Thinking involves units like images, symbols, concepts, prototypes, and rules. There are two main kinds of thinking: directed thinking aims for a specific goal, while non-directed thinking allows free association. Problem solving uses strategies like breaking problems into steps, working backward from the goal, and recognizing similarities to past problems. Language develops in stages from babbling to one-word to two-word phrases to full sentences, and involves sounds, meanings, and rules of syntax. Theories differ on how language is learned, whether through conditioning, observation, or innate abilities.

1. Chapter 11 Thinking and Language

2. Section 1 Thinking and Problem Solving

3. Thinking Changing and reorganization of the information stored in memory to create new information Copernicus How do we think? How do we create ideas

4. Units of Thought Image Symbol Concept Prototype Rule

5. Image A visual, mental representation of an event or object Imagery is an effective way of thinking about concepts Shepard & Metzler (Page 296)

6. Symbol An abstract unit of thought that represents an object or quality An image represents a specific sight or sound, but a symbol may have a number of meanings Examples: Numbers, letters, punctuation marks (have no concrete existence)

7. Concept A label for a class of objects or events that have at least one attribute in common. Enables us to chunk large amounts of information

8. Prototype A representative example of a concept. The prototype you picture may not be an example you have experienced Is an example that has most of the characteristics of the particular concept

9. Rule A statement of relation between concepts. Examples: A person cannot be in two places at one time Mass remains constant despite changes in appearance

10. Kinds of Thinking Directed or convergent thinking Deliberate or purposeful Is a systematic and logical attempt to reach a specific goal or answer Example: Math problems

11. Kinds of Thinking Non-directed or divergent thinking A free flow of thoughts with no particular plan Usually takes place when relaxing Artists best art and creative ideas emerge from this type of thinking

12. Kinds of Thinking Metacognition Thinking about thinking Thinking about strategies may cause you to think about other strategies

13. Strategies Problem solving depends on the use of strategies, or specific methods for approaching Break down complex problems into sub goals or intermediate steps You may work backward from the goal you have set

14. Strategies May require you to examine various ways of reaching a desired goal Most of us analyze the problem to see if it resembles a situation we have experienced in the past The more unusual the problem, the more difficult to devise a strategy for dealing with it

15. Problem Solving Strategy Algorithm- a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem Math & scientific formulas Heuristics- are experimental strategies, or rules of thumb, that simplify a problem, allowing one to solve problems quickly and easily

16. Heuristics Wheel of Fortune Able to use previous knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, and other to assist in solving puzzles Your advice might include what has worked for you in the past

17. Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental set- a habitual strategy or pattern of problem solving Functional fixedness- the inability to imagine new uses for familiar objects

18. Mental Set tendency to approach a problem in a particular way especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem Obstacles to Problem Solving

19. Functional Fixedness tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions impediment to problem solving Obstacles to Problem Solving

20. The Matchstick Problem How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

21. The Matchstick Problem Solution to the matchstick problem

22. The Three-Jugs Problem Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated?

23. The Three-Jugs Problem Solution: a) All seven problems can be solved by the equation shown in (a): B - A - 2C = desired volume. b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7, such as A - C for problem 6.

24. The Candle-Mounting Problem Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

25. The Candle-Mounting Problem Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container

26. Creativity The capacity to use information and/or abilities in new and original ways Is a mystery to psychologists Characteristics of Creative Thinking Flexibility Recombination insight

27. Flexibility The ability to overcome rigidity, to remain open to alternate strategies Inflexible and rigid thinking leads to unoriginal or no solutions

28. Recombination Rearranging the elements of a problem to arrive at an original solution Many creative people say that “no creative poem or invention has ever came from someone who has not spent years studying his or her subject

29. Insight The apparent sudden realization of the solution to a problem Known as the “aha” experience Wolfgang Kohler (1976) Chimpanzee and banana experiement

30. Section 2 Language

31. Language Is the expression of ideas through symbols and sounds that are arranged according to rules Communicates facts and ideas Consists of three elements Phonemes Morphemes Syntax

32. Phoneme An individual sound that is a basic structural element of language English language Has 43 sounds Some languages have as few as 15 sounds and as many as 85 sounds

33. Morphemes The smallest unit of meaning in a given language may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) Grammar- a system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand others

34. Language Syntax- language rules that govern how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences Semantics- the study of meaning in a language

35. Language Development B.F. Skinner- believed children learned language as a result of operant conditioning Critics of Skinner Think children understand language before they speak and before they receive reinforcement

36. Language Development Some psychologists argue that children learn language through observation, explanation, and imitation Noam Chomsky Believed reinforcement and imitation contribute, but does not believe that all the complex rules of language could be learned this way

37. Language Babbling Stage beginning at 3 to 4 months the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language One-Word Stage from about age 1 to 2 the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words

38. Language Two-Word Stage beginning about age 2 the stage in speech development during which a child speaks in mostly two-word statements Telegraphic Speech early speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram-–“go car”--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words

39. Language Summary of Language Development Month (approximate) Stage 4 10 12 24 24+ Babbles many speech sounds. Babbling reveals households language. One-word stage. Two-world, telegraphic speech. Language develops rapidly into complete sentences.

40. Benjamin Whorf Linguistic relativity Refers to the idea that language influences thoughts Certain words may create stereotypes among gender “ she” usually refers to secretaries, teachers, and nurses “ he” usually refers to doctor, engineers, and presidents of companies