3. What is a fallacy?
Any violations of logical laws is a fallacy. Erroneous
form of reasoning that may appear sound or correct
It is an illogical, misleading and deceptive argument. An
argument based on faulty reasoning
An argument can be right in one way, but the number of
ways of its becoming wrong is endless
4. Example
Nobody can be in Manila and Baguio at the same time.
I am not in Manila,
Therefore, I am in Baguio right now
If the patient has terminal cancer, he is seriously
sick. But the patient has no terminal cancer.
Therefore, the patient is not sick
All fishes are green.
Anything that is green walks.
Therefore fishes walk.
5. Formal Fallacies Informal Fallacies
Also known as logical fallacy
Fallacies that arise from errors or
violations of the rules of definition,
conversion, obversion and the rules of
categorical and hypothetical
syllogisms
It arises from a wrong assumption of
facts; from ignoring the issue
An informal fallacy is a fallacy that tends
to lead to incorrect judgements but in
which the error is not in the form o
argument
7. Appeal to force (Ad Baculum )
1.
It arises when the real issue at hand is ignored and this is an appeal to the physical or
moral pressure rather than reason.
Example:
If you don't follow my orders, you will burn in hell!
Employer: “I need you to work overtime each day this week.”
Employee: “I can’t do that; that’s not even what we agreed upon.”
Employer: “Well, if you don’t wanna cooperate, I can always find someone to replace you.”
8. 2. Appeal to Personality Argumentum Ad
Hominem
Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or more subtly casting
doubt on their character or personal attributes as a way to discredit their argument. The result
of an ad hom attack can be to undermine someone's case without actually having to engage
with it.
Example:
After Sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam
asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isn't married, was
once arrested, and smells a bit weird.
9. 3. Appeal to Emotion
Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, pride, and more. It's
important to note that sometimes a logically coherent argument may inspire
emotion or have an emotional aspect, but the problem and fallacy occurs when
emotion is used instead of a logical argument, or to obscure the fact that no
compelling rational reason exists for one's position.
Example: A suitor to a girl: Please marry me. If you won't my life would be
meaningless and I will surely die of heartbreak
Student to Teacher: Sir, I have to pass this subject. My parents will be ashamed and
disappointed with me. They will disown me for sure! I will have no future anymore.
10. 4. Appeal to Misplaced Authority a
instead of showing the intrinsic merits of the issue at hand, the argument appeals
to the unfounded authority of some prominent person to support the contention.
REMEMBER: It's important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss
the claims of experts, or scientific consensus. Appeals to authority are not valid
arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a
demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding
and/or access to empirical evidence.
11. A book argues that global warming is not actually happening, and cites the
research of one environmental scientist who has been studying climate
change for several years.
A commercial claims that 3 out of 4 dentists would choose this particular
brand of toothpaste for their own families to use.
An anti vaxer who cites 3 doctors out of thousands that vaccination cause
more harm than good.
Example:
1.
2.
3.
12. 5. Appeal to People/Bandwagon Fallacy
This fallacy consists in arguing that some statement P is true because
many people believe that P is true. It arises when one who, instead of
concentrating on the relevant facts of argument, give more emphasis
on the emotions and opinions of the people as basis of his/her
conclusion.
13.
14.
15. 6. Appeal to Nature
You argued that because something is 'natural' it is therefore valid, justified, inevitable, good or ideal.
Many 'natural' things are also considered 'good', and this can bias our thinking; but
naturalness itself doesn't make something good or bad. For instance murder could be
seen as very natural, but that doesn't mean it's good or justifiable.
Example: The medicine man rolled into town on his bandwagon offering various natural
remedies, such as very special plain water. He said that it was only natural that people
should be wary of 'artificial' medicines such as antibiotics.
16.
17. 7. Appeal to Ignorance
Examples:
You cannot prove that God does not exist; therefore God exists.
No one has ever proven that UFOs haven’t visited earth yet, so I believe that they have.
When the truth or the falsity of a particular proposition is ignored and is simply asserted that it
is true or false because it cannot be proven otherwise.
Affirmative form:
There is no evidence against X. Therefore, X is true.
Negative form:
There is no evidence to support Y. Therefore, Y is false
18. Many people confuse correlation (things happening together or in sequence) for
causation (that one thing actually causes the other to happen). Sometimes
correlation is coincidental, or it may be attributable to a common cause.
This fallacy is also called as "post hoc, ergo propter hoc" after this therefore,
because of this.
Example: A college student keeps on laughing regardless of place, occasions and the
people whom the student with believing that laughter is the best medicine.
Because I didn't wear my lucky charm, I failed my exam today.
7. Fallacy of False Cause
19.
20. 8. Fallacy of Hasty Generalization
You visit a new country and the first person you meet in the airport is rude. You
send a message to a friend back home that everyone in this new country is rude
Christine has a terrible experience with a boyfriend. She decides that all boys are
mean.
Kevin's grandparents do not know how to use a computer. Kevin thinks that all older
people must be computer illiterate.
This consist in arguing that what is true of a few members of the class must all be true
to all members of that class.
Example:
1.
2.
3.
21.
22. 9. Fallacy of Begging the Question/Circular
Reasoning
This can also be known as a "Circular Argument" - because the conclusion essentially
appears both at the beginning and the end of the argument, it creates an endless circle,
never accomplishing anything of substance.
Examples: The rights of the criminal are just as important as the rights of the victim.
Everyone's rights are equal.
Murder should be punished for it is morally wrong. We maintain that iti is morally wrong
because it is punishable
23. 10. Fallacy of Ignoring the Question
The logical fallacy of avoiding the issue occurs when someone deliberately tries to
avoid a subject rather than giving sound reasoning for their conclusions regarding
the subject. There may be many reasons why someone may want to avoid a subject.
On frequent reason for this avoidance occurs when someone wants to hide the fact
that their belief system breaks down in this area.
24.
25. 11. Black or White Fallacy
This is committed when one assumes that there are only two possible alternatives
available, ignoring the possibility of other alternatives/s between the contraries.
Examples:
Humans are either good or bad
Either you are a pinklawan or bbm supporter
A co worker asks you this question about your job: “Would you say your employer is
drunk on the job about (a) once a week, (b) twice a week, or (c) more times per
week?
26.
27. 12. Strawman Fallacy
Straw man arguments are so named because the person erects a “straw man” of
their opponent’s position and proceeds to attack it instead of the person’s actual
views.
Straw man fallacies occur when a person misrepresents their opponent’s
position or argument and argues against that caricature instead of the actual
position. Straw man arguments give the illusion of refuting an argument by
attacking a figment of reasoning rather than the actual reasoning.
28. Examples:
A teacher says her class needs to spend more time on math tasks. A parent complains,
saying the teacher doesn’t care about literacy subjects.
A parent doesn’t let their daughter go to a party. The daughter responds with “Why do you
hate me?”
Feminists hate men and want to destroy the nuclear family. Also, feminists deny that there
are any differences whatsoever between men and women so they are unscientific too.”
29. A slippery slope fallacy is a fallacious pattern of reasoning that claims that allowing
some small event now will eventually culminate in a significant and (usually) negative
final effect later. Slippery slope arguments are fallacious when the claimed links between
the events are unlikely or exaggerated.
13. Slippery Slope
31. Assessment
There is no truth in Antonio's statement because he is a taxi driver and an illiterate
Either you're a Christian or an atheist
During the first soccer competition, every time James would wear his blue socks, the
team is always defeated. Hence, his team forbids him to wear blue socks every game
time to win.
Hitler wasn't such a bad fellow. Therefore Nazi's can't be so bad.
We can't imprisoned the accused because he is divorced, an immigrant and has 10
kids to support
There will be no promotion in this department, otherwise everyone will be fired.
Identify the fallacies in following statements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
32. 7. I have been to the homes of 2 Filipino families and they were very hospitable.
Therefore, I can say that all Filipinos are hospitable.
8. It should be okay to destroy property when you are angry because angry people
destroy things.
9. If we give in every time our baby cries, he will always pitch a fit to get what he
wants, and he will end up in prison because we never set limits.
10. According to my favorite influencer, if I drink coffee with lemon, I will lose 10
pounds in 10 days!
11. Every Filipino favorite coffee brand is nescafe.
12. Our body has the natural antibodies to protect us from viruses thus we don't need
any kind of vaccination.
33. 13. You can’t prove that you are innocent, therefore you are guilty to me.
14. A man tells his daughter that he thinks they can’t afford to take a holiday this year.
The daughter sulks, saying he doesn’t want her to have any fun.
15. My father has swollen knee and applied a cabbage leaf as a patch to cure it.
34. Answer Key
Ad Hominem
Black or White
False Cause
Ignoring the Question
Appeal to Emotion
Appeal to Force
Hasty Generalization
Begging the Question
Slippery Slope
Mispaced Authority
Bnadwagon
Appeal to nature
Appeal to ignorance
Strawman
Appeal to nature
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
35. Assignment
Identify at least 10 fallacies in the given speech. Submission is next week. Here is the
link
https://www.rappler.com/nation/full-text-rodrigo-duterte-state-nation-address-
sona-2021/
