneously
or a simple average of
many readings.