The document discusses the history and development of the cognitive perspective in psychology. It notes that early pioneers like John Stuart Mill, Fechner, and Ebbinghaus began experimentally studying topics like memory, learning, and mental processes. Later, William James, Bartlett, and Piaget further demonstrated cognition could be experimentally studied. In the 20th century, Gestalt psychologists, Hebb, and others expanded experimental cognitive psychology. By the 1960s, cognitive science had emerged as an interdisciplinary field combining psychology, linguistics, computer science and more to understand human cognition. Major theories discussed include Beck's cognitive therapy which focuses on automatic thoughts, underlying beliefs and cognitive distortions, and Ellis' rational emotive behavior therapy using the ABC model
Originally Eysenck characterized an individual's personality on two scales. Introversion - extraversion and stable - unstable. A person may thus be
Introverted and Stable,
Introverted and Unstable,
Extraverted and Stable or
Extraverted and Unstable.
The scale, stable - unstable, measures an increasing level of neuroticism. Eysenck's term "neuroticism" does not mean that the persons actually have neurosis, only that they are more inclined to get one.
They are continuous scales, so one can of course also score in the middle, for example, only 50% unstable and only 50% introverted. Later in his career he added Psychoticism.
Originally Eysenck characterized an individual's personality on two scales. Introversion - extraversion and stable - unstable. A person may thus be
Introverted and Stable,
Introverted and Unstable,
Extraverted and Stable or
Extraverted and Unstable.
The scale, stable - unstable, measures an increasing level of neuroticism. Eysenck's term "neuroticism" does not mean that the persons actually have neurosis, only that they are more inclined to get one.
They are continuous scales, so one can of course also score in the middle, for example, only 50% unstable and only 50% introverted. Later in his career he added Psychoticism.
This approach focuses on how internal thoughts and feelings influence one's behavior. The cognitive approach emphasizes the importance of memory, perception and attention, language, decision-making and problem-solving. This approach often compares the human mind to that of a computer.The cognitive perspective, operates on the belief that the brain is the most important aspect in relation to the way that an individual behaves or thinks. This perspective states that to understand someone, you must first be able to understand what is happening in their mind.An example of a way that cognitive researchers study perception is by examining how students study information in preparation for exams.
Structuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of consciousness using a method known as introspection. Wilhelm Wundt, founder of the first psychology lab, is often associated with this school of thought despite the fact that it was his student Edward B. Titchener who first coined the term to describe this school of thought.
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the structuralism and was heavily influenced by the work of William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. Functionalists sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic and accurate manner. Rather than focusing on the elements of consciousness, functionalists focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior. Functionalism also emphasized individual differences, which had a profound impact on education.
The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank is a projective psychological test developed by Julian B. Rotter. It comes in three forms (for different age groups) and comprises 40 incomplete sentences usually only 1–2 words long, such as "I regret ..." and "Mostly girls ...".
The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is the most frequently used sentence completion test of personality and socioemotional functioning. A performance-based test, the RISB is used to screen for adjustment problems, to facilitate case conceptualization and diagnosis, and to monitor treatment.The Rorschach Inkblot Test, the TAT, the RISB, and the C-TCB are all forms of projective tests.
The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank is an attempt to standardize the sentence completion method for the use at college level. Forty items are completed by the subject. These completions are then scored by comparing them against typical items in empirically derived scoring manuals for men and women and by assigning to each response a scale value from 0 to 6. The total score is an index of maladjustment.
The sentence completion method of studying personality is a semi structured projective technique in which the subject is asked to finish a sentence for which the first word or words are supplied. As in other projective devices, it is assumed that the subject reflects his own wishes, desires, fears and attitudes in the sentences he makes. Historically, the incomplete sentence method is related most closely to the word association test. In some test incomplete sentences tests only a single word or brief response is called for; the major differences appears to be in the length of the stimulus. In the sentence completion tests, tendencies to block and to twist the meaning of the stimulus words appear and the responses may be categorized in a somewhat similar fashion to the word association method.
The Incomplete Sentences Blank can be used, of course, for general interpretation with a variety of subjects in much the same manner that a clinician trained in dynamic psychology uses any projective material. However, a feature of ISB is that one can derive a single over-all adjustment score. This over-all adjustment score is of particular value for screening purposes with college students and in experimental studies. The ISB has also been used in a vocational guidance center to select students requiring broader counseling than was usually given, in experimental studies of the effect of psychotherapy and in investigations of the relationship of adjustment to a variety of variables.
This approach focuses on how internal thoughts and feelings influence one's behavior. The cognitive approach emphasizes the importance of memory, perception and attention, language, decision-making and problem-solving. This approach often compares the human mind to that of a computer.The cognitive perspective, operates on the belief that the brain is the most important aspect in relation to the way that an individual behaves or thinks. This perspective states that to understand someone, you must first be able to understand what is happening in their mind.An example of a way that cognitive researchers study perception is by examining how students study information in preparation for exams.
Structuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of consciousness using a method known as introspection. Wilhelm Wundt, founder of the first psychology lab, is often associated with this school of thought despite the fact that it was his student Edward B. Titchener who first coined the term to describe this school of thought.
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the structuralism and was heavily influenced by the work of William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. Functionalists sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic and accurate manner. Rather than focusing on the elements of consciousness, functionalists focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior. Functionalism also emphasized individual differences, which had a profound impact on education.
The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank is a projective psychological test developed by Julian B. Rotter. It comes in three forms (for different age groups) and comprises 40 incomplete sentences usually only 1–2 words long, such as "I regret ..." and "Mostly girls ...".
The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is the most frequently used sentence completion test of personality and socioemotional functioning. A performance-based test, the RISB is used to screen for adjustment problems, to facilitate case conceptualization and diagnosis, and to monitor treatment.The Rorschach Inkblot Test, the TAT, the RISB, and the C-TCB are all forms of projective tests.
The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank is an attempt to standardize the sentence completion method for the use at college level. Forty items are completed by the subject. These completions are then scored by comparing them against typical items in empirically derived scoring manuals for men and women and by assigning to each response a scale value from 0 to 6. The total score is an index of maladjustment.
The sentence completion method of studying personality is a semi structured projective technique in which the subject is asked to finish a sentence for which the first word or words are supplied. As in other projective devices, it is assumed that the subject reflects his own wishes, desires, fears and attitudes in the sentences he makes. Historically, the incomplete sentence method is related most closely to the word association test. In some test incomplete sentences tests only a single word or brief response is called for; the major differences appears to be in the length of the stimulus. In the sentence completion tests, tendencies to block and to twist the meaning of the stimulus words appear and the responses may be categorized in a somewhat similar fashion to the word association method.
The Incomplete Sentences Blank can be used, of course, for general interpretation with a variety of subjects in much the same manner that a clinician trained in dynamic psychology uses any projective material. However, a feature of ISB is that one can derive a single over-all adjustment score. This over-all adjustment score is of particular value for screening purposes with college students and in experimental studies. The ISB has also been used in a vocational guidance center to select students requiring broader counseling than was usually given, in experimental studies of the effect of psychotherapy and in investigations of the relationship of adjustment to a variety of variables.
2TitleName of the StudentName of the Instruc.docxtamicawaysmith
2
Title
Name of the Student
Name of the Instructor
University of Affiliation
Date
Option 2
Psychology has changed over the years changing how psychologists understand human behaviors. Looking at the history of psychology, the most important approaches to the same can be singled out. Psychology is no longer based on speculation but more objective and scientific criteria. Cognitive psychology has brought changes to the field of psychology. It can be defined as the study of how our brains work or how we think. It involves studying mental processes such as perception, memory, creativity, attention among others. The most significant contributors to the above to this field included Sir Fredrick Bartlett, Jean Piaget, and Hermann Ebbinghaus (Cowley PGDipStat BA DPhil - RSS Fellow, 2017).
Cognitive psychology brought changes, in the general field of psychology, which can be explained through some assumptions it created. Cognitive psychology tends to involve aspects of how we think, how we feel and how we act all at once, each being a function of the other. Unlike the original school of thought based on speculation, cognitive psychology assumes that abnormalities arise from the impaired cognition of the world around us or the people that we interact. Cognitive deficiencies such as the lack of planning or distortions such as the inaccurate processing of information cause such faults. Another change brought about by the school of thought is that cognition affects the perception of what is around us. Psychologists better understood how cognition distorted in the way human being viewed as what they saw, as explained by irrational thinking and cognitive triad, by Ellis (1962) and Beck (1967) respectively (Ellis, 1962).
The school of thought brought new understanding to psychologists as to why people behave the way that they do and the cause of certain behavioral actions portrayed by the human being. Another principle brought about by cognitive psychology is that human beings interact with the world through their mental representation of the same. It brought an understanding of human behavior especially of where behavior or emotions exhibited by people are at times disorder. Psychologists derive the answer to the above thought through cognitive psychology, proving that if the mental representation is inaccurate, so will human emotions and behavior be (Solso, MacLin & MacLin, 1998). Cognitive psychology we based on ‘what if' questions where psychologists create constructs (models in mind). The psychological field tends to question the reliability of our memory or mind to make judgments that affect the day to day behaviors we portray.
References
Cowley PGDipStat BA DPhil - RSS Fellow, M. (2017). The Cognitive Perspective - Introduction to Psychology: Theory and Practice (Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Developmental Notes). SSRN Electronic Journal.
Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy. New York: Stuart.
Solso, R. L ...
Hi!
I am SHIV PRAKASH (PhD Research Scholar),This slide presentation, I have created it for teaching purpose. I have used this slide to present the concept of CBT for Nursing Student in the department of psychiatry, I.M.S. Banaras Hindu University in Varanasi.
I hope this will be help full for everyone.
Thank you!
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
3. John Stuart Mill (1843/1988): pioneering work on cognitive psychology as an
experimental science of mind.
Fechner (1860/1966): Cognitive events could be studied experimentally.
Ebbinghaus (1885/1964): experimental work on learning and memory.
Würzburg school (Kulpe): of experimental investigation of thought at the
Psychological Institute of the University of Würzburg in Germany in the first
decade of the 20th century. school conducted research on a wider array of
cognitive topics.
William James’s book: The Principles of Psychology (1890/1950) summarized
considerable research on cognition and suggested many additional
possibilities.
Brook’s (2007) The Prehistory of Cognitive Science details these
contributions through James.
Frederic Charles Bartlett (1886–1969), in his book Remembering: A Study in
Experimental and Social Psychology (1932), demonstrated how memory is
influenced more by personal, cognitive themes or schema than by the
mechanical laws of association. Bartlett found consistent patterns in how
memory degraded over time, but also in how details became unconsciously
reconstructed to preserve the overall meaning and coherence.
4. Throughout most of psychology’s history, human cognition was
studied philosophically.
J. S. Mill provided the framework within which human cognition could
be studied scientifically.
Fechner, Ebbinghaus, James, Bartlett, and Piaget were among the
first psychologists to demonstrate that human cognition could be
studied experimentally.
Among the pioneers of experimental cognitive psychology were the
Gestalt psychologists, Hebb, Wiener, Shannon, and Weaver. During
the 1950s, interest in experimental cognitive psychology increased
mainly because of the efforts of such individuals as George Miller,
Broadbent, Lashley, Festinger, Bruner, and Chomsky, the humanistic
psychologists, and the psychoanalysts.
In 1960 Hebb urged that the rigorous scientific methods utilized by the
behaviorists to study behavior be applied to the study of human
cognition.
5. In 1960, Miller and Bruner founded the Center for Cognitive Studies at
Harvard.
In 1962 and 1963, Egger and Neal Miller demonstrated that classical conditioning
could not be understood in terms of associative principles alone. Rather, the
information conveyed by the stimuli involved had to be considered. In 1967
Neisser synthesized the diverse findings within experimental cognitive
psychology, using a few basic principles primarily from information theory.
In 1965 Bruner, and in 1969 George Miller served as president of the APA,
emphasized on experimental cognitive psychology.
In 1950 Alan Turing created the field of Artificial Intelligence. AI
attempts to simulate or duplicate the intelligence exhibited by humans,
using nonhuman machines such as computers.
In the late 1970s, information processing psychologists joined with
researchers from other disciplines to form cognitive science.
6. The Cognitive Perspective
This approach focuses on how internal thoughts and
feelings influence one's behavior. The cognitive approach
emphasizes the importance of memory, perception and attention,
language, decision-making and problem-solving.
7. The Cognitive Behavioral Perspective
Our thoughts, emotions, body sensations, and behavior are
all connected, and that what we think and do affects the way we
feel.
Thousands of research trials have demonstrated that CBT is an
effective treatment for conditions from anxiety and depression to pain
and insomnia.
8. Theories of Cognitive Perspective
Cognitive perspective by Aaron Beck
Cognitive perspective by Albert Ellis
Cognitive perspective of Appraisal and Coping
9. Cognitive perspective by Aaron Beck
Aaron Temkin Beck (1921-2021), was an
American psychiatrist who was a professor in
the department of psychiatry at the University
of Pennsylvania.
He is regarded as the father of cognitive
therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy.
10. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy by Aaron Beck
Patients with depression frequently verbalize thoughts that are
objectively untrue.
Beck was able to pinpoint a set of characteristic “cognitive distortions” in
their thinking patterns, leading him to start viewing depression as a
cognitive disorder rather than a mood disorder.
He published Cognitive Therapy for Depression (Beck, Rush, Shaw,
and Emery, 1979) after conducting a study that demonstrated the
effectiveness of CBT.
12. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy by Aaron Beck
CBT is all about the relationship between thoughts, emotions, and behavior. It
centers on three aspects of the way people think:
1. Automatic Thoughts
interpreting events immediately, without or before objective analysis of the
situation. According to the model, these thoughts can shape both a person’s
emotions and behaviors as a result. When automatic thoughts are categorized
as dysfunctional, they may be exaggerated, distorted, or incorrect or unhelpful
in some other way. (e.g., interpreting an angry, irritated mood of boss).
2. Underlying Beliefs
Underlying beliefs refer to the core foundations of how someone sees
themselves and the world. These are often shaped by childhood or other past
experiences, and they can have the power to color a person’s interpretation of
events in their life, both large and small. So when they’re considered to be
dysfunctional, they can negatively impact a person’s life. For example, it’s easy
to see how someone’s flawed but fundamental belief that they are unlovable
could create challenges in their interpersonal relationships.
13. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy by Aaron Beck
3. Cognitive Distortions
Cognitive distortions are errors in logic that can lead to false or incorrect
conclusions. There are around a dozen commonly recognized cognitive distortions,
or flawed patterns of thinking. Some cognitive distortions include:
• Negative filtering, when a person places an outsize focus on the negative, or filters
most or all situations through a negative lens. (“Everyone said I nailed that work
presentation, but I know I failed because of those technical difficulties I had at the
beginning.”)
• Polarized thinking, or all-or-nothing thinking, is when a person can only see two
potential outcomes of a situation—incredible or terrible—rather than acknowledging
the true, broad range. (“Either I pass the exam, or I’m a complete failure.”)
• Overgeneralization, which is when a person applies the context of one outcome to all
future, similar situations. (“I’ve had my heart broken; I’m done dating for good.”)
• Mind reading, which is when a person guesses what someone else might be thinking
and acts accordingly, as if it were the confirmed truth. (“My partner seems distracted;
they must be getting tired of me and wanting to break up.”)
• Catastrophizing, which is when a person focuses on the worst-case-scenario. (“My
friend was supposed to meet me at noon, and it’s already ten minutes after. She’s
probably been in a terrible accident!”)
• Personalization, which is when a person interprets all kinds of events as relating to
them, even when this is not the case. (“No one is talking to me at this party because
everyone thinks my outfit is a disaster.”)
14. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy by Aaron Beck
A central tenet of the cognitive theory is that our thinking influences our
emotional and behavioral experiences and vice versa.
The basic model depicts the interrelationships among thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors
15. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy by Aaron Beck
Beck originally postulated that individuals derive meaning from their
experiences and, with time, rely on what he called cognitive schemas
(i.e., hypothetical organizing structures of experience represented in
thoughts) to provide meaning to experience. For example, someone
with a history of limited close relationships may, over time, develop a
schema like ‘I am unlovable.’ Schemas can constitute particular
vulnerabilities to interpret certain types of experiences inaccurately.
The same concept applies in therapy, there is an emphasis on working
toward changing one's thoughts as a means to altering feelings and
behaviors.
16. Application of CBT
Cognitive behavioral therapy has been widely used for the effective treatment
for conditions and disorders such as:
• Substance abuse. One study found that CBT was highly effective in
reducing relapse in a sample of people who had quit nicotine.
• Schizophrenia. Evidence has revealed that CBT can have a beneficial effect
on symptoms of schizophrenia, especially for patients who suffer from acute
episodes.
• Depression. CBT has been shown to be more effective for depression than
no treatment and some other treatments such as relaxation techniques or
psychodynamic therapy.
• Bipolar disorder. While not typically pursued as a standalone therapy for this
disorder, CBT has been shown to be somewhat effective in preventing
relapse in bipolar patients.
• Anxiety disorders. The review states that, “In general, CBT is a reliable first-
line approach for treatment of this class of disorders.”
Cognitive behavioral therapy has also been studied as an effective or
potentially effective treatment for a range of other conditions, disorders, and
situations. Many people in many different circumstances can benefit from this
method.
17. Cognitive perspective by Albert Ellis
Albert Ellis (1913 – 2007) was an American
psychologist and psychotherapist who founded
Rational-Emotive Therapy, which offers a more
active, direct approach to treating psychological
disorders than traditional psychoanalytic models.
Ellis believed that through rational analysis and
cognitive reconstruction, people could understand
their self-defeatingness in light of their core
irrational beliefs and then develop more rational
constructs.
It’s an approach that helps you identify irrational
beliefs and negative thought patterns that may lead
to emotional or behavioral issues.
18. Rational-Emotive Therapy by Albert Ellis
REBT is an action-oriented approach, focusing on helping people deal
with irrational beliefs and learn how to manage their emotions,
thoughts, and behaviors in a healthier, more realistic way.
According to REBT, our cognition, emotions, and behavior are
connected. In order to understand the impact of events and situations
that people encounter throughout life, it’s essential to look at the beliefs
people hold about these experiences and the emotions that arise as a
result of those beliefs.
The goal of REBT is to help people recognize and alter those beliefs
and negative thinking patterns in order to overcome psychological
problems and mental distress.
19. The ABC Model of REBT
This model explains how, while we may blame external events for our
unhappiness, it is our interpretation of these events that truly lies at the heart of
our psychological distress.
• A: Activating event, which is when something happens in the environment
around you.
• B: Belief, which describes your thoughts about the event or situation.
• C: Consequence, which is your emotional response to your belief.
20. The ABC Model of REBT
During REBT, the therapist will help you learn how to apply the ABC model to your
daily life. If you’re feeling depressed due to a conflict in your relationship, for
example, your therapist may help you identify the activating event for your problem
before encouraging you to figure out which beliefs led to your negative feelings.
They would then work with you to change those beliefs and, ultimately, your
emotional response to the conflict.
An important step in this process is recognizing the underlying beliefs that lead to
psychological distress. In many cases, these are reflected as absolutes, as in "I
must," "I should," or "I can’t." Some of the most common irrational beliefs include:
• Feeling excessively upset over other people’s mistakes or misconduct
• Believing that you must be perfectly competent and successful in everything to be
valued and worthwhile
• Believing that you will be happier if you avoid life’s difficulties or challenges
• Feeling that you have no control over your own happiness; that your contentment and
joy are dependent upon external forces
Holding unyielding beliefs like these makes it almost impossible to respond to
activating situations in a psychologically healthy way. Possessing rigid
expectations of ourselves and others only leads to disappointment, retaliation,
regret, and anxiety.
22. Techniques used in REBT
REBT uses three main types of techniques, which correspond with the ABCs.
Problem-solving techniques: to address the activating event (A). They often include
working to develop:
problem-solving skills
assertiveness
social skills
decision-making skills
conflict resolution skills
Cognitive restructuring techniques: to help you to change irrational beliefs (B). They
might include:
logical or rationalizing techniques
guided imagery and visualization
reframing, or looking at events in a different way
humor and irony
exposure to a feared situation
disputing irrational thoughts
Coping techniques: to help you better manage the emotional consequences (C) of
irrational thoughts. These coping techniques may include:
relaxation
hypnosis
meditation
23. Application of REBT
Once the irrational belief patterns are identified, a therapist will help to
develop strategies to replace them with more rational thought patterns.
REBT can be particularly helpful for people living with a variety of
issues, including:
• depression
• anxiety
• addictive behaviors
• phobias
• overwhelming feelings of anger, guilt, or rage
• procrastination
• disordered eating habits
• aggression
• sleep problems
24. Theory of Cognitive Appraisal and Coping
The concept of cognitive appraisal was proposed
in 1966 by psychologist Richard Lazarus in the
book Psychological Stress and Coping Process.
The model "Theory of Cognitive Appraisal" was
proposed by Lazarus and Folkman in 1984 and
it explained the mental process which
influence of the stressors.
According to this theory, stress is perceived as
the imbalance between the demands placed
on the individual and the individual's
resources to cope.
25. Theory of Cognitive Appraisal and Coping
According to Richard Lazarus, stress is a two-way process; it involves
the production of stressors by the environment, and the response of an
individual subjected to these stressors. His conception regarding stress
led to the theory of cognitive appraisal.
Cognitive Appraisal
Cognitive appraisal occurs when a person considers two major factors
that majorly contribute in his response to stress. These two factors
include:
1.The threatening tendency of the stress to the individual, and
2.The assessment of resources required to minimize, tolerate or
eradicate the stressor and the stress it produces.
In general, cognitive appraisal is divided into two types or stages:
primary and secondary appraisal.
26. Primary Appraisal
In the stage of primary appraisal, an individual tends to ask questions
like, “What does this stressor and/ or situation mean?”, and, “How can it
influence me?” According to psychologists, the three typical answers to these
questions are:
1."this is not important"
2."this is good"
3."this is stressful"
(e.g., situation of a heavy rain).
When you see the stressor as a threat, you view it as something that will
cause future harm, such as failure in exams or getting fired from job.
When you look at it as a challenge, you develop a positive stress response
because you expect the stressor to lead you to a higher class ranking, or a
better employment.
On the other hand, seeing the stressor as a “harm-loss” means that the
damage has already been experiences, (e.g., injuries after a recent accident).
27. Secondary Appraisal
• takes place simultaneously with the primary appraisal. In fact, there are times
that secondary appraisal becomes the cause of a primary appraisal.
• Secondary appraisals involve those feelings related to dealing with the
stressor or the stress it produces. Uttering statements like, “I can do it if I do my
best”, “I will try whether my chances of success are high or not”, and “If this way fails, I
can always try another method” indicates positive secondary appraisal. In
contrast to these, statements like, “I can’t do it; I know I will fail”, “I will not do it
because no one believes I can” and, “I won’t try because my chances are
low” indicate negative secondary appraisal.
• Although primary and secondary appraisals are often a result of an encounter
with a stressor, stress doesn’t always happen with cognitive appraisal. (e.g., a
sudden disaster like an earthquake when the person doesn’t have more time
to think about it, yet he still feels stressful about the situation).
28.
29. • A cognitive appraisal is our interpretation of the eliciting event and of our
bodily reactions to the eliciting event.
• Cognitive appraisal could occur unconsciously, as James-Lange suggested,
or consciously.
• In general, cognitive appraisal theorists have noticed that people experience
different emotions in response to the same eliciting event.
30. Emotion focused coping
• Deals with the emotional
response of the stressor.
• strategies involve attempts
to change the way that the
stressor is construed
through techniques such as
distancing and avoidance.
Problem focused coping
• Deals with the stressors
directly.
• strategies involve
activities directly aimed at
eliminating the source of
stress (i.e., job loss) such
as proactive job search
Coping
Lazarus and Folkman suggested that Coping is closely related to the concept
of cognitive appraisal and is characterized as “the cognitive and behavioral
efforts made to master, tolerate, or reduce external and internal demands and
conflicts among them.”