SlideShare a Scribd company logo
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a
Thesis in TESOL/AL
MA. Roberto Criollo
Editorial ACD
Catalogación
ROBERTO CRIOLLO
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO WRITING A THESIS IN TESOL/AL
México: ACD, junio 2003
288 pág.; 21 cm.
ISBN: 968-5354-56-1
La información contenida en la obra es propiedad intelectual del autor,
por lo que se prohíbe su reproducción total o parcial
por cualquier medio electrónico o mecánico
sin la autorización escrita del mismo.
Editorial ACD
4 Sur No. 310-5
Tel: (2) 2 42 44 02 y telfax: (2) 2 42 66 48
E–mail: informes@editorial-acd.com
Página Web: www.editorial-acd.com
Esta obra se imprimió en los talleres de la
EDITORIAL
ACD
Sur No. 310–5
Puebla, Puebla, México.
La edición consta de 1,500 ejemplares
más sobrantes para reposición
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
_________________________________________________________________
Contents Page
FOREWORD ix
INTRODUCTION TO THE GUIDE 1
CHAPTER ONE: SELECTING A TOPIC AND NARROWING IT
DOWN 4
1.1 Selecting a Topic 7
1.2 How to Search for Bibliographic Resources 9
1.2.1 Books 9
1.2.2 Other Resources 10
1.2.2.1 Specialized Journals and Handbooks 10
1.2.2.2 Technical Dictionaries 10
1.2.2.3Annotated Bibliographies 11
1.2.2.4 Computer Searches 11
1.2.2.4.1 Databases 11
1.2.2.4.2 Online Journals 12
1.2.2.5 Other Theses 13
1.3 Reading and Exploiting Resources 13
1.4 Narrowing Down the Topic: Research Methodology 15
1.4.1 Research Methods 16
1.4.1.1 Descriptive Research 16
1.4.1.1.1 Survey Research 16
1.4.1.1.2 Observational Research 16
1.4.1.1.3 Ethnographic Research 17
1.4.1.2 Correlational Research 17
1.4.1.2.1 Relationship Studies 18
1.4.1.2.2 Prediction Studies 18
1.4.1.3 Experimental Research 19
1.4.1.4 Other Research Types 19
1.4.1.4.1 Historical Research 20
1.4.14.2 Causal-Comparative Research 20
1.4.1.4.3 Methodological Research 20
1.4.2 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research 21
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
ii
1.4.3 Selecting Appropriate Research Methodology 24
1.4.4 Research Procedures in Second Language Acquisition 25
1.4.4.1 Error Analysis 25
1.4.4.2 Methods for Investigating Developmental Patterns 27
1.4.4.2.1 Obligatory Occasion Analysis 27
1.4.4.2.2 Target-Like Use Analysis 28
1.4.4.2.3 Frequency Analysis 28
1.4.4.3 Research Methods for Studying Illocutionary Acts 29
1.4.4.4 Methods for Investigating Input and Interaction 30
1.5 Narrowing Down Your Topic 30
1.6 Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic? 31
CHAPTER TWO: WRITING THE INTRODUCTION 35
2.1 Parts of the Thesis 37
2.2 Content of the Introductory Chapter 39
2.3 Explanation of Key Elements in the Introduction 40
2.4 Rhetoric and Formulas 41
2.4.1 Introduction to the Problem 41
2.4.2 Purpose of the Study 47
2.4.3 Research Questions and Hypotheses 48
2.4.3.1 Research Questions 48
2.4.3.2 Hypotheses 49
2.4.4 Definitions of Terms 50
2.4.5 Significance of the Study 50
2.5 Sample Introductions 51
CHAPTER THREE: ACADEMIC WRITING, COMPUTER SKILLS,
AND FORMAT 75
3.1 Academic Writing: Things to Consider When Writing the Thesis 77
3.1.1 Formal Grammar and Style 77
3.1.2 Latinate versus Phrasal Verbs 78
3.1.3 Verbosity and Wordiness 80
3.2 Editing the Paper 80
3.2.1 Editing for Grammar 80
3.2.1.1 The Sentence 81
3.2.1.2 The Paragraph 82
3.3 Using the Computer 83
3.3.1 Word for Windows: A Beginning Tutorial 83
3.3.1.1 Turning on the Computer 85
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
iii
3.3.1.2 Entering Text 86
3.3.1.3 Moving Around 86
3.3.1.4 Editing Text 86
3.3.1.5 The Toolbars (Barras de Herramientas) 87
3.3.1.6 Formatting Paragraphs 88
3.3.1.7 Cutting, Pasting, and Copying (Cortar, Pegar, y Copiar) 89
3.3.1.8 Windows (Ventanas) 90
3.3.1.9 Selecting Language 90
3.3.1.10 Spelling, Thesaurus, and Grammar (Ortografía y Gramática) 91
3.3.1.11 Inserting Clip Art (Imágenes Prediseñadas) 91
3.3.1.2 Columns 92
3.3.1.13 Sections 93
3.3.1.14 Finding and Replacing (Buscar y Reemplazar) 93
3.3.1.15 Spelling and Thesaurus 94
3.3.1.16 AutoCorrect (Autocorrección) 94
3.3.1.17 Footnotes (Notas a Pie de Página) 94
3.3.1.18 Headers and Footers (Encabezado y Pie de Página) 95
3.3.1.19 Inserting Tables 95
3.3.1.20 Inserting a Chart from Excel 96
3.4 Formatting Your Paper 97
3.4.1 Title Pages 97
3.4.2 Dedications 99
3.4.3 Acknowledgments 100
3.4.4 Table of Contents 101
3.4.5 Table of Appendices 102
3.4.6 List of Tables 102
3.4.7 Body of the Paper 102
3.4.8 References 104
CHAPTER FOUR: WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW 105
4.1 Content and Function of the Literature Review 107
4.2 Starting the Literature Review from an Outline 107
4.3 American Psychological Association (APA) Style 110
4.3.1 Citing References in Your Text 110
4.3.2 Citing a Word Discussed in a Secondary Source 112
4.3.3 Citations in the Reference List at the End of Your Paper 112
4.3.3.1 Journal Article 112
4.3.3.2 Book 113
4.3.3.3 Chapter in a Book 113
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
iv
4.3.3.4 ERIC Document 114
4.4 Developing the Outline 114
4.4.1 Structure of the Literature Review Paragraph 114
4.4.2 Paragraph Writing Practice 118
4.4.3 Successfully Expressing One’s Point of View: Coherence 122
4.4.3.1 Sentence Connectors 123
4.4.3.1.1 Uses of Connectors 124
4.4.3.1.2 Using Connectors to Express One’s Point of View 125
4.4.4 Some Practical Advice for the Review of Literature 132
4.4.4.1 Integrating Ideas from Sources 132
4.4.4.2 Common Errors in the Review of Literature 133
4.4.4.3 Solutions to the Problems 134
4.4.4.4 Revising Literature Review Paragraphs 134
CHAPTER FIVE: WRITING THE METHOD CHAPTER 139
5.1 Content and Function of Chapter III: The Methodology Chapter 141
5.2 Describing Subjects 141
5.3 Instruments 141
5.3.1 Locating and Developing Instruments 142
5.3.2 Developing One’s Own Instruments 142
5.3.3 Procedures for Instrument Design 142
5.4 Describing Instruments 143
5.5 Describing Procedures 143
5.6 Describing Data Analysis 144
5.7 Sample Methodology Chapters and Appended Instruments 145
CHAPTER SIX: WRITING THE RESULTS CHAPTER 181
6.1 Analyzing Data 183
6.1.1 Steps for Data Analysis Procedures 183
6.1.2 Guidelines for Using Tables 183
6.1.3 Considerations When Using Figures 184
6.1.4 Appendices 184
6.2 Content of Chapter Four 185
6.2.1 Hypotheses (Subheadings) 185
6.2.2 Variable 185
6.2.3 Time Sequence 186
6.3 Using Excel to Process Data 186
6.3.1 Moving around the Worksheet 186
6.3.2 Entering Data 186
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
v
6.3.3 Editing Data 187
6.3.4 Resizing 187
6.3.5 Averaging Test Scores 187
6.3.6 Counting the Number of Students 188
6.3.7 Creating a Chart 188
6.3.8 Adding More Data 189
6.3.9 Filling the Formula 189
6.3.10 Putting New Series in the Chart 190
6.3.11 Handling Data in Excel 190
6.3.12 Entering Data 190
6.3.13 Making a Chart 190
6.3.14 Filtering 191
6.3.15 Forms 191
6.3.16 Sorting 191
6.3.17 Subtotals 192
6.3.18 Excel Practice 192
6.4 Writing and Formatting the Chapter 197
6.5 A Note on Quantitative Data Analysis 206
6.5.1 Measures of Central Tendency 206
6.5.2 Measures of Variability 206
6.5.3 SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) 207
6.6 Sample Results Chapters 208
CHAPTER SEVEN: WRITING THE CONCLUSIONS CHAPTER
AND DEVELOPING A PRESENTATION 241
7.1 Writing the Conclusions 243
7.1.1 A Summary of Your Study 243
7.1.2 Implications for Practice (in TESOL) 243
7.1.3 Limitations of the Study 243
7.1.4 Suggestions for Further Research 244
7.2 Concluding Remarks about Chapter Five 244
7.3 Sample Conclusions Chapters 245
7.4 Organizing Your Thesis Presentation 257
7.4.1 Content of the Presentation 257
7.4.2 Developing a PowerPoint Presentation 259
7.4.2.1 Basic Operation and Entering Text 259
7.4.2.2 Changing the Background Color, Design, or Template 259
7.4.2.3 Customizing Animation or Slide Transitions 260
7.5 Defending the Thesis 260
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
vi
7.5.1 The Professional Examination 261
7.5.2 Tips for a Successful Defense 262
7.5.2.1 First of All, Prepare Yourself 262
7.5.2.2 Just in Case: Backups, Equipment, and Materials 262
7.5.2.3 Like a Good Actor, Rehearse for Your Big Night 263
7.5.2.4 The One-Million-Dollar Question? 264
7.5.2.5 Formality, Presence, and Etiquette 264
EXERCISE ANSWER KEY 267
LIST OF REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 294
Background Research Upon which the Text is Based 297
Research Methodology 298
Writing and Academic Writing 299
Writing Papers, Theses, Dissertations 299
Data Analysis and Statistics 299
Specialized Dictionaries 300
Theses Directed by the Author 301
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
ix
FOREWORD
_________________________________________________________________
“Professionalization” is the concept that best characterizes the current
situation of the English Language Teaching (ELT) academic community in
Mexico (Wharton, 1994). This situation has generated a growing interest among
ELT professionals to pursue graduate studies, participate in conferences, and
publish nationally and internationally. This interest, which emerges from both
their personal motivation for professional development and as a result of the
Mexican educational policies, has generated a very dynamic academic community
in the last ten years.
Given that the majority of these professionals are non-native English speakers,
they are aware of the crucial role that their English language skills play in their
careers. Most of them are conscious that in order to participate actively in the
ELT profession they have to learn to communicate within the ELT discourse
community (Swales 1990).
It is in this context that the presentation of a thesis as an “initiation ritual”
into the profession has acquired a renewed meaning in Mexico. Learning to
communicate within an academic discourse community is a social process.
Every discourse community has its own meaning-making and interpreting
practices. Thus, ELT undergraduate students have to learn to communicate
within the ELT discourse community by observing, comparing, analyzing,
discussing, evaluating, writing and presenting; in other words, through their oral
and written interaction with other novices and experts. They have to learn to write
academic texts which meet the discoursal expectations of their tutors or
professors, who will interpret and finally evaluate their texts. Thus, the process of
writing a thesis has become an opportunity for undergraduate students to enhance
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
x
their English skills and learn to communicate within the ELT community, which
enables their further professional development after graduation. Furthermore, the
fact that students have to write a thesis has other advantages. It allows for a more
holistic evaluation where the students are expected to demonstrate their abilities,
attitudes and values as well as their knowledge. The presentation of a thesis is
sometimes the only holistic evaluation process that students are subject to and
where they integrate what they have learned along the years in the university.
Roberto Criollo's book comes then as an invaluable contribution to fill an
existing gap. Books that prepare for thesis writing in ELT and enable learners to
carry out research are hard to find. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in
TESOL/AL has several strengths. First of all, it is the result of the author’s own
reflective teaching practice and ongoing engagement with theory. Second, it was
developed in a “real” context with students at the Benemérita Universidad
Autónoma de México. Nevertheless, as recently confirmed in an ELT event for
Tutors at the BUAP where professors from 5 Mexican state universities shared
common problems of thesis writing, this book will address the needs of many
university students struggling with thesis writing in Mexico and elsewhere. The
third advantage of the book is that it is Genre-based. It focuses on the
communicative intentions, the content, the rhetorical organization, the grammar
and the register used in the development of writing an ELT Thesis in English.
Finally, it is a hands-on product based writing book which can either be used as
part of a course or by autonomous learners.
As a practicing teacher educator, I am fortunate to see my former students
make a career in the ELT field. I got to know Roberto Criollo as an
undergraduate student at the BUAP more than 10 years ago. Since then I
somehow knew he had the personal drive and capacity to become an outstanding
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
xi
professional. Then he left for the US where he successfully completed an MA in
TESOL at Columbia Teachers’ College. Now as colleagues and friends, we
frequently share ideas, teaching experiences, and a continuous concern for
making the field of ELT more professional. This book is certainly a contribution
to this.
Fatima Encinas Prudencio,
Ex-coordinadora de la Licenciatura en Lenguas Modernas, BUAP.
Coordinadora del programa de Inglés de la Universidad Iberoamericana Plantel
Golfo Centro.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
1
INTRODUCTION TO THE GUIDE
_________________________________________________________________
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL is intended to help
students and BA./MA. candidates in the development and presentation of their
thesis projects. It is based on systematic research carried out over five years and
on actual experience in the direction of 32 BA. theses and 2 MA. theses in this
field. The underlying theoretical approach supporting this book is genre analysis
(GA), which views writing as a communicative act within a discourse community.
GA considers each genre (“type of text”) to be unique and thus suggests that it be
explicitly taught in terms of communicative purposes and rhetorical structure. For
this reason, the Guide is completely and exclusively directed at developing the
thesis, and no time is wasted explaining concepts or theoretical constructs that are
not directly related to the development of the thesis project.
In addition, each chapter contains exercises that will prepare the learner for
the actual tasks he has to perform on his/her own project. The correct answers to
each exercise are provided in the Answer Key to the guide. In this way, the reader
can see whether he/she has correctly understood the instructions, principles, or
models presented in the chapter. The ultimate and unique feature of the Guide is
that it provides actual examples of thesis chapters for the reader to use as models
when developing his/her own.
The Guide is organized in seven chapters, each focused on a different stage
of the process of writing and defending a thesis. These chapters, although
consecutive, are not intended to be read in a linear manner. Instead, the reader
should go to the chapters that he or she is interested in, depending on the stage
that he/she is at in the development of his or her own thesis project. From that
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
2
particular chapter, the reader can hop back and forth, using the information that is
useful for his/her most practical and immediate purposes.
Chapter One concerns the selection and the evaluation of the topic. It will
be useful for those who still do not have a thesis project or are doubtful about it.
In Chapter Two, attention is paid to the process of writing an introduction to the
thesis. This process is approached fully by presenting an outline of the content, an
explanation for each part of the chapter, the rhetorical formulas to be used, and
sample introductions to guide the aspiring thesis writer. Chapter Three focuses
on the writing conventions, the computer skills, and the formats and templates
necessary to develop the thesis project. This part should be continuously used as a
reference when working on other chapters, as most of the content presented here
will apply to the whole paper. Chapter Four is, without a doubt, one of the most
interesting chapters, as it deals with the theoretical framework of the thesis. In it,
the reader will find the easy way to the development of the literature review for
his/her project. The approach and techniques used here will facilitate the task of
writing what is, undoubtedly, the longest and most difficult chapter in the thesis.
There are clear instructions from writing an outline, citing references in APA
style, developing the outline, to several examples that will guide and train the
reader. Similarly, Chapter Five deals with the methodology chapter, providing
explanations, exercises, and examples of chapters with appended research
instruments that will facilitate work on this part of the thesis.
In Chapter Six, the process of writing the results chapter of the thesis is
explained in detail. Data analysis, handling data in Excel, and calculating
statistics are only some examples of what the reader will find in this chapter. In
addition, the chapter is fully complemented with an explanation of the content of
the results chapter, some exercises, and actual examples for the reader to study
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
3
and use as models. Finally, Chapter Seven deals with the conclusions, developing
a presentation, and preparing for defense. At the end of the book, the Answer Key
and a List of References and Suggested Bibliography are provided for the reader
who needs additional information or is interested in any of the given areas
outlined.
It is now up to the reader to make the most of this guide. Good luck and
may your efforts be rewarded with an academic degree.
Roberto Criollo, MA.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
4
CHAPTER ONE:
SELECTING A TOPIC AND NARROWING IT DOWN
Selecting a Topic
How to Search for Bibliographic Resources
Reading and Exploiting Resources
Research Methodology
Narrowing Down Your Topic
Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic?
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
7
In this chapter, we will look at the steps that should be taken when
selecting, narrowing down, and evaluating a thesis topic.
1.1 Selecting a Topic
One of the most difficult steps in developing a thesis is selecting a topic.
Selection of topic requires familiarity with the state of research in the area of
TESOL/AL. You need to know:
 What has been accomplished
 What hypotheses have or have not been supported
 What the controversies and the unresolved issues are
 What theories are applicable
 What contributions have resulted from research
(Long, Convey, & Chwalek, 1985)
As you can see, choosing a topic may be difficult because of a lack of
knowledge of the area of study. Sometimes students do not have a clear idea of
what they can or cannot write a thesis on. Then, they tend to think of unrealistic
or impossible topics that they will eventually drop. Before choosing a topic, a
careful analysis of our area of study and its different sub-areas is necessary.
On the other hand, it is also of crucial importance to select a topic based on
one’s interests and concerns. Successful completion of a thesis project depends to
a great extent on one’s willingness to ‘marry’ the topic. For that reason, the first
step in topic selection will always be defining one’s research interests. The figure
below outlines the steps that should be followed in topic selection.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
8
Steps in Topic Selection
As the figure illustrates, you must first explore your interests and try to find
something that you could develop as a thesis project. When you have found it, the
second step is to review the literature related to this topic. Even when this
literature review does not yet involve writing a theoretical background chapter,
the main concepts and theories behind the topic should be investigated.
The second step in topic selection involves then developing a preliminary
list of references and finding definitions for the most important terms related to
the topic to be researched into. The following section provides information on
how to do to this. Get ready to go to the library, buy a large notebook, and read
the information below.
Define your interests
Think of a possible
topic
Identify specific
researchable problems
Review the literature
nterests
Decide on one of them
and focus on it
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
9
1.2 How to Search for Bibliographic Resources
1.2.1 Books
Using books seems to be easy, but it might be a very difficult task if the
research is not systematic. Searching and exploring resources requires careful
planning and organization. You may want to follow the steps below to optimize
the use of your bibliographic sources.
1. Go to your library and look for books that are directly related to your topic.
2. If you’re not sure whether or not a given book may be useful, check the table
of contents.
3. If the book is useful, check it out. If it is not, just leave it there... you may find
lots of interesting books, but if they are not related to your project, do not
waste your time and energy on them!
4. Once you have a book in your hands, write its data on a list. You will need
this later for your list of references. The APA format for citing references is
shown below.
Author’(s’) Last Names, First Name Initials. (Year in parentheses). Title of the
book underlined or in italics. City of publication: Publishing House.
Here’s one example:
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Notice that the second line is indented as to show the author’s last name.
5. Make copies of only the page(s) or chapter(s) you are going to need.
Remember... everything may be interesting, but if it is not directly related to
your study, you don’t need it. Remember to include the first page of the book
so you can retrieve its data.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
10
6. Make copies of the bibliography at the end of the book.... you may find useful
references there!
7. Get a big binder and put all of your copies together. That will be your thesis
bible.
1.2.2 Other Resources
Besides books, there are some other important sources of information that
can make your literature review more comprehensive (Long, Convey, & Chwalek,
1985). These are:
1.2.2.1 Specialized Journals and Handbooks
In this type of publications, you can find updated information about current
theories in SLA and TESOL. Some of the most common ones are:
 The TESOL Quarterly
 Language
 Applied Linguistics
You can probably find some volumes of the TESOL Quarterly in your
Library. Also, you could subscribe to it, and get new information every three
months!
1.2.2.2 Technical Dictionaries
Dictionaries that define terms and concepts in our field. One example is:
Richards, J.C., Platt, J., & Platt, H. (1992). Longman dictionary of language
teaching and applied linguistics. Essex: Longman.
Besides providing you with some definitions of important concepts, a
technical dictionary can guide you in your search for resources, as it tells you how
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
11
some terms are related and provides you with the bibliography where the
definitions were taken. It is advisable to look for the original sources mentioned
in the dictionary. A direct citation gives more weight to your research!
1.2.2.3 Annotated Bibliographies
These are ‘books’ that only contain bibliography about a given concept (i.e.
reading). Usually they are listed alphabetically and a brief explanation of the
content of each book or article is given. You can also base your research on these
annotated bibliographies, but of course you should also look for the original
sources mentioned there!
1.2.2.4 Computer Searches
1.2.2.4.1Databases
Nowadays, the internet has become a great aid for research. Without moving from
your school, you can have access to numerous data bases with information about
particular topics in science and humanities. However, the risk of computer
searches is that they are time-consuming and you can find a lot of trash on the net.
I strongly encourage you to be serious in your computer searches. Some reliable
sources of information are:
 ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center): Book reviews and
articles on different fields.
 RLIN (Research Libraries Information Network): Book reviews and
articles on different fields. It can be accessed by key words.
 OCLC (On-Line College Library Center): Same as previous ones.
 DIALOG: Same
 ORBIT: Same
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
12
 Bibliographic Retrieval System (BRS): Bibliographies and reviews.
 Educational Testing Service (ETS): Statistical information and test
instruments.
 MICASE. The University of Michigan Corpus of American Spoken
English. You will find samples to conduct discourse or conversation
analysis.
 CHILDES. The most important database on child language, with
software and samples of child speech for you to use in your research.
Important if you want to do research on children linguistic development.
All of these data bases can be accessed through internet. Go to a search
instrument (Alta Vista, Yahoo), and type any of the titles above... you’ll get to the
sites. Once in the sites, look for the information on the topics you are researching.
1.2.2.4.2 Online Journals
A second important source of information and references that you will find
on the world wide web is the Online Journal. An online journal is a publication
similar to a printed journal except that it is available through the net. Some
journals are refereed and some others aren’t. Some of them have a printed
counterpart, and some others do not. Yet some of them are free and some others
will require you to use your plastic money.
1. Check out the Cambridge Catalogue of Online Journals at
http://193.60.94.214/public/door
2. Or the Oxford Journals: http://www3.oup.co.uk/jnls/online/
Some suggested free journals and e-zines are the following:
3. The Internet TESL Journal: Directed at TESL teachers, with theoretical and
practical stuff that you can use and cite. http://iteslj.org Check my article!
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
13
4. TESL-EJ http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/
5. Language Learning and Technology http://llt.msu.edu/
6. ELT Spectrum magazine www1.oup.co.uk/elt/magazine/
7. EFL Web http://www.eflweb.com/
8. Onestopenglish Magazine http://www.onestopenglish.com/index.htm
Macmillan publishers free magazine.
1.2.2.5 Other Theses
Theses on related topics or on the same topic as yours can help you in two ways.
First, you can use their information and cite them as references. Also, you may
find in the list of references some titles of books that you didn’t know about
which could be useful for your research!
All of the sources listed above are valid and reliable references. In any
case, remember that you should provide careful reference of where you take the
information from, and that reading original sources gives support to your
research. Beware of plagiarism!
The last step in this search for references involves looking for definitions of
the most important terms to be used in the research. Reading and note-taking
should then be done systematically. First, get your list of terms to be defined.
Then, scan the materials, taking into account the considerations below
1.3 Reading and Exploiting Resources
Again, although reading seems to be an activity for which no explanations or
instructions are necessary, reading and exploiting resources for a research project
needs to be a systematic activity. Make sure that you follow the steps given
below:
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
14
 First, read the whole text of interest from the beginning to the end, trying to
get just the general idea. Then put the text down and try to infer this main idea.
 In your own words, and in the shortest way possible (one sentence may be
good), write what the text is about. Also write the main idea or point that you
think the author is trying to make.
 Read the text again for more specific information. This time, you may want to
use a highlighter to underline the important information. At this point,
remember that important information means definitions, expression of points
of view, conclusions, and the like. Also, the first sentence of each paragraph
(the topic sentence... remember?) is usually the most important one and it tells
you what the paragraph is about.
 Take some notes of the important information you intend to use for your
project. Try to summarize the information using outlines, charts, graphs, or
any other visual representation that can help you get a better understanding of
the text.
 Later, you can write this information on cards (or even better, onto a
notebook, which would be exclusive for your thesis notes), for further use in
your literature review. There are two ways to take notes:
 Copying directly from source, using the author’s own words (Quotation).
 Summarizing and/or paraphrasing the information, using your own words
(Citation).
Citations involve a more careful reading and processing of information, and
they are recommended. However, they are more difficult to write. The important
thing, in any case, is avoid mixing the author’s words and yours. If you use a
quotation, make sure you copy correctly and accurately, and if you use citations,
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
15
make sure you are not using any word that the author has used. Every note should
include references, including chapter or page numbers.
 Organize your notes in such a way that you can refer to them, read them again,
and compare and contrast the information.
1.4 Narrowing Down the Topic: Research Methodology
Once you have developed a little literature review, it’s time to delimit your topic.
That is, you must identify specific researchable problems. To do this, you need to
select the research method that you are going to use. Let us start by defining the
concept of thesis.
What is a thesis?
Simply stated, a thesis is a piece of research that is required by a university in
order to award an academic degree.
What is research?
“Research is the study of an event, situation, problem or phenomenon using
systematic and objective methods in order to understand it better and develop
theories or principles about it” (Richards, Platt, & Platt 1992; Vogt 1999).
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
16
1.4.1 Research Methods
There are some major types of research in the field of humanities. Below
you will find the description of each of these research types (Based on Long,
Convey, & Chwalek 1985).
Exercise One: Fill in the blanks with the words you find appropriate in each
case (the same word may be used more than once). The words you can choose
from are given before each definition. When you finish, check your answers
in the answer key at the end of this book.
1.4.1.1 Descriptive Research: It involves _________ data in order to answer
__________ or test ____________ about the current status of the situation under
study.
1.4.1.1.1 Survey Research typically employs ____________ or, in some cases,
________ to determine people’s opinions, attitudes, and perceptions about the
situation being studied. Survey research ordinarily uses __________ methods,
but ___________ methods may be necessary if the data are obtained from
interviews.
1.4.1.1.2 Observational Research determines the current status of a __________
by __________ it rather than simply asking about it. Observational research can
be broadly defined as ____________ observation or ____________ observation.
A case study is a type of observational research that ordinarily uses ___________
observation. In it, the researcher performs an in-depth ____________ of the
Questionnaires – Questions - Quantitative – Collecting – Qualitative - Hypotheses –
Interviews
Participant – Control – Non-participant – Observing – Situation - Investigation
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
17
situation but usually is not directly involved in the situation and does not
___________ or manipulate it.
1.4.1.1.3 Ethnographic Research is a type of observational research that usually
employs _____________ observation as a form of inquiry in which the researcher
is both an observer, and as such is responsible to persons outside the situation
being studied, and also a genuine __________, and as such has a stake in the
situation and its outcomes. Ethnographic research usually occurs in a _________
setting, that is, the researcher __________ and studies behavior as it normally
occurs. It involves the intensive examination of a situation in which data are
___________ on many __________ over an extended period of time. These data
may come from in-depth interviewing, field notes, diaries, thematic musings of
the ______________, chronologs (running accounts of behavior), context maps or
diagrams, schedules, taxonomies, _____________ (relational diagrams showing
who interacts with whom) questionnaires, rating scales, checklists, and audio or
video ___________. The analysis of the data is largely ______________, and it is
also more inductive.
1.4.1.2 Correlational Research: It involves collecting ___________ to
determine the existence of a _______________ between two or more variables
and to estimate the relationship’s ______________. The relationship is usually
described by a _____________ called the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation
Records - Collected – Sociometrics – Participant – Researcher – Qualitative –
Variables – Naturalistic - Recordings
Criterion - Extent – Selection - Number – Relationship – Linear – Predict - Data –
Magnitude – Predictors - Variables – Graphed – Statistic – Complex – Variable -
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
18
Coefficient. This __________, which is between –1.00 and 1.00, describes the
__________ of a ____________ relationship between two __________ –that is,
how closely the points represented by ordered pairs of individual scores on each
variable approximate a straight line when ____________ in a coordinate system.
Values of –1.00 and 1.00 indicate a perfect ________ relationship (inverse and
direct, respectively), while a value of .00 indicates no linear __________.
Correlational research studies are usually classified as relationship studies or
prediction studies.
1.4.1.2.1 Relationship Studies examine the association between measures of
different _________ obtained at approximately the same time. In addition to
investigating the ___________ between variables of interest, these studies often
try to obtain a better understanding of factors that make up a ___________
construct such as intelligence, self-concept, or school ability.
1.4.1.2.2 Prediction Studies involve the establishment of an equation that is used
to _________ future performance on some variable, called the dependent ______
or the criterion, from information obtained from other variables, called the
________ variables or the predictors. In addition to predicting performance on the
criterion, researchers often seek to identify which ____________ are more
important in explaining changes in the _____________. Prediction studies are
used to aid in the ________ or placement of individuals, to identify individuals to
perform certain tasks or to receive special services, etc.
Experimental error – Internal – Dependent – Representativeness - Experiment –
Experimental – Validity - Evidence – Essential – Researcher – Independent –
Differences – Instructional programs – Produce – Variable - Controlled
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
19
1.4.1.3 Experimental Research: It involves the examination of the effects of at
least one independent __________ on one or more ____________ variables while
other relevant variables are controlled. Direct manipulation of at least one
independent variable is the main characteristic that differentiates __________
research from other methods. When well conducted, experimental research
provides the strongest _________ for cause-and-effect relationships. Control of
extraneous variables is __________ in experimental research studies. The
____________ tries to remove the influence of any __________, other than the
___________ variables of interest, that might affect the dependent ___________.
Variables that typically need to be ____________ are those involving individual
___________ among subjects, such as ability or interest readiness, and
environmental variables, such as teachers or ___________ _____________ or
experiences. Such variables may ___________ unwanted differences between
experimental groups. Uncontrolled extraneous variables that affect performance
on the dependent variables increase the chances of ___________ __________ and
jeopardize the experiment’s __________.
A good research design maximizes both the ___________ validity and the
external validity of an ____________. Internal validity is the extent to which
changes in the dependent ____________ can be attributed to changes in an
___________ variable. External validity refers to the generalizability or
______________ of the findings.
1.4.1.4 Other Research Types
Test — Anticipating — Research —Purpose—Systematically — Understanding —
Past
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
20
1.4.1.4.1Historical Research
In this type of ______________, the researcher _____________ collects data
about ____________ events in order to __________ hypotheses. The main
____________ underlying this type of research is ______________ the past and
present, and, if possible, _____________ the future. It is not very common in the
areas of TESOL/AL.
1.4.1.4.2Causal-Comparative Research
This research type is similar to ______________ research in that it tries to
establish cause-and-effect relationships between ________________ of interest.
However, the difference is that no experiment is ________________ and no
variable is _______________. Here, the ________________is studied ex post
facto –that is, __________ the fact. In these studies, a _____________ of
individuals possessing the target variables are studied and ______________ to
another group of ______________ who do not ______________ the variables,
and some conclusions are drawn. Because of this characteristic, some authors
refer to causal-comparative research as, _________________ but it goes better as
a type of descriptive research.
1.4.1.4.3Methodological Research
Group — Conducted — Causal-Comparative Research — Non-Experimental —
Compared — Manipulated — Experimental — Subjects — After — Possess —
Variables — Relationship
Instruments — Procedures — Measurement — Gathering — Described — Focuses
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
21
Although the underlying methodological _________________ may be one of the
types of research ________________ above, what makes a study methodological
is the fact that it _________________ on testing certain procedures for
_________________ data, designing or validating
research___________________, and investigating aspects of statistics,
_________________, and evaluation. In other words, the subjects of
methodological research are research methodologies!!
1.4.2 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Once the different research methods available for use have been shown, it
is important to draw a distinction between quantitative and qualitative research.
Quantitative research refers to those studies in which data are analyzed in terms
of numbers. That is, when you calculate percentages or statistics. In contrast,
qualitative research includes “Studies of subjects that are hard to quantify” (Vogt
1999). Thus, introspection, case studies, ethnographic studies, and surveys where
data is collected by interviews, are typical examples of qualitative research.
It is important to mention that no paradigm is inherently better than the
other. However, there are some preferences depending on the country and the
institution. American universities, for example, will encourage and value hardcore
quantitative research, whereas British universities seem to find qualitative
research more fulfilling, especially at the graduate level. Choice of
methodological paradigm will then depend on the institution requirements and on
the purposes of the research. Some studies lend themselves better for qualitative
research, and some others are rather hard to handle using percentages and
statistics.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
22
Finally, it must be emphasized that the quantitative-qualitative distinction
does not refer to a dichotomy of mutually exclusive paradigms, but rather to the
fact that research methodologies can be arranged along a continuum between
qualitative and quantitative paradigms. Thus, on one end of the continuum we
will find introspection techniques, whereas experimental research is the epitome
of quantitative research. The qualitative-quantitative continuum of research
methodologies is illustrated in the figure on the next page, taken from Larsen-
Freeman & Long (1991).
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
23
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
24
1.4.3 Selecting Appropriate Research Methodology
Research methodology must be carefully selected according to the nature of
the study and the type of results that want to be obtained.
Exercise Two: Read the following situations and choose the method(s) you
would use in each case. Check the Answer Key!
1. You want to determine what are your students’ learning styles so that you
can teach them in the most appropriate way, according to how they learn
best.
2. You want to investigate why one of your learners seems to be learning more
slowly than the others, even when he’s getting the same amount of input as
his peers.
3. You are interested in finding out if students with low language learning
achievement belong to the lower social classes.
4. You want to know whether the teachers in your school consider the textbook
is appropriate for the learners and for the program.
5. You want to determine what types of questions teachers tend to ask in the
classroom, and then determine the influence of these questions on students’
participation.
6. You want to elicit and classify the types of written errors committed by
LEMO students at advanced level.
7. You want to determine what are learner background factors that have an
influence on their TOEFL scores.
8. You are interested in finding out whether teachers in LEMO beginning
classrooms use the target language for communicating with their students
and to what extent students also use it for actual communicative interaction.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
25
9. You want to know what types of materials, activities, cartoon characters, etc.
you should use with your kindergarten children, so that you can teach then in
the most effective way.
1.4.4 Research Procedures in Second Language Acquisition
Besides the major research methods described above, there are some more
specific research procedures in SLA (Ellis 1994). These procedures have been
used extensively and could be useful for your particular research. Let’s explore
them in detail.
1.4.4.1 Error Analysis: Corder (1974)
a) Collection of a sample of learner language
b) Identification of errors
c) Description of errors
d) Explanation of errors
e) *Evaluation of errors
a) Sampling:
 Massive sample
 Specific sample
 Incidental sample
 Natural samples
 Elicited samples
I. Clinical elicitation.
TYPE: Descriptive
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
26
II. Experimental methods of elicitation: Bilingual Syntax Measure
(Burt, Dulay and Hernández 1973).
The method of data collection can have a marked effect on the results obtained.
 Cross-sectional samples
 Longitudinal samples
b) Identification
• Norm?
• Errors and mistakes
• Overt and covert errors
• Correctness and appropriacy
c) Description of errors
• Description: Burt and Kiparsky (1972); Politzer and Ramírez (1973); Richards
(1971b); Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982).
Description of errors can be very difficult and inaccurate.
d) Explanation: Source of error.
I. Psycholinguistic
II. Sociolinguistic
III. Epistemic
IV. Discourse structure
e) Evaluation of errors: Consideration of the effect of the error on the
interlocutors.
I. Comprehension:
II. Affective response:
• Addressees:
I. Native or Nonnative speakers
II. ‘Experts’ or ‘non experts’
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
27
1.4.4.2 Methods for Investigating Developmental Patterns
It replaced Error Analysis, once researchers acknowledged the need to
consider the entirety of learner language instead of looking at it as a collection of
errors. One of the most powerful ideas originated from the study of
developmental patterns is that learner language is systematic.
Developmental patterns
 Order of acquisition
 Sequence of acquisition
Study of developmental patterns has focused primarily on grammatical structures.
Methods:
1.4.4.2.1 Obligatory Occasion Analysis (Brown 1974)
a) Samples of naturally occurring language are collected.
b) Obligatory occasions for the use of specific TL features are identified in the
data.
c) The percentage of accurate use of the feature is then calculated by
establishing whether the feature in question has been supplied in all the
contexts in which it is required.
- A feature was considered to be acquired if it was supplied correctly 90%
of the times.
- Brown (1973) considered a feature to have been acquired if it was
performed at the 90% level on 3 consecutive data collection points.
-
 Problem with this method: It did not account for the phenomena of avoidance
and oversuppliance.
TYPE: Descriptive
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
28
1.4.4.2.2 Target-Like Use Analysis (Pica 1983).
1. Samples of naturally occurring language are collected.
2. Obligatory contexts for use and non use of the feature are established.
3. Percentages of accuracy are estimated.
 Drawbacks of both Obligatory Occasion Analysis and Target-Like Use
Analysis: Both are target-language based, that is, they compare learner
language to the L2.
 Bley-Vroman (1983): The “Comparative Fallacy”.
1.4.4.2.3 Frequency Analysis (Cazden et al. 1975)
1. Catalogue the various linguistic devices that learners use to express a
particular grammatical structure (such as interrogation).
2. Calculate the frequency with which each device is used at different points
in the learners’ development.
 Since it allows to observe ‘vertical variation’ in learners development (how
different structures become prominent at different stages), frequency analysis
is one of the best ways of examining sequences of acquisition.
 Many of the studies were longitudinal in design (case studies in the 60s and
70s).
 There were also some cross-sectional studies. In these, researchers argued that
the accuracy in which different features were performed corresponded to their
order of acquisition.
 The existence of developmental patterns can be investigated in different areas
of language: linguistic (phonological, lexical, and grammatical), semantic, and
pragmatic.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
29
Research in this area has focused mainly on the acquisition of grammatical
structures.
1.4.4.3 Research Methods for Studying Illocutionary Acts in Learner
Language
Ideally, the study of illocutionary acts should involve the collection of three sets
of data:
1) Samples of illocutionary acts performed in the target language by L2 learners.
2) Samples performed by native speakers of the target language.
3) Samples of the same illocutionary act performed by the learners in their L1.
Kasper and Dahl (1991) distinguish data collection methods according to the
modality of data elicited:
1) Perception/comprehension/intuition.
a) Questionnaires.
b) Observational performance data.
2) Production.
a) Discourse completion tasks.
b) Role play.
c) Naturally occurring speech.
And the degree of control over learners’ production:
1) Elicited.
2) Observational.
The most successful studies have employed a combination of data types.
TYPE: Descriptive
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
30
1.4.4.4 Methods for Investigating Input and Interaction
1) Data collection.
After collecting your data, you can follow different research methods, according
to your interests:
a) Linguistic Analysis (Descriptive).
b) Discourse analysis (Ethnographic, descriptive)
c) Conversational analysis (Ethnographic, descriptive)
d) Experimental method.
e) Pseudo-experimental method.
f) Introspective techniques (Ethnographic).
1.5 Narrowing Down Your Topic
Now that we have explored the different research methods that you can use,
it is time for you to select the research method that better suits the nature of your
study and its purposes. Decide what specific aspect of the topic you will focus on,
and think of:
 Specific questions you will try to answer.
 The assumptions and theoretical framework that provide the context for those
questions.
 The hypotheses you are interested in testing and the method you will use to
test them.
The procedures you should follow to narrow down your topic are described
below.
 First of all, decide on the research method that you will use. In other words,
Learning strategies, pragmatic interference, and all kinds of topics can be seen
and researched from different perspectives, according to what we are
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
31
interested in. For example, if our topic is learning strategies, we could use
descriptive, correlational or experimental research. Descriptive survey
research could help us find out opinions, perceptions and attitudes about
learning strategies. Correlational research can tell us whether learning
strategies seem to be related to learning effectiveness, and experimental
research can help us measure the effects of learning strategies on achievement
in a controlled environment. Choice of research method is a personal decision,
and it totally depends on what we are interested in doing. On the other hand,
this is the most important part of the thesis, since it determines whether your
study is valid or not as research.
 Write a specific problem statement.
 Construct a theoretical framework for your study.
 Formulate research questions and hypotheses.
 Identify the assumptions upon which the study will be based, and their
plausibility.
Congratulations! Now you have a thesis topic, and it is time to decide whether
this is a good topic or not. This is a difficult decision, because after choosing a
topic, it is very difficult to even think of giving up on it. However, some topics
may be impossible or very difficult to research, and it is better to know it from the
beginning. The criteria given below of what constitutes a good topic might help
you in deciding if yours is a good topic. As you read each question, reflect on
your topic and answer it to the best of your knowledge... good luck!
1.6 Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic?
Once you have selected your topic, you need to evaluate it. What is a good
topic for a thesis? The following criteria may be helpful.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
32
What is a good topic??
Find it out by answering the questions below!
 Is your topic directly related to our field of study? Or is it cross-disciplinary?
 Do you have a sound base knowledge about this topic? Do you master its basic
concepts?
 Is the topic relevant and applicable to the field?
 Is the topic interesting?
 Is the topic feasible?
 Is the topic original?
 Do you have an idea of the kind of bibliographic resources you will need for
your research? Are they readily available?
 Do you know any professors in the staff who can help you and guide you in
your research?
 Do you have a clear idea of the procedures you will need to carry out to
develop your project (i.e. the instrument you will use to collect your data, the
type of analyses you will follow to interpret your results)?
 Based on the instrument you intend to use, will you have access to the subjects
or institutions you intend to develop your research in?
 Will your research be extensive enough as to cover the institution thesis
requirements? Or will it be too short or too long?
If most of your answers are ‘YES’, your topic is a good one; if not, you really
need to consider changing it.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
35
CHAPTER TWO:
WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
Parts of the Thesis
Content of the Introductory Chapter
Explanation of Key Elements in the Introduction
Rhetoric and Formulas
Sample Introductions
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
37
CHAPTER THREE:
ACADEMIC WRITING, COMPUTER SKILLS, AND
FORMAT
Academic Writing: Things to Consider When Writing the Thesis
Editing the Paper
Using the Computer
Formatting Your Paper
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
39
In this chapter we will look at some important points regarding academic
writing, editing the paper, using the computer, and formatting the thesis. The first
thing we need to consider is the nature of academic writing.
3.1 Academic Writing: Things to Consider When Writing the Thesis
As you know, a thesis is a piece of academic writing that must comply with
certain professional and stylistic conventions. In this section, we will learn about
the most important characteristics of academic writing.
3.1.1 Formal Grammar and Style (Adapted from Swales & Feak 1994)
1. Avoid contractions
a) Learners with low motivation won’t acquire the language as effectively as
highly motivated learners.
b) Learners with low motivation will not acquire the language as effectively as
highly motivated learners.
2. Use the more appropriate formal negative forms
Not... any  no
Not... much  little
Not...many  few
a) The analysis did not yield any new results.
b) The analysis yielded no new results.
a) Professors do not earn much money, and this is reflected on their motivation.
b) Professors earn little money, and this is reflected on their motivation.
a) This problem does not have many viable solutions.
b) This problem has few viable solutions.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
40
3. Limit the use of run on expressions, such as “etc.”, “and so forth”
a) The Silent Way method implies the use of color charts, rods, etc.
b) The Silent Way method implies the use of color charts, rods, and similar
materials to illustrate and teach pronunciation.
4. Avoid addressing the reader as “you”
a) You can see the results in Table 1.
b) The results can be seen in Table 1 or Table 1 below shows these results.
5. Limit the use of direct questions
a) What can be done to lower costs?
b) This section presents some procedures that can be used to lower costs. Or
c) It is now important to consider what can be done to lower costs.
6. Place adverbs within the verb.
a) Then the solution can be discarded.
b) The solution can then be discarded.
a) Anxiety can be reduced gradually.
b) Anxiety can be gradually reduced.
3.1.2 Latinate versus Phrasal Verbs
Another important characteristic of academic writing is that Latinate verbs (verbs
derived from Latin) are preferred since they are felt to be more academic. Phrasal
verbs, in turn, are more common in informal writing or in spoken English. Thus,
we Spanish speakers are at an advantage, for Latinate verbs are usually cognates.
The following exercise was adapted from Swales and Feak (1994). First, look at
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
41
the verbs in the box and then change the phrasal verbs in the sentences to make
them more academic.
Exercise Five: Choose a verb from the box that reduces the informality of
each sentence. You may need to add tense (Adapted from Swales and Feak
1994).
1. Visual aids can help out the teacher in the demonstration of new vocabulary.
_________________________________________________________________
2. This new teacher organization was set up to facilitate professional
development.
_________________________________________________________________
3. With this new methodology, students’ grades have gone up to a 60%.
_________________________________________________________________
4. Some authors believe that cutting down the number of errors committed by
students is counterproductive: The more errors a student make, the more
he/she will learn.
_________________________________________________________________
5. This research tries to find out the impact of visual aids on the acquisition of
vocabulary.
_________________________________________________________________
6. Even though teachers plan very carefully their lessons and provide complete
and detailed explanations, they will never get rid of linguistic errors in learner
production.
_________________________________________________________________
7. This research will look into the problem of low motivation in the high school
classroom.
_________________________________________________________________
Assist Reduce Create Raise Investigate
Establish Increase Determine Eliminate Fluctuate
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
42
8. This issue of interlanguage was brought up to explain the uniqueness of
learner linguistic systems.
_________________________________________________________________
9. Even with limited professional training, some English teachers come up with
very effective materials and activities.
_________________________________________________________________
10.Interest in language errors has been going up and down in the last few years.
_________________________________________________________________
3.1.3 Verbosity and Wordiness
Finally, remember that the academic English tends to be direct and concise.
Avoid long and complex sentences, unnecessary details or words, and edit your
paper to see if you can say the same things in fewer words. Wordiness is
considered poor style in English-speaking universities!
3.2 Editing the Paper
Without a doubt, editing is a crucial process in the development of a thesis
or any other piece of writing. You always have to go back to your drafts and
revise the content, grammar, spelling, and style. Once you have made sure the
content of your paper is acceptable, the next step is editing for grammar and style.
3.2.1 Editing for Grammar
Grammar should be one of the easiest things to correct, and it is not
actually a very important one (content is number one!!), since computers already
have a grammar and spelling checker that will help you correct your paper. Also,
you will have two thesis readers in your committee, and one of them will check
your grammar. However, just to make things easier and help you develop a
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
43
readable paper, we will review some of the most basic grammar points at the
sentence and paragraph level... ready?
The Sentence and the Paragraph
(Checklist developed from REA’s Handbook of English Grammar, Style, and
Writing)
3.2.1.1 The Sentence
First read all the sentences in your paper, then edit them following the checklist
below.
 Do your sentences make sense?
 Are they grammatically complete and convey all the necessary information?
 Are the beginnings and ends of sentences indicated with appropriate
punctuation or are there any run-on or rambling sentences?
 Is your sentence order appropriate? Is the sentence clear and concise, or is it
confusing and long?
 Are there any dangling participles or misplaced modifiers that might cause
confusion?
 Is it clear, in all cases, what the different pronouns refer to, or are there any
ambiguous pronouns?
 Are your structures parallel?
 Are your sentences complete, or are there any fragments?
 Are your sentences varied in length or are they too short or too long?
 Does every word convey meaning and is necessary for understanding, or are
you using too many words?

The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
44
3.2.1.2 The Paragraph
Now read every individual paragraph and check for cohesion and coherence.
Follow the checklist below and edit as required.
 Are your sentences logically connected to each other? Does your text ‘flow’
easily and nicely?
 Are your paragraphs too short (one-liners) or too long (one-pagers)?
 Does every paragraph contain one topic sentence? Is it at the beginning of the
paragraph?
 Does the topic sentence give a clear and concise idea of what the whole
paragraph is about?
 Does the reminder or body of the paragraph (the rest of the sentences) clearly
and completely prove the thesis statement in the topic sentence? Does it give
enough information about this topic (only)?
 Are your paragraphs unified, focused on one topic only? Or are there any
digressions (when you talk about some other, unrelated topics).
 Are your paragraphs coherent? In other words, are the sentences therein
logically arranged and connected? Is every paragraph logically connected to
the previous one?
 Is your text coherent? In other words, are the transitions between ideas and
subjects smooth and logical? Or are they confusing?
 Do your paragraphs clearly and unequivocally reflect your point of view on the
topic? Are all paragraphs consistent with this point of view?
 Does every paragraph display a formal, academic tone, or do you become
rather colloquial at times? Are you using the BIG, technical, appropriate
words?
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
45
Well done! Now just remember that editing is a continuous, recurrent process that
makes the difference between poor and good writing.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
46
CHAPTER FOUR:
WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW
Content and Function of the Literature Review
Starting the Literature Review from an Outline
American Psychological Association (APA) Style
Developing the Outline
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
49
4.1 Content and Function of the Literature Review
The main function of the Literature Review is to present the theoretical
framework of your study, based on the information that you have collected about
your problem. You need to write about:
 Specific theories related to the problem.
 What is known about the problem from other empirical studies.
 Important variables and how they relate to the problem.
 What needs to be done to advance knowledge concerning the problem.
As you can see, this is a very important chapter because here you demonstrate
your knowledge of the topic, and discuss its main issues. It is important that you
analyze the topic from all different possible points of view. How can you get all
this information, though? It may be easier to start from an outline.
4.2 Starting the Literature Review from an Outline
In order for you to be able to collect and organize all the information necessary,
you can start from this outline:
I. Specific concepts and theories related to the problem (you may need more
space!).
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
50
II. Important variables and how they relate to the problem (you may need
more space!)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
III. Your point of view about the topic (the points that you want to make!)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
IV. Different authors’ points of view about the topic (either supporting or
refuting your points of view)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
51
V. What is known about the problem from other empirical studies (i.e.
results of research, also supporting or refuting your points of view).
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Once you have come up with a list of items for the different sections of
your literature review, get one of those large checked notebooks and organize
your literature review there. First of all, divide every page in three columns,
horizontally. Then label each column as: 1) Point to develop, 2) Information
from sources, and 3) My point of view. Then, using your preliminary list of
references, get copies of all the materials that you need, using the information
given in Chapter One of this book. Put all of your copies together in a big binder,
that will be your thesis bible. Then fill out the information into the different
sections. The division of the notebook should be as shown below.
POINT TO DEVELOP
(concepts from outline)
NOTES FROM BOOKS MY POINT OF VIEW
2.1 Defining Reading According to Nunan (1989),
reading is “…..
Reading is a very important and
difficult language skill
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
52
4.3 American Psychological Association (APA) Style
Before you develop your outline, you should be aware that you must cite
references in the body of your paper and in your list of references using the APA
Style. Now, what is that? In case you have never used it before or even heard
about it, let’s review it together.
The term “APA style” refers to a standardized way of citing references in
your text and in the list of references at the end of your thesis. The most
important consideration is that there must be a one-to-one correspondence
between the references in your text and those in your list of references: If a book
is cited in the text, it should be in the list of references; and if a book is in the list
of references, it should be cited somewhere in the text. The most common ways
of citing references will be described below. For others, refer to the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th
Ed).
4.3.1 Citing References in Your Text
The main advantage of APA style over others is that it makes footnotes
unnecessary. There are two ways to cite references in the body of your text.
First, the author’s name may be part of your sentence, as in the following
examples:
A typical finding about the families of mildly retarded children was
reported by Richardson (1981), who administered group IQ tests to all
youngsters’ ages 7 to 9 in a major city in Scotland.
Scott and Karan (1987) described three levels of prevention of mental
retardation: Primary, secondary, and tertiary.
Note that the date of publication appears in parentheses and all the authors
of a given study are listed in the order in which their names appear on the
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
53
publication. Also, only last names are used. Do NOT write the authors’ full
names or initials.
Second, the authors’ names may not be part of your sentence, but are cited
to support a given point you are making. Look at the two examples below.
Executive function is another key factor in the poor performance of
children who are mentally retarded (Baumeister & Brooks, 1981;
Borkowski & Day, 1987; Sternberg, 1982).
At one time, many children with IQ scores of 75 who are adapting poorly to
school would have been placed in special programs for youngsters with
mental retardation; they are not being placed there today (Reschly, 1981).
Note that when more than one citation appears in parentheses, they are in
alphabetical order by the name of the first author when there are more than one.
Also, citations are separated by semi-colons (look at the first example).
After the first time you have cited one reference with multiple authors
(three or more) you may use et al. after the first author’s name. Here is an
example:
(First mention of the reference)
Learning disabled youngsters are substantially less proficient than their
nondisabled peers in computing the basic number facts of addition,
subtraction, and multiplication (Fleischner, Garnett, & Shepard, 1982).
(Second mention of the reference)
Fleishner et al. (1982) also reported a higher incidence of counting
strategies among third- and sixth-grade LD children than among normally
achieving math students when they solved 12 basic addition facts.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
54
4.3.2 Citing a Word Discussed in a Secondary Source
Present the secondary source in the reference list and cite the original work
with the secondary source in the text. For example, if a study by Margould
(1981) was cited in Tournaki (1990), in your text you should say:
Margould’s (1981) study (cited in Tournaki, 1990) reported that
underachieving students typically feel frustrated and dislike school
learning.
In your reference list at the end of your paper, you would list only
Tournaki’s article, not Margould’s.
4.3.3 Citations in the Reference List at the End of Your Paper
Citations in your reference list should be in alphabetical order by authors’
last name. Note that after the first line of the citation, all others are indented.
Also, note that if there are multiple authors, a comma follows each name and an
ampersand (&) precedes the last author. Only authors’ last names and initials are
used: Never give the author’s first names or any titles (e.g., Ph.D.). Also notice
that the publication year always appears in parentheses after the authors’ names.
Formats for a variety of citations from different sources are presented below.
4.3.3.1 Journal Article
Ackerman, P.T., Anhalt, J. M., & Dykman, R.A. (1986). Arithmetic
automatization failure in children with attention and reading disorders:
Associations and sequelae. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 222-232.
The authors’ names appear in the order in which they appear on the article.
The words in the article title are not capitalized (except the first word or the first
after a colon). The words in the journal name are capitalized and the journal
name is underlined, the volume number is underlined, but the pages are not. An
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
55
alternative to underlining is using italics. The words “volume” and “pages” are
not used. The journal “number” such as in “volume 3”, “number 2” is not given,
unless each issue of the journal begins pagination with page sequentially so that,
when they are bound, they will function like a book. In the latter case, the
reference would appear as follows:
Becker, L.J., & Selingman, C. (1981). Welcome to the energy crisis. Journal of
Social Issues, 37(2), 1-7
4.3.3.2 Book
Wadsworth, B.J. (1978). Piaget in the classroom. New York: Longman.
Note once again that the author’s initials are used (not first or middle
names), followed by the publication year in parentheses. The book title is
underlined with only the first word capitalized. The publication location is
followed (after a colon) by the publisher.
4.3.3.3 Chapter in a Book
Ashcraft, M. H. (1987). Children’s knowledge of simple arithmetic: A
developmental model and simulation. In J. Bezanz, C. Brainerd, & R. Kail
(Eds.), Formal methods in developmental psychology (pp. 302-338). New
York: Apringer-Verlag.
Note that after the author and publication year, the chapter title (with only
the first word and the first word after a colon capitalized) is presented. Then, the
editors are listed, followed by the book title (underlined, first word only
capitalized), and pages or volume in parentheses (this time with the pp. or Vol.
Written). This is followed by the publication location and publisher.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
56
4.3.3.4 ERIC Document
Gottfredson, L.S. (1980). How valid are occupational reinforce pattern scores?
Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University, Center for Social Organization
of Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 182-465).
Note that after the author, year and title, the location and affiliation of the
author appears, followed by the ERIC Document Number in parentheses.
Well, you are now ready to use APA style in your theses. Always refer to
this guide when in doubt… go ahead and start taking notes for chapter II!
4.4 Developing The Outline
4.4.1 Structure of the Literature Review Paragraph
It is very easy to develop paragraphs for the review of literature from the
outline that you wrote. In fact, the structure of a paragraph in a literature review
is very simple... just look below!
Structure of a Paragraph in the Literature Review
A concept is introduced / A point is made (topic sentence)+ It is supported
with references or previous research results + More support is added + If there is
information refuting (contradicting) the point made, it is added + More negative
evidence is added, if there is + The different points of view are compared and
contrasted + A conclusion (restating the topic sentence) is drawn.
As you can see, writing a literature review is not brain surgery. All you
need to do is follow this structure. To further illustrate this, let’s look at some
examples.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
57
Read the following paragraphs and find the topic sentences. Analyze them
and try to find the structure above, underlining the different elements in the
structure with different colors. Determine to what extent they follow this
structure and state whether you see some differences. Note: This is an open
question, the answer is not in the answer key.
Paragraph One: Learning Styles
In this section of the literature review, a brief overview of the main factors
involved in second language acquisition and their influence on the process will be
presented. In the end, learning styles, the factor on which this thesis is focused,
will be explored in more detail. In an early attempt to identify such factors,
Altman (1980) mentioned age, sex, previous experience in language learning,
proficiency in the language, personality factors, language aptitude, attitudes and
motivation, general intelligence, sense modality preference, sociological
preference, cognitive styles, and learning strategies as some important learner
differences that have an impact on the process of second language acquisition. In
a later paper, Skehan (1989a), considered only four factors, three of which are
included in the previous author’s classification: language aptitude, motivation,
and language learning strategies. He added anxiety, and also considered
cognitive and affective factors that included some learning styles and personality.
All these factors can also be found in Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991). Finally,
these last two authors provided a more complete and extensive list of factors
impinging in the process of L2 acquisition, taking on from the classifications
made by Altman (1980) and Skehan (1989a). As can be seen, all three authors
consider learning styles (or cognitive styles) one of the factors that make a
difference in the process of language acquisition.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
58
Paragraph Two: Learning Styles
In order to understand best the importance of learning styles in the
language classroom, it is first important to provide a definition of what learning
styles are. Reid (1995) defines learning style as “an individual’s natural, habitual,
and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information
ands skills”. In a similar way, Brown (2000) states that every person has their
own natural way to perceive, transform, learn, and possess knowledge and
information in their environment. Using a more narrow concept, Larsen-Freeman
& Long (1991, p. 192) define ‘cognitive style’ as “the preferred way in which
learners process information or address a task”. Their definition is limited in that,
as will be seen when a classification of learning styles is given (Reid 1995), there
are learning styles which do not depend on cognitive processes. Finally, it is
important to mention that learning styles will not vary across teaching methods
and content areas, they will persist (Reid 1995 and 1998); and, even though they
develop gradually in children, they are supposed to be more or less permanent in
adults (Brown 2000). It can then be concluded that learning styles are the
somewhat permanent ways in which learners perceive, process, and understand
the information around them.
Paragraph Three: ESP
English language teaching has widely diversified in order to be able to
satisfy the demands of an ever-changing population of learners. Thus, since its
emergence 35 years ago, the field of ESP has grown considerably to extend to
domains such as science, medicine, law, and business (Hutchinson & Waters
1987, Robinson 1991, Swales 2000). These developments in ESP have grown
parallel to the increasing acknowledgment of the learners’ needs and wants as a
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
59
central part of curriculum development in general language teaching (Brindley
1984, Holliday 1994, Munby 1978, Nunan 1988, White 1988, Willis 1996,
Yalden 1985). It is now recognized that any language program will be only as
relevant as it fulfills the learners’ requirements within a wider social context.
Paragraph Four: Curriculum Design
The notions of curriculum and syllabus are crucial in the development of
this project, and it is then necessary to outline a definition of both. Richards,
Platt, & Platt (1992, p. 94) provide a most comprehensive definition of curriculum
as “an educational programme” that includes an educational purpose (“the end”),
some content, teaching procedures and learning experiences (“the means”), and
some evaluation mechanisms. In this view, curriculum includes everything
around a language program, from planning to implementing and evaluating.
Similarly, Nunan (1988a) defines curriculum as “an educational program”, which
consists of planning, implementation and evaluation. In a further definition, Allen
(1984, cited in Flinders & Thornton 1997) explains that curriculum is seen as a
general plan that “involves philosophical, social and administrative factors”, all of
which are included in an educational program. Finally, Candlin (1984, cited in
Reid, 1999) argues that curriculum is based on making general statements about
learning language, learning purpose and experience, evaluation and the
relationship between teachers and learners. In sum, curriculum can be seen as a
general educational program with some objectives, some pedagogical
philosophies, and some assessment and evaluation mechanisms. This is the
definition of curriculum that will be considered for the purposes of this research.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
60
Comments about the organization of the paragraphs:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4.4.2 Paragraph Writing Practice
Exercise Six: On the following pages, look at the two sample notes for the
literature review. Read the information carefully and develop each outline
into a paragraph. Remember to use the structure outlined above. When
you’re done, check with the answer key!
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
61
CONCEPTS FROM
OUTLINE
NOTES FROM SOURCES MY POINT OF VIEW
2.4.3. The Relationship
between L1 Literate Skills
and L2 Writing
Cook’s study (1988) on
Spanish-speaking advanced
ESL students, which intended to
find evidence to support
Kaplan’s hypothesis of the
digressive patterns of rhetorical
organization found, instead, that
there was a correlation between
L1 and L2 writing.
De Jesus (1983) reported a
moderate correlation between
L1 and L2 writing ability,
concluding that L1 writing
proficiency is a fair predictor of
L2 writing proficiency.
In an impressive study with 14
adult Anglophone students of
French, Cumming, Rebuffort,
and Ladwell (1989a) found that
their subjects’ use of equivalent
proportions of higher-order
problem solving strategies while
writing summaries in both
languages seemed unrelated to
their L2 proficiency level
(beginning and intermediate).
Instead, literate expertise in the
mother tongue correlated with
the qualities of these
summaries.
If students read and write well
and often in their first
language, they can become
good writers in a second
language.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
62
CONCEPTS FROM
OUTLINE
NOTES FROM SOURCES MY POINT OF VIEW
2.2 Defining Syllabus “Description of the contents of a
course of instruction and the
order in which they are to be
taught” (Richards et al. 1992, p.
368).
Nunan (1988a): “syllabus is seen
as being concerned essentially
with the selection and grading of
content, while methodology is
concerned with the selection of
learning tasks and activities”.
Widdowson (1984, p. 26)
defines syllabus as a general plan
of activities that can be applied
in a class to facilitate the
learning process.
Yalden (1984, p. 14): syllabus is
considered as an instrument by
means of which the teacher can
achieve a degree of
accomplishment between needs
and social or individual actions
in the class.
A syllabus is useful because it
specifies the content of the
course to be taught
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
63
Paragraph Five:
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Paragraph Six:
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
64
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4.4.3 Successfully Expressing One’s Point of View: Coherence
As stated above, one of the most important things in the literature review
has to do with having a point of view. The outline above will help you develop
and clearly state your main points, but you need much more than that. You need
to use words that express relationships between the information you provide. In
the same way, you need to manipulate the information so that it best expresses
your point of view towards the different concepts and theoretical models you are
presenting. These words are called logical connectors, and can be of great help in
the development of your literature review.
Swales and Feak (1994) provide the following list of connectors and their
meanings. The table was modified to show you the correct punctuation that
precedes and follows each one, and their place within the sentence. Look at the
table and see which of these connectors you know and have used. Look up the
unfamiliar ones in the dictionary, study their meaning, and practice writing some
sentences where you use them.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
65
4.4.3.1 Sentence Connectors
Table 1: Academic English Connectors and Their Meaning (Adapted from
Swales and Feak 1994)
Subordinators Sentence
Connectors
Phrase Linkers
Addition Furthermore, …
In addition, …
Moreover, …
In addition to…, …
Adversative …, although
Although …, …
Even though…, …
Despite the fact that..
However, …
Nevertheless, …
Despite …, …
In spite of …, …
Cause and Effect …because…
Since…, …
…, since …
Therefore, …
As a result, …
Consequently, …
…, hence…
Thus, …
Because of…
Due to…
As a result of…
Clarification In other words, …
That is, …
i.e., …
Contrast While …, …
…, whereas …
In contrast, …
However, …
On the other hand, ...
Conversely, ...
Unlike ... , ...
Illustration For example, ...
For instance, ...
Intensification On the contrary, ...
As a matter of fact, ...
In fact, ...
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
66
4.4.3.1.1 Uses of Connectors
Different points of view can be taken and different arguments can be built
from any given piece of information, depending on which part you emphasize and
which one you de-emphasize. This is a matter of deciding on your stance and
then using the appropriate logical connectors that express your position. Let’s
look at some examples from everyday language.
Information: John is very old and ugly, John is filthy rich.
No point of view: John is very old, ugly, and filthy rich.
Different points of view using connectors:
1. John is old and ugly. However, he is filthy rich
2. John is filthy rich. Nevertheless, he is old and ugly.
3. John is old and ugly. In addition to that, he is rich.
4. In spite of John’s age and ugliness, he is filthy rich, and consequently,
women love him.
5. Despite the fact that John is old and ugly, women love him because he is
filthy rich.
6. John has some qualities, for example, he is filthy rich. On the other hand, he
has the unwanted characteristics of being old and ugly.
7. While Peter is young and handsome, John is old and ugly. In fact, John’s
appearance is disgusting.
8. Unlike John, who is filthy rich, Peter is an abbreviated piece of nothing. As a
result, women prefer John.
9. John is filthy rich and, although he is old and ugly, women love him.
10.John is filthy rich, therefore/ in consequence , women love him.
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
67
And so on... we could come up with endless examples looking at the information
from different points of view, but I think that it is not necessary because you got
the point, right? Now let’s work with some exercises related to actual theory.
4.4.3.1.2 Using Connectors to Express One’s Point of View of the Literature
In the following exercises, you will be asked to manipulate the information
as to express different points of view, using support from sources. Also, you will
use connectors that clearly reflect your point of view and the relationship between
separate pieces of information. Have fun!
Exercise Seven
Point to be made: To explain how language acquisition takes place.
Information from bibliography:
External factors  the kind of input the learner is exposed to (Ellis 1994).
Internal factors  individual learning styles, learning strategies, and motivation
(Ellis 1994).
Additional information: External factors are relevant. Ultimate success is
usually caused by internal factors.
Task: Use various logical connectors to put the information together in several
short sentences. Remember: you will not write paragraphs, just sentences
that express the point of view indicated.
a) Simply explain the factors that cause acquisition.
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
68
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
b) Compare and contrast external and internal factors.
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
c) Emphasize the role of external factors.
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
69
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
d) Emphasize the role of internal factors.
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Exercise Eight
Point to be made: To explain the construct of writing ability.
Information from bibliography:
The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.
70
Lexico-grammatical ability  the ability to use correct structures and
vocabulary (Hadley 1993).
Cognitive ability  the ability to self-consciously use linguistic and intellectual
resources (Bartholomae and Petrosky, 1986; Elbow, 1990; Nelson, 1991; Reid,
1993; Shaughnessy, 1977).
Discourse ability  The ability to organize one’s ideas in a cohesive and
coherent manner (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992)
Sociolinguistic ability  the ability to use language that is appropriate in a social
context (Scarcella and Oxford 1992)
Additional information: All these abilities seem to be inextricably linked.
Some people organize them into the broader concept of ‘communicative
competence’ (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992).
Task: Using connectors to express your point of view, write several paragraphs
where you take different positions.
a) Simply explain the components of the writing ability construct.
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Metodología de la Investigación
Metodología de la Investigación
Metodología de la Investigación
Metodología de la Investigación
Metodología de la Investigación
Metodología de la Investigación
Metodología de la Investigación
Metodología de la Investigación
Metodología de la Investigación
Metodología de la Investigación
Metodología de la Investigación

More Related Content

Similar to Metodología de la Investigación

Research paper & Thesis.pptx
Research paper & Thesis.pptxResearch paper & Thesis.pptx
Research paper & Thesis.pptx
ShovonAhmed17
 
Rubrica para la evaluacion del proyecto final en la materia: Evaluación y Di...
Rubrica para la evaluacion del proyecto final en  la materia: Evaluación y Di...Rubrica para la evaluacion del proyecto final en  la materia: Evaluación y Di...
Rubrica para la evaluacion del proyecto final en la materia: Evaluación y Di...
PEDRO MENDOZA DE LEON
 
research report.ppt
research report.pptresearch report.ppt
research report.ppt
ssuserb76cdd
 
[Thesis] thesis guideline
[Thesis] thesis guideline[Thesis] thesis guideline
[Thesis] thesis guideline
PAULKIOI1
 
Research.pptx
Research.pptxResearch.pptx
Research.pptx
VictorLucas76
 
Unit-5-Report Writing.pptx
Unit-5-Report Writing.pptxUnit-5-Report Writing.pptx
Unit-5-Report Writing.pptx
bibha737
 
Ph dprop4
Ph dprop4Ph dprop4
Ph dprop4
Prashant Gupta
 
Ph dprop4
Ph dprop4Ph dprop4
Ph dprop4
Jyotin Kateshia
 
Methodology for research paper writing
Methodology for research paper writingMethodology for research paper writing
Methodology for research paper writing
Government of India
 
PAGE Running head TYPE ABBREVIATED TITLE HERE 1Final Lab.docx
PAGE  Running head TYPE ABBREVIATED TITLE HERE 1Final Lab.docxPAGE  Running head TYPE ABBREVIATED TITLE HERE 1Final Lab.docx
PAGE Running head TYPE ABBREVIATED TITLE HERE 1Final Lab.docx
alfred4lewis58146
 
01 academic report writing iec 2011
01 academic report writing iec 201101 academic report writing iec 2011
01 academic report writing iec 2011
ATASI Management & Consultancy
 
Lukeswem Beba MIRD ACA-401 RP1DOCX
Lukeswem Beba MIRD ACA-401 RP1DOCXLukeswem Beba MIRD ACA-401 RP1DOCX
Lukeswem Beba MIRD ACA-401 RP1DOCX
Zaki Luke Swem Beba
 
Dae chemical (sugar)
Dae chemical (sugar)Dae chemical (sugar)
Dae chemical (sugar)
mrasad2020
 
Research and development
Research and development Research and development
Research and development
Abdulbasit Hassan
 
TableofContents1. Introduction1. EMCAcademicAl
TableofContents1. Introduction1. EMCAcademicAlTableofContents1. Introduction1. EMCAcademicAl
TableofContents1. Introduction1. EMCAcademicAl
lisandrai1k
 
Research writing (Experimental Design)
Research writing (Experimental Design)Research writing (Experimental Design)
Research writing (Experimental Design)
Jimnaira Abanto
 
ISM3013 Final Project Assignment Project Assignment .docx
ISM3013 Final Project Assignment  Project Assignment   .docxISM3013 Final Project Assignment  Project Assignment   .docx
ISM3013 Final Project Assignment Project Assignment .docx
christiandean12115
 
research proposal writting chapter 2
research proposal writting chapter 2research proposal writting chapter 2
research proposal writting chapter 2
EthioJohn
 
Gsa thesistemplate 091008
Gsa thesistemplate 091008Gsa thesistemplate 091008
Gsa thesistemplate 091008
Sharifah Hassan
 
JEMES MUTUA {STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND PROJECT-KIMS.pptx
JEMES MUTUA {STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND PROJECT-KIMS.pptxJEMES MUTUA {STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND PROJECT-KIMS.pptx
JEMES MUTUA {STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND PROJECT-KIMS.pptx
AyalkebetGirum
 

Similar to Metodología de la Investigación (20)

Research paper & Thesis.pptx
Research paper & Thesis.pptxResearch paper & Thesis.pptx
Research paper & Thesis.pptx
 
Rubrica para la evaluacion del proyecto final en la materia: Evaluación y Di...
Rubrica para la evaluacion del proyecto final en  la materia: Evaluación y Di...Rubrica para la evaluacion del proyecto final en  la materia: Evaluación y Di...
Rubrica para la evaluacion del proyecto final en la materia: Evaluación y Di...
 
research report.ppt
research report.pptresearch report.ppt
research report.ppt
 
[Thesis] thesis guideline
[Thesis] thesis guideline[Thesis] thesis guideline
[Thesis] thesis guideline
 
Research.pptx
Research.pptxResearch.pptx
Research.pptx
 
Unit-5-Report Writing.pptx
Unit-5-Report Writing.pptxUnit-5-Report Writing.pptx
Unit-5-Report Writing.pptx
 
Ph dprop4
Ph dprop4Ph dprop4
Ph dprop4
 
Ph dprop4
Ph dprop4Ph dprop4
Ph dprop4
 
Methodology for research paper writing
Methodology for research paper writingMethodology for research paper writing
Methodology for research paper writing
 
PAGE Running head TYPE ABBREVIATED TITLE HERE 1Final Lab.docx
PAGE  Running head TYPE ABBREVIATED TITLE HERE 1Final Lab.docxPAGE  Running head TYPE ABBREVIATED TITLE HERE 1Final Lab.docx
PAGE Running head TYPE ABBREVIATED TITLE HERE 1Final Lab.docx
 
01 academic report writing iec 2011
01 academic report writing iec 201101 academic report writing iec 2011
01 academic report writing iec 2011
 
Lukeswem Beba MIRD ACA-401 RP1DOCX
Lukeswem Beba MIRD ACA-401 RP1DOCXLukeswem Beba MIRD ACA-401 RP1DOCX
Lukeswem Beba MIRD ACA-401 RP1DOCX
 
Dae chemical (sugar)
Dae chemical (sugar)Dae chemical (sugar)
Dae chemical (sugar)
 
Research and development
Research and development Research and development
Research and development
 
TableofContents1. Introduction1. EMCAcademicAl
TableofContents1. Introduction1. EMCAcademicAlTableofContents1. Introduction1. EMCAcademicAl
TableofContents1. Introduction1. EMCAcademicAl
 
Research writing (Experimental Design)
Research writing (Experimental Design)Research writing (Experimental Design)
Research writing (Experimental Design)
 
ISM3013 Final Project Assignment Project Assignment .docx
ISM3013 Final Project Assignment  Project Assignment   .docxISM3013 Final Project Assignment  Project Assignment   .docx
ISM3013 Final Project Assignment Project Assignment .docx
 
research proposal writting chapter 2
research proposal writting chapter 2research proposal writting chapter 2
research proposal writting chapter 2
 
Gsa thesistemplate 091008
Gsa thesistemplate 091008Gsa thesistemplate 091008
Gsa thesistemplate 091008
 
JEMES MUTUA {STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND PROJECT-KIMS.pptx
JEMES MUTUA {STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND PROJECT-KIMS.pptxJEMES MUTUA {STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND PROJECT-KIMS.pptx
JEMES MUTUA {STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND PROJECT-KIMS.pptx
 

More from Roberto Criollo

Conversation Analysis: Directness in NNS's Dispreferred Responses
Conversation Analysis: Directness in NNS's Dispreferred ResponsesConversation Analysis: Directness in NNS's Dispreferred Responses
Conversation Analysis: Directness in NNS's Dispreferred Responses
Roberto Criollo
 
Invitations: Pragmatic Transfer
Invitations: Pragmatic TransferInvitations: Pragmatic Transfer
Invitations: Pragmatic Transfer
Roberto Criollo
 
ENGLISH-LANGUAGE-PROFICIENCY-TESTS.pdf
ENGLISH-LANGUAGE-PROFICIENCY-TESTS.pdfENGLISH-LANGUAGE-PROFICIENCY-TESTS.pdf
ENGLISH-LANGUAGE-PROFICIENCY-TESTS.pdf
Roberto Criollo
 
LESSON-PLAN-FORMAT.pdf
LESSON-PLAN-FORMAT.pdfLESSON-PLAN-FORMAT.pdf
LESSON-PLAN-FORMAT.pdf
Roberto Criollo
 
Reading and writing pedagogies
Reading and writing pedagogiesReading and writing pedagogies
Reading and writing pedagogies
Roberto Criollo
 
Consejo de-unidad-academica
Consejo de-unidad-academicaConsejo de-unidad-academica
Consejo de-unidad-academica
Roberto Criollo
 
Spring 2021 course descriptions
Spring 2021 course descriptions Spring 2021 course descriptions
Spring 2021 course descriptions
Roberto Criollo
 
Facultad de lenguas
Facultad de lenguasFacultad de lenguas
Facultad de lenguas
Roberto Criollo
 
2020 open application winter
2020 open application winter2020 open application winter
2020 open application winter
Roberto Criollo
 
Winter 2021 course descriptions
Winter 2021 course descriptionsWinter 2021 course descriptions
Winter 2021 course descriptions
Roberto Criollo
 
Aeltds 09 announcement mexico
Aeltds 09 announcement mexicoAeltds 09 announcement mexico
Aeltds 09 announcement mexico
Roberto Criollo
 
Aeltds 09 calendar mexico
Aeltds 09 calendar mexicoAeltds 09 calendar mexico
Aeltds 09 calendar mexico
Roberto Criollo
 
Bilingualism matters
Bilingualism mattersBilingualism matters
Bilingualism matters
Roberto Criollo
 
We didnt-start-the-fire
We didnt-start-the-fireWe didnt-start-the-fire
We didnt-start-the-fire
Roberto Criollo
 
Discourse competence-task-two
Discourse competence-task-twoDiscourse competence-task-two
Discourse competence-task-two
Roberto Criollo
 
Discourse competence-task-one
Discourse competence-task-oneDiscourse competence-task-one
Discourse competence-task-one
Roberto Criollo
 
Formatting a research paper exercise
Formatting a research paper exerciseFormatting a research paper exercise
Formatting a research paper exercise
Roberto Criollo
 
Formatting your-research-paper
Formatting your-research-paperFormatting your-research-paper
Formatting your-research-paper
Roberto Criollo
 
Summer 2020 course descriptions
Summer 2020 course descriptionsSummer 2020 course descriptions
Summer 2020 course descriptions
Roberto Criollo
 
2020 American English e teacher application summer
2020 American English e teacher application summer2020 American English e teacher application summer
2020 American English e teacher application summer
Roberto Criollo
 

More from Roberto Criollo (20)

Conversation Analysis: Directness in NNS's Dispreferred Responses
Conversation Analysis: Directness in NNS's Dispreferred ResponsesConversation Analysis: Directness in NNS's Dispreferred Responses
Conversation Analysis: Directness in NNS's Dispreferred Responses
 
Invitations: Pragmatic Transfer
Invitations: Pragmatic TransferInvitations: Pragmatic Transfer
Invitations: Pragmatic Transfer
 
ENGLISH-LANGUAGE-PROFICIENCY-TESTS.pdf
ENGLISH-LANGUAGE-PROFICIENCY-TESTS.pdfENGLISH-LANGUAGE-PROFICIENCY-TESTS.pdf
ENGLISH-LANGUAGE-PROFICIENCY-TESTS.pdf
 
LESSON-PLAN-FORMAT.pdf
LESSON-PLAN-FORMAT.pdfLESSON-PLAN-FORMAT.pdf
LESSON-PLAN-FORMAT.pdf
 
Reading and writing pedagogies
Reading and writing pedagogiesReading and writing pedagogies
Reading and writing pedagogies
 
Consejo de-unidad-academica
Consejo de-unidad-academicaConsejo de-unidad-academica
Consejo de-unidad-academica
 
Spring 2021 course descriptions
Spring 2021 course descriptions Spring 2021 course descriptions
Spring 2021 course descriptions
 
Facultad de lenguas
Facultad de lenguasFacultad de lenguas
Facultad de lenguas
 
2020 open application winter
2020 open application winter2020 open application winter
2020 open application winter
 
Winter 2021 course descriptions
Winter 2021 course descriptionsWinter 2021 course descriptions
Winter 2021 course descriptions
 
Aeltds 09 announcement mexico
Aeltds 09 announcement mexicoAeltds 09 announcement mexico
Aeltds 09 announcement mexico
 
Aeltds 09 calendar mexico
Aeltds 09 calendar mexicoAeltds 09 calendar mexico
Aeltds 09 calendar mexico
 
Bilingualism matters
Bilingualism mattersBilingualism matters
Bilingualism matters
 
We didnt-start-the-fire
We didnt-start-the-fireWe didnt-start-the-fire
We didnt-start-the-fire
 
Discourse competence-task-two
Discourse competence-task-twoDiscourse competence-task-two
Discourse competence-task-two
 
Discourse competence-task-one
Discourse competence-task-oneDiscourse competence-task-one
Discourse competence-task-one
 
Formatting a research paper exercise
Formatting a research paper exerciseFormatting a research paper exercise
Formatting a research paper exercise
 
Formatting your-research-paper
Formatting your-research-paperFormatting your-research-paper
Formatting your-research-paper
 
Summer 2020 course descriptions
Summer 2020 course descriptionsSummer 2020 course descriptions
Summer 2020 course descriptions
 
2020 American English e teacher application summer
2020 American English e teacher application summer2020 American English e teacher application summer
2020 American English e teacher application summer
 

Recently uploaded

BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH 8 CẢ NĂM - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 (CÓ FI...
BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH 8 CẢ NĂM - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 (CÓ FI...BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH 8 CẢ NĂM - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 (CÓ FI...
BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH 8 CẢ NĂM - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 (CÓ FI...
Nguyen Thanh Tu Collection
 
RHEOLOGY Physical pharmaceutics-II notes for B.pharm 4th sem students
RHEOLOGY Physical pharmaceutics-II notes for B.pharm 4th sem studentsRHEOLOGY Physical pharmaceutics-II notes for B.pharm 4th sem students
RHEOLOGY Physical pharmaceutics-II notes for B.pharm 4th sem students
Himanshu Rai
 
مصحف القراءات العشر أعد أحرف الخلاف سمير بسيوني.pdf
مصحف القراءات العشر   أعد أحرف الخلاف سمير بسيوني.pdfمصحف القراءات العشر   أعد أحرف الخلاف سمير بسيوني.pdf
مصحف القراءات العشر أعد أحرف الخلاف سمير بسيوني.pdf
سمير بسيوني
 
Wound healing PPT
Wound healing PPTWound healing PPT
Wound healing PPT
Jyoti Chand
 
Bonku-Babus-Friend by Sathyajith Ray (9)
Bonku-Babus-Friend by Sathyajith Ray  (9)Bonku-Babus-Friend by Sathyajith Ray  (9)
Bonku-Babus-Friend by Sathyajith Ray (9)
nitinpv4ai
 
Lifelines of National Economy chapter for Class 10 STUDY MATERIAL PDF
Lifelines of National Economy chapter for Class 10 STUDY MATERIAL PDFLifelines of National Economy chapter for Class 10 STUDY MATERIAL PDF
Lifelines of National Economy chapter for Class 10 STUDY MATERIAL PDF
Vivekanand Anglo Vedic Academy
 
Stack Memory Organization of 8086 Microprocessor
Stack Memory Organization of 8086 MicroprocessorStack Memory Organization of 8086 Microprocessor
Stack Memory Organization of 8086 Microprocessor
JomonJoseph58
 
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...
PsychoTech Services
 
Film vocab for eal 3 students: Australia the movie
Film vocab for eal 3 students: Australia the movieFilm vocab for eal 3 students: Australia the movie
Film vocab for eal 3 students: Australia the movie
Nicholas Montgomery
 
math operations ued in python and all used
math operations ued in python and all usedmath operations ued in python and all used
math operations ued in python and all used
ssuser13ffe4
 
RESULTS OF THE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE.pptx
RESULTS OF THE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE.pptxRESULTS OF THE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE.pptx
RESULTS OF THE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE.pptx
zuzanka
 
HYPERTENSION - SLIDE SHARE PRESENTATION.
HYPERTENSION - SLIDE SHARE PRESENTATION.HYPERTENSION - SLIDE SHARE PRESENTATION.
HYPERTENSION - SLIDE SHARE PRESENTATION.
deepaannamalai16
 
UGC NET Exam Paper 1- Unit 1:Teaching Aptitude
UGC NET Exam Paper 1- Unit 1:Teaching AptitudeUGC NET Exam Paper 1- Unit 1:Teaching Aptitude
UGC NET Exam Paper 1- Unit 1:Teaching Aptitude
S. Raj Kumar
 
Nutrition Inc FY 2024, 4 - Hour Training
Nutrition Inc FY 2024, 4 - Hour TrainingNutrition Inc FY 2024, 4 - Hour Training
Nutrition Inc FY 2024, 4 - Hour Training
melliereed
 
writing about opinions about Australia the movie
writing about opinions about Australia the moviewriting about opinions about Australia the movie
writing about opinions about Australia the movie
Nicholas Montgomery
 
B. Ed Syllabus for babasaheb ambedkar education university.pdf
B. Ed Syllabus for babasaheb ambedkar education university.pdfB. Ed Syllabus for babasaheb ambedkar education university.pdf
B. Ed Syllabus for babasaheb ambedkar education university.pdf
BoudhayanBhattachari
 
BÀI TẬP DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 7 CẢ NĂM FRIENDS PLUS SÁCH CHÂN TRỜI SÁNG TẠO ...
BÀI TẬP DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 7 CẢ NĂM FRIENDS PLUS SÁCH CHÂN TRỜI SÁNG TẠO ...BÀI TẬP DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 7 CẢ NĂM FRIENDS PLUS SÁCH CHÂN TRỜI SÁNG TẠO ...
BÀI TẬP DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 7 CẢ NĂM FRIENDS PLUS SÁCH CHÂN TRỜI SÁNG TẠO ...
Nguyen Thanh Tu Collection
 
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 Inventory
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryHow to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 Inventory
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 Inventory
Celine George
 
SWOT analysis in the project Keeping the Memory @live.pptx
SWOT analysis in the project Keeping the Memory @live.pptxSWOT analysis in the project Keeping the Memory @live.pptx
SWOT analysis in the project Keeping the Memory @live.pptx
zuzanka
 
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdf
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfWalmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdf
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdf
TechSoup
 

Recently uploaded (20)

BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH 8 CẢ NĂM - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 (CÓ FI...
BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH 8 CẢ NĂM - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 (CÓ FI...BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH 8 CẢ NĂM - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 (CÓ FI...
BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH 8 CẢ NĂM - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 (CÓ FI...
 
RHEOLOGY Physical pharmaceutics-II notes for B.pharm 4th sem students
RHEOLOGY Physical pharmaceutics-II notes for B.pharm 4th sem studentsRHEOLOGY Physical pharmaceutics-II notes for B.pharm 4th sem students
RHEOLOGY Physical pharmaceutics-II notes for B.pharm 4th sem students
 
مصحف القراءات العشر أعد أحرف الخلاف سمير بسيوني.pdf
مصحف القراءات العشر   أعد أحرف الخلاف سمير بسيوني.pdfمصحف القراءات العشر   أعد أحرف الخلاف سمير بسيوني.pdf
مصحف القراءات العشر أعد أحرف الخلاف سمير بسيوني.pdf
 
Wound healing PPT
Wound healing PPTWound healing PPT
Wound healing PPT
 
Bonku-Babus-Friend by Sathyajith Ray (9)
Bonku-Babus-Friend by Sathyajith Ray  (9)Bonku-Babus-Friend by Sathyajith Ray  (9)
Bonku-Babus-Friend by Sathyajith Ray (9)
 
Lifelines of National Economy chapter for Class 10 STUDY MATERIAL PDF
Lifelines of National Economy chapter for Class 10 STUDY MATERIAL PDFLifelines of National Economy chapter for Class 10 STUDY MATERIAL PDF
Lifelines of National Economy chapter for Class 10 STUDY MATERIAL PDF
 
Stack Memory Organization of 8086 Microprocessor
Stack Memory Organization of 8086 MicroprocessorStack Memory Organization of 8086 Microprocessor
Stack Memory Organization of 8086 Microprocessor
 
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...
 
Film vocab for eal 3 students: Australia the movie
Film vocab for eal 3 students: Australia the movieFilm vocab for eal 3 students: Australia the movie
Film vocab for eal 3 students: Australia the movie
 
math operations ued in python and all used
math operations ued in python and all usedmath operations ued in python and all used
math operations ued in python and all used
 
RESULTS OF THE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE.pptx
RESULTS OF THE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE.pptxRESULTS OF THE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE.pptx
RESULTS OF THE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE.pptx
 
HYPERTENSION - SLIDE SHARE PRESENTATION.
HYPERTENSION - SLIDE SHARE PRESENTATION.HYPERTENSION - SLIDE SHARE PRESENTATION.
HYPERTENSION - SLIDE SHARE PRESENTATION.
 
UGC NET Exam Paper 1- Unit 1:Teaching Aptitude
UGC NET Exam Paper 1- Unit 1:Teaching AptitudeUGC NET Exam Paper 1- Unit 1:Teaching Aptitude
UGC NET Exam Paper 1- Unit 1:Teaching Aptitude
 
Nutrition Inc FY 2024, 4 - Hour Training
Nutrition Inc FY 2024, 4 - Hour TrainingNutrition Inc FY 2024, 4 - Hour Training
Nutrition Inc FY 2024, 4 - Hour Training
 
writing about opinions about Australia the movie
writing about opinions about Australia the moviewriting about opinions about Australia the movie
writing about opinions about Australia the movie
 
B. Ed Syllabus for babasaheb ambedkar education university.pdf
B. Ed Syllabus for babasaheb ambedkar education university.pdfB. Ed Syllabus for babasaheb ambedkar education university.pdf
B. Ed Syllabus for babasaheb ambedkar education university.pdf
 
BÀI TẬP DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 7 CẢ NĂM FRIENDS PLUS SÁCH CHÂN TRỜI SÁNG TẠO ...
BÀI TẬP DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 7 CẢ NĂM FRIENDS PLUS SÁCH CHÂN TRỜI SÁNG TẠO ...BÀI TẬP DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 7 CẢ NĂM FRIENDS PLUS SÁCH CHÂN TRỜI SÁNG TẠO ...
BÀI TẬP DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 7 CẢ NĂM FRIENDS PLUS SÁCH CHÂN TRỜI SÁNG TẠO ...
 
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 Inventory
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryHow to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 Inventory
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 Inventory
 
SWOT analysis in the project Keeping the Memory @live.pptx
SWOT analysis in the project Keeping the Memory @live.pptxSWOT analysis in the project Keeping the Memory @live.pptx
SWOT analysis in the project Keeping the Memory @live.pptx
 
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdf
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfWalmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdf
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdf
 

Metodología de la Investigación

  • 1.
  • 2. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL MA. Roberto Criollo Editorial ACD
  • 3.
  • 4. Catalogación ROBERTO CRIOLLO THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO WRITING A THESIS IN TESOL/AL México: ACD, junio 2003 288 pág.; 21 cm. ISBN: 968-5354-56-1 La información contenida en la obra es propiedad intelectual del autor, por lo que se prohíbe su reproducción total o parcial por cualquier medio electrónico o mecánico sin la autorización escrita del mismo. Editorial ACD 4 Sur No. 310-5 Tel: (2) 2 42 44 02 y telfax: (2) 2 42 66 48 E–mail: informes@editorial-acd.com Página Web: www.editorial-acd.com
  • 5. Esta obra se imprimió en los talleres de la EDITORIAL ACD Sur No. 310–5 Puebla, Puebla, México. La edición consta de 1,500 ejemplares más sobrantes para reposición
  • 6. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. i TABLE OF CONTENTS _________________________________________________________________ Contents Page FOREWORD ix INTRODUCTION TO THE GUIDE 1 CHAPTER ONE: SELECTING A TOPIC AND NARROWING IT DOWN 4 1.1 Selecting a Topic 7 1.2 How to Search for Bibliographic Resources 9 1.2.1 Books 9 1.2.2 Other Resources 10 1.2.2.1 Specialized Journals and Handbooks 10 1.2.2.2 Technical Dictionaries 10 1.2.2.3Annotated Bibliographies 11 1.2.2.4 Computer Searches 11 1.2.2.4.1 Databases 11 1.2.2.4.2 Online Journals 12 1.2.2.5 Other Theses 13 1.3 Reading and Exploiting Resources 13 1.4 Narrowing Down the Topic: Research Methodology 15 1.4.1 Research Methods 16 1.4.1.1 Descriptive Research 16 1.4.1.1.1 Survey Research 16 1.4.1.1.2 Observational Research 16 1.4.1.1.3 Ethnographic Research 17 1.4.1.2 Correlational Research 17 1.4.1.2.1 Relationship Studies 18 1.4.1.2.2 Prediction Studies 18 1.4.1.3 Experimental Research 19 1.4.1.4 Other Research Types 19 1.4.1.4.1 Historical Research 20 1.4.14.2 Causal-Comparative Research 20 1.4.1.4.3 Methodological Research 20 1.4.2 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research 21
  • 7. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. ii 1.4.3 Selecting Appropriate Research Methodology 24 1.4.4 Research Procedures in Second Language Acquisition 25 1.4.4.1 Error Analysis 25 1.4.4.2 Methods for Investigating Developmental Patterns 27 1.4.4.2.1 Obligatory Occasion Analysis 27 1.4.4.2.2 Target-Like Use Analysis 28 1.4.4.2.3 Frequency Analysis 28 1.4.4.3 Research Methods for Studying Illocutionary Acts 29 1.4.4.4 Methods for Investigating Input and Interaction 30 1.5 Narrowing Down Your Topic 30 1.6 Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic? 31 CHAPTER TWO: WRITING THE INTRODUCTION 35 2.1 Parts of the Thesis 37 2.2 Content of the Introductory Chapter 39 2.3 Explanation of Key Elements in the Introduction 40 2.4 Rhetoric and Formulas 41 2.4.1 Introduction to the Problem 41 2.4.2 Purpose of the Study 47 2.4.3 Research Questions and Hypotheses 48 2.4.3.1 Research Questions 48 2.4.3.2 Hypotheses 49 2.4.4 Definitions of Terms 50 2.4.5 Significance of the Study 50 2.5 Sample Introductions 51 CHAPTER THREE: ACADEMIC WRITING, COMPUTER SKILLS, AND FORMAT 75 3.1 Academic Writing: Things to Consider When Writing the Thesis 77 3.1.1 Formal Grammar and Style 77 3.1.2 Latinate versus Phrasal Verbs 78 3.1.3 Verbosity and Wordiness 80 3.2 Editing the Paper 80 3.2.1 Editing for Grammar 80 3.2.1.1 The Sentence 81 3.2.1.2 The Paragraph 82 3.3 Using the Computer 83 3.3.1 Word for Windows: A Beginning Tutorial 83 3.3.1.1 Turning on the Computer 85
  • 8. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. iii 3.3.1.2 Entering Text 86 3.3.1.3 Moving Around 86 3.3.1.4 Editing Text 86 3.3.1.5 The Toolbars (Barras de Herramientas) 87 3.3.1.6 Formatting Paragraphs 88 3.3.1.7 Cutting, Pasting, and Copying (Cortar, Pegar, y Copiar) 89 3.3.1.8 Windows (Ventanas) 90 3.3.1.9 Selecting Language 90 3.3.1.10 Spelling, Thesaurus, and Grammar (Ortografía y Gramática) 91 3.3.1.11 Inserting Clip Art (Imágenes Prediseñadas) 91 3.3.1.2 Columns 92 3.3.1.13 Sections 93 3.3.1.14 Finding and Replacing (Buscar y Reemplazar) 93 3.3.1.15 Spelling and Thesaurus 94 3.3.1.16 AutoCorrect (Autocorrección) 94 3.3.1.17 Footnotes (Notas a Pie de Página) 94 3.3.1.18 Headers and Footers (Encabezado y Pie de Página) 95 3.3.1.19 Inserting Tables 95 3.3.1.20 Inserting a Chart from Excel 96 3.4 Formatting Your Paper 97 3.4.1 Title Pages 97 3.4.2 Dedications 99 3.4.3 Acknowledgments 100 3.4.4 Table of Contents 101 3.4.5 Table of Appendices 102 3.4.6 List of Tables 102 3.4.7 Body of the Paper 102 3.4.8 References 104 CHAPTER FOUR: WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW 105 4.1 Content and Function of the Literature Review 107 4.2 Starting the Literature Review from an Outline 107 4.3 American Psychological Association (APA) Style 110 4.3.1 Citing References in Your Text 110 4.3.2 Citing a Word Discussed in a Secondary Source 112 4.3.3 Citations in the Reference List at the End of Your Paper 112 4.3.3.1 Journal Article 112 4.3.3.2 Book 113 4.3.3.3 Chapter in a Book 113
  • 9. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. iv 4.3.3.4 ERIC Document 114 4.4 Developing the Outline 114 4.4.1 Structure of the Literature Review Paragraph 114 4.4.2 Paragraph Writing Practice 118 4.4.3 Successfully Expressing One’s Point of View: Coherence 122 4.4.3.1 Sentence Connectors 123 4.4.3.1.1 Uses of Connectors 124 4.4.3.1.2 Using Connectors to Express One’s Point of View 125 4.4.4 Some Practical Advice for the Review of Literature 132 4.4.4.1 Integrating Ideas from Sources 132 4.4.4.2 Common Errors in the Review of Literature 133 4.4.4.3 Solutions to the Problems 134 4.4.4.4 Revising Literature Review Paragraphs 134 CHAPTER FIVE: WRITING THE METHOD CHAPTER 139 5.1 Content and Function of Chapter III: The Methodology Chapter 141 5.2 Describing Subjects 141 5.3 Instruments 141 5.3.1 Locating and Developing Instruments 142 5.3.2 Developing One’s Own Instruments 142 5.3.3 Procedures for Instrument Design 142 5.4 Describing Instruments 143 5.5 Describing Procedures 143 5.6 Describing Data Analysis 144 5.7 Sample Methodology Chapters and Appended Instruments 145 CHAPTER SIX: WRITING THE RESULTS CHAPTER 181 6.1 Analyzing Data 183 6.1.1 Steps for Data Analysis Procedures 183 6.1.2 Guidelines for Using Tables 183 6.1.3 Considerations When Using Figures 184 6.1.4 Appendices 184 6.2 Content of Chapter Four 185 6.2.1 Hypotheses (Subheadings) 185 6.2.2 Variable 185 6.2.3 Time Sequence 186 6.3 Using Excel to Process Data 186 6.3.1 Moving around the Worksheet 186 6.3.2 Entering Data 186
  • 10. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. v 6.3.3 Editing Data 187 6.3.4 Resizing 187 6.3.5 Averaging Test Scores 187 6.3.6 Counting the Number of Students 188 6.3.7 Creating a Chart 188 6.3.8 Adding More Data 189 6.3.9 Filling the Formula 189 6.3.10 Putting New Series in the Chart 190 6.3.11 Handling Data in Excel 190 6.3.12 Entering Data 190 6.3.13 Making a Chart 190 6.3.14 Filtering 191 6.3.15 Forms 191 6.3.16 Sorting 191 6.3.17 Subtotals 192 6.3.18 Excel Practice 192 6.4 Writing and Formatting the Chapter 197 6.5 A Note on Quantitative Data Analysis 206 6.5.1 Measures of Central Tendency 206 6.5.2 Measures of Variability 206 6.5.3 SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) 207 6.6 Sample Results Chapters 208 CHAPTER SEVEN: WRITING THE CONCLUSIONS CHAPTER AND DEVELOPING A PRESENTATION 241 7.1 Writing the Conclusions 243 7.1.1 A Summary of Your Study 243 7.1.2 Implications for Practice (in TESOL) 243 7.1.3 Limitations of the Study 243 7.1.4 Suggestions for Further Research 244 7.2 Concluding Remarks about Chapter Five 244 7.3 Sample Conclusions Chapters 245 7.4 Organizing Your Thesis Presentation 257 7.4.1 Content of the Presentation 257 7.4.2 Developing a PowerPoint Presentation 259 7.4.2.1 Basic Operation and Entering Text 259 7.4.2.2 Changing the Background Color, Design, or Template 259 7.4.2.3 Customizing Animation or Slide Transitions 260 7.5 Defending the Thesis 260
  • 11. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. vi 7.5.1 The Professional Examination 261 7.5.2 Tips for a Successful Defense 262 7.5.2.1 First of All, Prepare Yourself 262 7.5.2.2 Just in Case: Backups, Equipment, and Materials 262 7.5.2.3 Like a Good Actor, Rehearse for Your Big Night 263 7.5.2.4 The One-Million-Dollar Question? 264 7.5.2.5 Formality, Presence, and Etiquette 264 EXERCISE ANSWER KEY 267 LIST OF REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 294 Background Research Upon which the Text is Based 297 Research Methodology 298 Writing and Academic Writing 299 Writing Papers, Theses, Dissertations 299 Data Analysis and Statistics 299 Specialized Dictionaries 300 Theses Directed by the Author 301
  • 12.
  • 13.
  • 14. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. ix FOREWORD _________________________________________________________________ “Professionalization” is the concept that best characterizes the current situation of the English Language Teaching (ELT) academic community in Mexico (Wharton, 1994). This situation has generated a growing interest among ELT professionals to pursue graduate studies, participate in conferences, and publish nationally and internationally. This interest, which emerges from both their personal motivation for professional development and as a result of the Mexican educational policies, has generated a very dynamic academic community in the last ten years. Given that the majority of these professionals are non-native English speakers, they are aware of the crucial role that their English language skills play in their careers. Most of them are conscious that in order to participate actively in the ELT profession they have to learn to communicate within the ELT discourse community (Swales 1990). It is in this context that the presentation of a thesis as an “initiation ritual” into the profession has acquired a renewed meaning in Mexico. Learning to communicate within an academic discourse community is a social process. Every discourse community has its own meaning-making and interpreting practices. Thus, ELT undergraduate students have to learn to communicate within the ELT discourse community by observing, comparing, analyzing, discussing, evaluating, writing and presenting; in other words, through their oral and written interaction with other novices and experts. They have to learn to write academic texts which meet the discoursal expectations of their tutors or professors, who will interpret and finally evaluate their texts. Thus, the process of writing a thesis has become an opportunity for undergraduate students to enhance
  • 15. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. x their English skills and learn to communicate within the ELT community, which enables their further professional development after graduation. Furthermore, the fact that students have to write a thesis has other advantages. It allows for a more holistic evaluation where the students are expected to demonstrate their abilities, attitudes and values as well as their knowledge. The presentation of a thesis is sometimes the only holistic evaluation process that students are subject to and where they integrate what they have learned along the years in the university. Roberto Criollo's book comes then as an invaluable contribution to fill an existing gap. Books that prepare for thesis writing in ELT and enable learners to carry out research are hard to find. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL has several strengths. First of all, it is the result of the author’s own reflective teaching practice and ongoing engagement with theory. Second, it was developed in a “real” context with students at the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de México. Nevertheless, as recently confirmed in an ELT event for Tutors at the BUAP where professors from 5 Mexican state universities shared common problems of thesis writing, this book will address the needs of many university students struggling with thesis writing in Mexico and elsewhere. The third advantage of the book is that it is Genre-based. It focuses on the communicative intentions, the content, the rhetorical organization, the grammar and the register used in the development of writing an ELT Thesis in English. Finally, it is a hands-on product based writing book which can either be used as part of a course or by autonomous learners. As a practicing teacher educator, I am fortunate to see my former students make a career in the ELT field. I got to know Roberto Criollo as an undergraduate student at the BUAP more than 10 years ago. Since then I somehow knew he had the personal drive and capacity to become an outstanding
  • 16. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. xi professional. Then he left for the US where he successfully completed an MA in TESOL at Columbia Teachers’ College. Now as colleagues and friends, we frequently share ideas, teaching experiences, and a continuous concern for making the field of ELT more professional. This book is certainly a contribution to this. Fatima Encinas Prudencio, Ex-coordinadora de la Licenciatura en Lenguas Modernas, BUAP. Coordinadora del programa de Inglés de la Universidad Iberoamericana Plantel Golfo Centro.
  • 17.
  • 18. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE GUIDE _________________________________________________________________ The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL is intended to help students and BA./MA. candidates in the development and presentation of their thesis projects. It is based on systematic research carried out over five years and on actual experience in the direction of 32 BA. theses and 2 MA. theses in this field. The underlying theoretical approach supporting this book is genre analysis (GA), which views writing as a communicative act within a discourse community. GA considers each genre (“type of text”) to be unique and thus suggests that it be explicitly taught in terms of communicative purposes and rhetorical structure. For this reason, the Guide is completely and exclusively directed at developing the thesis, and no time is wasted explaining concepts or theoretical constructs that are not directly related to the development of the thesis project. In addition, each chapter contains exercises that will prepare the learner for the actual tasks he has to perform on his/her own project. The correct answers to each exercise are provided in the Answer Key to the guide. In this way, the reader can see whether he/she has correctly understood the instructions, principles, or models presented in the chapter. The ultimate and unique feature of the Guide is that it provides actual examples of thesis chapters for the reader to use as models when developing his/her own. The Guide is organized in seven chapters, each focused on a different stage of the process of writing and defending a thesis. These chapters, although consecutive, are not intended to be read in a linear manner. Instead, the reader should go to the chapters that he or she is interested in, depending on the stage that he/she is at in the development of his or her own thesis project. From that
  • 19. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 2 particular chapter, the reader can hop back and forth, using the information that is useful for his/her most practical and immediate purposes. Chapter One concerns the selection and the evaluation of the topic. It will be useful for those who still do not have a thesis project or are doubtful about it. In Chapter Two, attention is paid to the process of writing an introduction to the thesis. This process is approached fully by presenting an outline of the content, an explanation for each part of the chapter, the rhetorical formulas to be used, and sample introductions to guide the aspiring thesis writer. Chapter Three focuses on the writing conventions, the computer skills, and the formats and templates necessary to develop the thesis project. This part should be continuously used as a reference when working on other chapters, as most of the content presented here will apply to the whole paper. Chapter Four is, without a doubt, one of the most interesting chapters, as it deals with the theoretical framework of the thesis. In it, the reader will find the easy way to the development of the literature review for his/her project. The approach and techniques used here will facilitate the task of writing what is, undoubtedly, the longest and most difficult chapter in the thesis. There are clear instructions from writing an outline, citing references in APA style, developing the outline, to several examples that will guide and train the reader. Similarly, Chapter Five deals with the methodology chapter, providing explanations, exercises, and examples of chapters with appended research instruments that will facilitate work on this part of the thesis. In Chapter Six, the process of writing the results chapter of the thesis is explained in detail. Data analysis, handling data in Excel, and calculating statistics are only some examples of what the reader will find in this chapter. In addition, the chapter is fully complemented with an explanation of the content of the results chapter, some exercises, and actual examples for the reader to study
  • 20. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 3 and use as models. Finally, Chapter Seven deals with the conclusions, developing a presentation, and preparing for defense. At the end of the book, the Answer Key and a List of References and Suggested Bibliography are provided for the reader who needs additional information or is interested in any of the given areas outlined. It is now up to the reader to make the most of this guide. Good luck and may your efforts be rewarded with an academic degree. Roberto Criollo, MA.
  • 21. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 4 CHAPTER ONE: SELECTING A TOPIC AND NARROWING IT DOWN Selecting a Topic How to Search for Bibliographic Resources Reading and Exploiting Resources Research Methodology Narrowing Down Your Topic Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic?
  • 22.
  • 23.
  • 24. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 7 In this chapter, we will look at the steps that should be taken when selecting, narrowing down, and evaluating a thesis topic. 1.1 Selecting a Topic One of the most difficult steps in developing a thesis is selecting a topic. Selection of topic requires familiarity with the state of research in the area of TESOL/AL. You need to know:  What has been accomplished  What hypotheses have or have not been supported  What the controversies and the unresolved issues are  What theories are applicable  What contributions have resulted from research (Long, Convey, & Chwalek, 1985) As you can see, choosing a topic may be difficult because of a lack of knowledge of the area of study. Sometimes students do not have a clear idea of what they can or cannot write a thesis on. Then, they tend to think of unrealistic or impossible topics that they will eventually drop. Before choosing a topic, a careful analysis of our area of study and its different sub-areas is necessary. On the other hand, it is also of crucial importance to select a topic based on one’s interests and concerns. Successful completion of a thesis project depends to a great extent on one’s willingness to ‘marry’ the topic. For that reason, the first step in topic selection will always be defining one’s research interests. The figure below outlines the steps that should be followed in topic selection.
  • 25. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 8 Steps in Topic Selection As the figure illustrates, you must first explore your interests and try to find something that you could develop as a thesis project. When you have found it, the second step is to review the literature related to this topic. Even when this literature review does not yet involve writing a theoretical background chapter, the main concepts and theories behind the topic should be investigated. The second step in topic selection involves then developing a preliminary list of references and finding definitions for the most important terms related to the topic to be researched into. The following section provides information on how to do to this. Get ready to go to the library, buy a large notebook, and read the information below. Define your interests Think of a possible topic Identify specific researchable problems Review the literature nterests Decide on one of them and focus on it
  • 26. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 9 1.2 How to Search for Bibliographic Resources 1.2.1 Books Using books seems to be easy, but it might be a very difficult task if the research is not systematic. Searching and exploring resources requires careful planning and organization. You may want to follow the steps below to optimize the use of your bibliographic sources. 1. Go to your library and look for books that are directly related to your topic. 2. If you’re not sure whether or not a given book may be useful, check the table of contents. 3. If the book is useful, check it out. If it is not, just leave it there... you may find lots of interesting books, but if they are not related to your project, do not waste your time and energy on them! 4. Once you have a book in your hands, write its data on a list. You will need this later for your list of references. The APA format for citing references is shown below. Author’(s’) Last Names, First Name Initials. (Year in parentheses). Title of the book underlined or in italics. City of publication: Publishing House. Here’s one example: Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Notice that the second line is indented as to show the author’s last name. 5. Make copies of only the page(s) or chapter(s) you are going to need. Remember... everything may be interesting, but if it is not directly related to your study, you don’t need it. Remember to include the first page of the book so you can retrieve its data.
  • 27. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 10 6. Make copies of the bibliography at the end of the book.... you may find useful references there! 7. Get a big binder and put all of your copies together. That will be your thesis bible. 1.2.2 Other Resources Besides books, there are some other important sources of information that can make your literature review more comprehensive (Long, Convey, & Chwalek, 1985). These are: 1.2.2.1 Specialized Journals and Handbooks In this type of publications, you can find updated information about current theories in SLA and TESOL. Some of the most common ones are:  The TESOL Quarterly  Language  Applied Linguistics You can probably find some volumes of the TESOL Quarterly in your Library. Also, you could subscribe to it, and get new information every three months! 1.2.2.2 Technical Dictionaries Dictionaries that define terms and concepts in our field. One example is: Richards, J.C., Platt, J., & Platt, H. (1992). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. Essex: Longman. Besides providing you with some definitions of important concepts, a technical dictionary can guide you in your search for resources, as it tells you how
  • 28. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 11 some terms are related and provides you with the bibliography where the definitions were taken. It is advisable to look for the original sources mentioned in the dictionary. A direct citation gives more weight to your research! 1.2.2.3 Annotated Bibliographies These are ‘books’ that only contain bibliography about a given concept (i.e. reading). Usually they are listed alphabetically and a brief explanation of the content of each book or article is given. You can also base your research on these annotated bibliographies, but of course you should also look for the original sources mentioned there! 1.2.2.4 Computer Searches 1.2.2.4.1Databases Nowadays, the internet has become a great aid for research. Without moving from your school, you can have access to numerous data bases with information about particular topics in science and humanities. However, the risk of computer searches is that they are time-consuming and you can find a lot of trash on the net. I strongly encourage you to be serious in your computer searches. Some reliable sources of information are:  ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center): Book reviews and articles on different fields.  RLIN (Research Libraries Information Network): Book reviews and articles on different fields. It can be accessed by key words.  OCLC (On-Line College Library Center): Same as previous ones.  DIALOG: Same  ORBIT: Same
  • 29. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 12  Bibliographic Retrieval System (BRS): Bibliographies and reviews.  Educational Testing Service (ETS): Statistical information and test instruments.  MICASE. The University of Michigan Corpus of American Spoken English. You will find samples to conduct discourse or conversation analysis.  CHILDES. The most important database on child language, with software and samples of child speech for you to use in your research. Important if you want to do research on children linguistic development. All of these data bases can be accessed through internet. Go to a search instrument (Alta Vista, Yahoo), and type any of the titles above... you’ll get to the sites. Once in the sites, look for the information on the topics you are researching. 1.2.2.4.2 Online Journals A second important source of information and references that you will find on the world wide web is the Online Journal. An online journal is a publication similar to a printed journal except that it is available through the net. Some journals are refereed and some others aren’t. Some of them have a printed counterpart, and some others do not. Yet some of them are free and some others will require you to use your plastic money. 1. Check out the Cambridge Catalogue of Online Journals at http://193.60.94.214/public/door 2. Or the Oxford Journals: http://www3.oup.co.uk/jnls/online/ Some suggested free journals and e-zines are the following: 3. The Internet TESL Journal: Directed at TESL teachers, with theoretical and practical stuff that you can use and cite. http://iteslj.org Check my article!
  • 30. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 13 4. TESL-EJ http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/ 5. Language Learning and Technology http://llt.msu.edu/ 6. ELT Spectrum magazine www1.oup.co.uk/elt/magazine/ 7. EFL Web http://www.eflweb.com/ 8. Onestopenglish Magazine http://www.onestopenglish.com/index.htm Macmillan publishers free magazine. 1.2.2.5 Other Theses Theses on related topics or on the same topic as yours can help you in two ways. First, you can use their information and cite them as references. Also, you may find in the list of references some titles of books that you didn’t know about which could be useful for your research! All of the sources listed above are valid and reliable references. In any case, remember that you should provide careful reference of where you take the information from, and that reading original sources gives support to your research. Beware of plagiarism! The last step in this search for references involves looking for definitions of the most important terms to be used in the research. Reading and note-taking should then be done systematically. First, get your list of terms to be defined. Then, scan the materials, taking into account the considerations below 1.3 Reading and Exploiting Resources Again, although reading seems to be an activity for which no explanations or instructions are necessary, reading and exploiting resources for a research project needs to be a systematic activity. Make sure that you follow the steps given below:
  • 31. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 14  First, read the whole text of interest from the beginning to the end, trying to get just the general idea. Then put the text down and try to infer this main idea.  In your own words, and in the shortest way possible (one sentence may be good), write what the text is about. Also write the main idea or point that you think the author is trying to make.  Read the text again for more specific information. This time, you may want to use a highlighter to underline the important information. At this point, remember that important information means definitions, expression of points of view, conclusions, and the like. Also, the first sentence of each paragraph (the topic sentence... remember?) is usually the most important one and it tells you what the paragraph is about.  Take some notes of the important information you intend to use for your project. Try to summarize the information using outlines, charts, graphs, or any other visual representation that can help you get a better understanding of the text.  Later, you can write this information on cards (or even better, onto a notebook, which would be exclusive for your thesis notes), for further use in your literature review. There are two ways to take notes:  Copying directly from source, using the author’s own words (Quotation).  Summarizing and/or paraphrasing the information, using your own words (Citation). Citations involve a more careful reading and processing of information, and they are recommended. However, they are more difficult to write. The important thing, in any case, is avoid mixing the author’s words and yours. If you use a quotation, make sure you copy correctly and accurately, and if you use citations,
  • 32. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 15 make sure you are not using any word that the author has used. Every note should include references, including chapter or page numbers.  Organize your notes in such a way that you can refer to them, read them again, and compare and contrast the information. 1.4 Narrowing Down the Topic: Research Methodology Once you have developed a little literature review, it’s time to delimit your topic. That is, you must identify specific researchable problems. To do this, you need to select the research method that you are going to use. Let us start by defining the concept of thesis. What is a thesis? Simply stated, a thesis is a piece of research that is required by a university in order to award an academic degree. What is research? “Research is the study of an event, situation, problem or phenomenon using systematic and objective methods in order to understand it better and develop theories or principles about it” (Richards, Platt, & Platt 1992; Vogt 1999).
  • 33. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 16 1.4.1 Research Methods There are some major types of research in the field of humanities. Below you will find the description of each of these research types (Based on Long, Convey, & Chwalek 1985). Exercise One: Fill in the blanks with the words you find appropriate in each case (the same word may be used more than once). The words you can choose from are given before each definition. When you finish, check your answers in the answer key at the end of this book. 1.4.1.1 Descriptive Research: It involves _________ data in order to answer __________ or test ____________ about the current status of the situation under study. 1.4.1.1.1 Survey Research typically employs ____________ or, in some cases, ________ to determine people’s opinions, attitudes, and perceptions about the situation being studied. Survey research ordinarily uses __________ methods, but ___________ methods may be necessary if the data are obtained from interviews. 1.4.1.1.2 Observational Research determines the current status of a __________ by __________ it rather than simply asking about it. Observational research can be broadly defined as ____________ observation or ____________ observation. A case study is a type of observational research that ordinarily uses ___________ observation. In it, the researcher performs an in-depth ____________ of the Questionnaires – Questions - Quantitative – Collecting – Qualitative - Hypotheses – Interviews Participant – Control – Non-participant – Observing – Situation - Investigation
  • 34. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 17 situation but usually is not directly involved in the situation and does not ___________ or manipulate it. 1.4.1.1.3 Ethnographic Research is a type of observational research that usually employs _____________ observation as a form of inquiry in which the researcher is both an observer, and as such is responsible to persons outside the situation being studied, and also a genuine __________, and as such has a stake in the situation and its outcomes. Ethnographic research usually occurs in a _________ setting, that is, the researcher __________ and studies behavior as it normally occurs. It involves the intensive examination of a situation in which data are ___________ on many __________ over an extended period of time. These data may come from in-depth interviewing, field notes, diaries, thematic musings of the ______________, chronologs (running accounts of behavior), context maps or diagrams, schedules, taxonomies, _____________ (relational diagrams showing who interacts with whom) questionnaires, rating scales, checklists, and audio or video ___________. The analysis of the data is largely ______________, and it is also more inductive. 1.4.1.2 Correlational Research: It involves collecting ___________ to determine the existence of a _______________ between two or more variables and to estimate the relationship’s ______________. The relationship is usually described by a _____________ called the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Records - Collected – Sociometrics – Participant – Researcher – Qualitative – Variables – Naturalistic - Recordings Criterion - Extent – Selection - Number – Relationship – Linear – Predict - Data – Magnitude – Predictors - Variables – Graphed – Statistic – Complex – Variable -
  • 35. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 18 Coefficient. This __________, which is between –1.00 and 1.00, describes the __________ of a ____________ relationship between two __________ –that is, how closely the points represented by ordered pairs of individual scores on each variable approximate a straight line when ____________ in a coordinate system. Values of –1.00 and 1.00 indicate a perfect ________ relationship (inverse and direct, respectively), while a value of .00 indicates no linear __________. Correlational research studies are usually classified as relationship studies or prediction studies. 1.4.1.2.1 Relationship Studies examine the association between measures of different _________ obtained at approximately the same time. In addition to investigating the ___________ between variables of interest, these studies often try to obtain a better understanding of factors that make up a ___________ construct such as intelligence, self-concept, or school ability. 1.4.1.2.2 Prediction Studies involve the establishment of an equation that is used to _________ future performance on some variable, called the dependent ______ or the criterion, from information obtained from other variables, called the ________ variables or the predictors. In addition to predicting performance on the criterion, researchers often seek to identify which ____________ are more important in explaining changes in the _____________. Prediction studies are used to aid in the ________ or placement of individuals, to identify individuals to perform certain tasks or to receive special services, etc. Experimental error – Internal – Dependent – Representativeness - Experiment – Experimental – Validity - Evidence – Essential – Researcher – Independent – Differences – Instructional programs – Produce – Variable - Controlled
  • 36. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 19 1.4.1.3 Experimental Research: It involves the examination of the effects of at least one independent __________ on one or more ____________ variables while other relevant variables are controlled. Direct manipulation of at least one independent variable is the main characteristic that differentiates __________ research from other methods. When well conducted, experimental research provides the strongest _________ for cause-and-effect relationships. Control of extraneous variables is __________ in experimental research studies. The ____________ tries to remove the influence of any __________, other than the ___________ variables of interest, that might affect the dependent ___________. Variables that typically need to be ____________ are those involving individual ___________ among subjects, such as ability or interest readiness, and environmental variables, such as teachers or ___________ _____________ or experiences. Such variables may ___________ unwanted differences between experimental groups. Uncontrolled extraneous variables that affect performance on the dependent variables increase the chances of ___________ __________ and jeopardize the experiment’s __________. A good research design maximizes both the ___________ validity and the external validity of an ____________. Internal validity is the extent to which changes in the dependent ____________ can be attributed to changes in an ___________ variable. External validity refers to the generalizability or ______________ of the findings. 1.4.1.4 Other Research Types Test — Anticipating — Research —Purpose—Systematically — Understanding — Past
  • 37. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 20 1.4.1.4.1Historical Research In this type of ______________, the researcher _____________ collects data about ____________ events in order to __________ hypotheses. The main ____________ underlying this type of research is ______________ the past and present, and, if possible, _____________ the future. It is not very common in the areas of TESOL/AL. 1.4.1.4.2Causal-Comparative Research This research type is similar to ______________ research in that it tries to establish cause-and-effect relationships between ________________ of interest. However, the difference is that no experiment is ________________ and no variable is _______________. Here, the ________________is studied ex post facto –that is, __________ the fact. In these studies, a _____________ of individuals possessing the target variables are studied and ______________ to another group of ______________ who do not ______________ the variables, and some conclusions are drawn. Because of this characteristic, some authors refer to causal-comparative research as, _________________ but it goes better as a type of descriptive research. 1.4.1.4.3Methodological Research Group — Conducted — Causal-Comparative Research — Non-Experimental — Compared — Manipulated — Experimental — Subjects — After — Possess — Variables — Relationship Instruments — Procedures — Measurement — Gathering — Described — Focuses
  • 38. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 21 Although the underlying methodological _________________ may be one of the types of research ________________ above, what makes a study methodological is the fact that it _________________ on testing certain procedures for _________________ data, designing or validating research___________________, and investigating aspects of statistics, _________________, and evaluation. In other words, the subjects of methodological research are research methodologies!! 1.4.2 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Once the different research methods available for use have been shown, it is important to draw a distinction between quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research refers to those studies in which data are analyzed in terms of numbers. That is, when you calculate percentages or statistics. In contrast, qualitative research includes “Studies of subjects that are hard to quantify” (Vogt 1999). Thus, introspection, case studies, ethnographic studies, and surveys where data is collected by interviews, are typical examples of qualitative research. It is important to mention that no paradigm is inherently better than the other. However, there are some preferences depending on the country and the institution. American universities, for example, will encourage and value hardcore quantitative research, whereas British universities seem to find qualitative research more fulfilling, especially at the graduate level. Choice of methodological paradigm will then depend on the institution requirements and on the purposes of the research. Some studies lend themselves better for qualitative research, and some others are rather hard to handle using percentages and statistics.
  • 39. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 22 Finally, it must be emphasized that the quantitative-qualitative distinction does not refer to a dichotomy of mutually exclusive paradigms, but rather to the fact that research methodologies can be arranged along a continuum between qualitative and quantitative paradigms. Thus, on one end of the continuum we will find introspection techniques, whereas experimental research is the epitome of quantitative research. The qualitative-quantitative continuum of research methodologies is illustrated in the figure on the next page, taken from Larsen- Freeman & Long (1991).
  • 40. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 23
  • 41. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 24 1.4.3 Selecting Appropriate Research Methodology Research methodology must be carefully selected according to the nature of the study and the type of results that want to be obtained. Exercise Two: Read the following situations and choose the method(s) you would use in each case. Check the Answer Key! 1. You want to determine what are your students’ learning styles so that you can teach them in the most appropriate way, according to how they learn best. 2. You want to investigate why one of your learners seems to be learning more slowly than the others, even when he’s getting the same amount of input as his peers. 3. You are interested in finding out if students with low language learning achievement belong to the lower social classes. 4. You want to know whether the teachers in your school consider the textbook is appropriate for the learners and for the program. 5. You want to determine what types of questions teachers tend to ask in the classroom, and then determine the influence of these questions on students’ participation. 6. You want to elicit and classify the types of written errors committed by LEMO students at advanced level. 7. You want to determine what are learner background factors that have an influence on their TOEFL scores. 8. You are interested in finding out whether teachers in LEMO beginning classrooms use the target language for communicating with their students and to what extent students also use it for actual communicative interaction.
  • 42. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 25 9. You want to know what types of materials, activities, cartoon characters, etc. you should use with your kindergarten children, so that you can teach then in the most effective way. 1.4.4 Research Procedures in Second Language Acquisition Besides the major research methods described above, there are some more specific research procedures in SLA (Ellis 1994). These procedures have been used extensively and could be useful for your particular research. Let’s explore them in detail. 1.4.4.1 Error Analysis: Corder (1974) a) Collection of a sample of learner language b) Identification of errors c) Description of errors d) Explanation of errors e) *Evaluation of errors a) Sampling:  Massive sample  Specific sample  Incidental sample  Natural samples  Elicited samples I. Clinical elicitation. TYPE: Descriptive
  • 43. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 26 II. Experimental methods of elicitation: Bilingual Syntax Measure (Burt, Dulay and Hernández 1973). The method of data collection can have a marked effect on the results obtained.  Cross-sectional samples  Longitudinal samples b) Identification • Norm? • Errors and mistakes • Overt and covert errors • Correctness and appropriacy c) Description of errors • Description: Burt and Kiparsky (1972); Politzer and Ramírez (1973); Richards (1971b); Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982). Description of errors can be very difficult and inaccurate. d) Explanation: Source of error. I. Psycholinguistic II. Sociolinguistic III. Epistemic IV. Discourse structure e) Evaluation of errors: Consideration of the effect of the error on the interlocutors. I. Comprehension: II. Affective response: • Addressees: I. Native or Nonnative speakers II. ‘Experts’ or ‘non experts’
  • 44. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 27 1.4.4.2 Methods for Investigating Developmental Patterns It replaced Error Analysis, once researchers acknowledged the need to consider the entirety of learner language instead of looking at it as a collection of errors. One of the most powerful ideas originated from the study of developmental patterns is that learner language is systematic. Developmental patterns  Order of acquisition  Sequence of acquisition Study of developmental patterns has focused primarily on grammatical structures. Methods: 1.4.4.2.1 Obligatory Occasion Analysis (Brown 1974) a) Samples of naturally occurring language are collected. b) Obligatory occasions for the use of specific TL features are identified in the data. c) The percentage of accurate use of the feature is then calculated by establishing whether the feature in question has been supplied in all the contexts in which it is required. - A feature was considered to be acquired if it was supplied correctly 90% of the times. - Brown (1973) considered a feature to have been acquired if it was performed at the 90% level on 3 consecutive data collection points. -  Problem with this method: It did not account for the phenomena of avoidance and oversuppliance. TYPE: Descriptive
  • 45. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 28 1.4.4.2.2 Target-Like Use Analysis (Pica 1983). 1. Samples of naturally occurring language are collected. 2. Obligatory contexts for use and non use of the feature are established. 3. Percentages of accuracy are estimated.  Drawbacks of both Obligatory Occasion Analysis and Target-Like Use Analysis: Both are target-language based, that is, they compare learner language to the L2.  Bley-Vroman (1983): The “Comparative Fallacy”. 1.4.4.2.3 Frequency Analysis (Cazden et al. 1975) 1. Catalogue the various linguistic devices that learners use to express a particular grammatical structure (such as interrogation). 2. Calculate the frequency with which each device is used at different points in the learners’ development.  Since it allows to observe ‘vertical variation’ in learners development (how different structures become prominent at different stages), frequency analysis is one of the best ways of examining sequences of acquisition.  Many of the studies were longitudinal in design (case studies in the 60s and 70s).  There were also some cross-sectional studies. In these, researchers argued that the accuracy in which different features were performed corresponded to their order of acquisition.  The existence of developmental patterns can be investigated in different areas of language: linguistic (phonological, lexical, and grammatical), semantic, and pragmatic.
  • 46. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 29 Research in this area has focused mainly on the acquisition of grammatical structures. 1.4.4.3 Research Methods for Studying Illocutionary Acts in Learner Language Ideally, the study of illocutionary acts should involve the collection of three sets of data: 1) Samples of illocutionary acts performed in the target language by L2 learners. 2) Samples performed by native speakers of the target language. 3) Samples of the same illocutionary act performed by the learners in their L1. Kasper and Dahl (1991) distinguish data collection methods according to the modality of data elicited: 1) Perception/comprehension/intuition. a) Questionnaires. b) Observational performance data. 2) Production. a) Discourse completion tasks. b) Role play. c) Naturally occurring speech. And the degree of control over learners’ production: 1) Elicited. 2) Observational. The most successful studies have employed a combination of data types. TYPE: Descriptive
  • 47. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 30 1.4.4.4 Methods for Investigating Input and Interaction 1) Data collection. After collecting your data, you can follow different research methods, according to your interests: a) Linguistic Analysis (Descriptive). b) Discourse analysis (Ethnographic, descriptive) c) Conversational analysis (Ethnographic, descriptive) d) Experimental method. e) Pseudo-experimental method. f) Introspective techniques (Ethnographic). 1.5 Narrowing Down Your Topic Now that we have explored the different research methods that you can use, it is time for you to select the research method that better suits the nature of your study and its purposes. Decide what specific aspect of the topic you will focus on, and think of:  Specific questions you will try to answer.  The assumptions and theoretical framework that provide the context for those questions.  The hypotheses you are interested in testing and the method you will use to test them. The procedures you should follow to narrow down your topic are described below.  First of all, decide on the research method that you will use. In other words, Learning strategies, pragmatic interference, and all kinds of topics can be seen and researched from different perspectives, according to what we are
  • 48. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 31 interested in. For example, if our topic is learning strategies, we could use descriptive, correlational or experimental research. Descriptive survey research could help us find out opinions, perceptions and attitudes about learning strategies. Correlational research can tell us whether learning strategies seem to be related to learning effectiveness, and experimental research can help us measure the effects of learning strategies on achievement in a controlled environment. Choice of research method is a personal decision, and it totally depends on what we are interested in doing. On the other hand, this is the most important part of the thesis, since it determines whether your study is valid or not as research.  Write a specific problem statement.  Construct a theoretical framework for your study.  Formulate research questions and hypotheses.  Identify the assumptions upon which the study will be based, and their plausibility. Congratulations! Now you have a thesis topic, and it is time to decide whether this is a good topic or not. This is a difficult decision, because after choosing a topic, it is very difficult to even think of giving up on it. However, some topics may be impossible or very difficult to research, and it is better to know it from the beginning. The criteria given below of what constitutes a good topic might help you in deciding if yours is a good topic. As you read each question, reflect on your topic and answer it to the best of your knowledge... good luck! 1.6 Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic? Once you have selected your topic, you need to evaluate it. What is a good topic for a thesis? The following criteria may be helpful.
  • 49. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 32 What is a good topic?? Find it out by answering the questions below!  Is your topic directly related to our field of study? Or is it cross-disciplinary?  Do you have a sound base knowledge about this topic? Do you master its basic concepts?  Is the topic relevant and applicable to the field?  Is the topic interesting?  Is the topic feasible?  Is the topic original?  Do you have an idea of the kind of bibliographic resources you will need for your research? Are they readily available?  Do you know any professors in the staff who can help you and guide you in your research?  Do you have a clear idea of the procedures you will need to carry out to develop your project (i.e. the instrument you will use to collect your data, the type of analyses you will follow to interpret your results)?  Based on the instrument you intend to use, will you have access to the subjects or institutions you intend to develop your research in?  Will your research be extensive enough as to cover the institution thesis requirements? Or will it be too short or too long? If most of your answers are ‘YES’, your topic is a good one; if not, you really need to consider changing it.
  • 50.
  • 51.
  • 52. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 35 CHAPTER TWO: WRITING THE INTRODUCTION Parts of the Thesis Content of the Introductory Chapter Explanation of Key Elements in the Introduction Rhetoric and Formulas Sample Introductions
  • 53.
  • 54. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 37 CHAPTER THREE: ACADEMIC WRITING, COMPUTER SKILLS, AND FORMAT Academic Writing: Things to Consider When Writing the Thesis Editing the Paper Using the Computer Formatting Your Paper
  • 55.
  • 56. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 39 In this chapter we will look at some important points regarding academic writing, editing the paper, using the computer, and formatting the thesis. The first thing we need to consider is the nature of academic writing. 3.1 Academic Writing: Things to Consider When Writing the Thesis As you know, a thesis is a piece of academic writing that must comply with certain professional and stylistic conventions. In this section, we will learn about the most important characteristics of academic writing. 3.1.1 Formal Grammar and Style (Adapted from Swales & Feak 1994) 1. Avoid contractions a) Learners with low motivation won’t acquire the language as effectively as highly motivated learners. b) Learners with low motivation will not acquire the language as effectively as highly motivated learners. 2. Use the more appropriate formal negative forms Not... any  no Not... much  little Not...many  few a) The analysis did not yield any new results. b) The analysis yielded no new results. a) Professors do not earn much money, and this is reflected on their motivation. b) Professors earn little money, and this is reflected on their motivation. a) This problem does not have many viable solutions. b) This problem has few viable solutions.
  • 57. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 40 3. Limit the use of run on expressions, such as “etc.”, “and so forth” a) The Silent Way method implies the use of color charts, rods, etc. b) The Silent Way method implies the use of color charts, rods, and similar materials to illustrate and teach pronunciation. 4. Avoid addressing the reader as “you” a) You can see the results in Table 1. b) The results can be seen in Table 1 or Table 1 below shows these results. 5. Limit the use of direct questions a) What can be done to lower costs? b) This section presents some procedures that can be used to lower costs. Or c) It is now important to consider what can be done to lower costs. 6. Place adverbs within the verb. a) Then the solution can be discarded. b) The solution can then be discarded. a) Anxiety can be reduced gradually. b) Anxiety can be gradually reduced. 3.1.2 Latinate versus Phrasal Verbs Another important characteristic of academic writing is that Latinate verbs (verbs derived from Latin) are preferred since they are felt to be more academic. Phrasal verbs, in turn, are more common in informal writing or in spoken English. Thus, we Spanish speakers are at an advantage, for Latinate verbs are usually cognates. The following exercise was adapted from Swales and Feak (1994). First, look at
  • 58. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 41 the verbs in the box and then change the phrasal verbs in the sentences to make them more academic. Exercise Five: Choose a verb from the box that reduces the informality of each sentence. You may need to add tense (Adapted from Swales and Feak 1994). 1. Visual aids can help out the teacher in the demonstration of new vocabulary. _________________________________________________________________ 2. This new teacher organization was set up to facilitate professional development. _________________________________________________________________ 3. With this new methodology, students’ grades have gone up to a 60%. _________________________________________________________________ 4. Some authors believe that cutting down the number of errors committed by students is counterproductive: The more errors a student make, the more he/she will learn. _________________________________________________________________ 5. This research tries to find out the impact of visual aids on the acquisition of vocabulary. _________________________________________________________________ 6. Even though teachers plan very carefully their lessons and provide complete and detailed explanations, they will never get rid of linguistic errors in learner production. _________________________________________________________________ 7. This research will look into the problem of low motivation in the high school classroom. _________________________________________________________________ Assist Reduce Create Raise Investigate Establish Increase Determine Eliminate Fluctuate
  • 59. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 42 8. This issue of interlanguage was brought up to explain the uniqueness of learner linguistic systems. _________________________________________________________________ 9. Even with limited professional training, some English teachers come up with very effective materials and activities. _________________________________________________________________ 10.Interest in language errors has been going up and down in the last few years. _________________________________________________________________ 3.1.3 Verbosity and Wordiness Finally, remember that the academic English tends to be direct and concise. Avoid long and complex sentences, unnecessary details or words, and edit your paper to see if you can say the same things in fewer words. Wordiness is considered poor style in English-speaking universities! 3.2 Editing the Paper Without a doubt, editing is a crucial process in the development of a thesis or any other piece of writing. You always have to go back to your drafts and revise the content, grammar, spelling, and style. Once you have made sure the content of your paper is acceptable, the next step is editing for grammar and style. 3.2.1 Editing for Grammar Grammar should be one of the easiest things to correct, and it is not actually a very important one (content is number one!!), since computers already have a grammar and spelling checker that will help you correct your paper. Also, you will have two thesis readers in your committee, and one of them will check your grammar. However, just to make things easier and help you develop a
  • 60. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 43 readable paper, we will review some of the most basic grammar points at the sentence and paragraph level... ready? The Sentence and the Paragraph (Checklist developed from REA’s Handbook of English Grammar, Style, and Writing) 3.2.1.1 The Sentence First read all the sentences in your paper, then edit them following the checklist below.  Do your sentences make sense?  Are they grammatically complete and convey all the necessary information?  Are the beginnings and ends of sentences indicated with appropriate punctuation or are there any run-on or rambling sentences?  Is your sentence order appropriate? Is the sentence clear and concise, or is it confusing and long?  Are there any dangling participles or misplaced modifiers that might cause confusion?  Is it clear, in all cases, what the different pronouns refer to, or are there any ambiguous pronouns?  Are your structures parallel?  Are your sentences complete, or are there any fragments?  Are your sentences varied in length or are they too short or too long?  Does every word convey meaning and is necessary for understanding, or are you using too many words? 
  • 61. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 44 3.2.1.2 The Paragraph Now read every individual paragraph and check for cohesion and coherence. Follow the checklist below and edit as required.  Are your sentences logically connected to each other? Does your text ‘flow’ easily and nicely?  Are your paragraphs too short (one-liners) or too long (one-pagers)?  Does every paragraph contain one topic sentence? Is it at the beginning of the paragraph?  Does the topic sentence give a clear and concise idea of what the whole paragraph is about?  Does the reminder or body of the paragraph (the rest of the sentences) clearly and completely prove the thesis statement in the topic sentence? Does it give enough information about this topic (only)?  Are your paragraphs unified, focused on one topic only? Or are there any digressions (when you talk about some other, unrelated topics).  Are your paragraphs coherent? In other words, are the sentences therein logically arranged and connected? Is every paragraph logically connected to the previous one?  Is your text coherent? In other words, are the transitions between ideas and subjects smooth and logical? Or are they confusing?  Do your paragraphs clearly and unequivocally reflect your point of view on the topic? Are all paragraphs consistent with this point of view?  Does every paragraph display a formal, academic tone, or do you become rather colloquial at times? Are you using the BIG, technical, appropriate words?
  • 62. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 45 Well done! Now just remember that editing is a continuous, recurrent process that makes the difference between poor and good writing.
  • 63. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 46 CHAPTER FOUR: WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW Content and Function of the Literature Review Starting the Literature Review from an Outline American Psychological Association (APA) Style Developing the Outline
  • 64.
  • 65.
  • 66. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 49 4.1 Content and Function of the Literature Review The main function of the Literature Review is to present the theoretical framework of your study, based on the information that you have collected about your problem. You need to write about:  Specific theories related to the problem.  What is known about the problem from other empirical studies.  Important variables and how they relate to the problem.  What needs to be done to advance knowledge concerning the problem. As you can see, this is a very important chapter because here you demonstrate your knowledge of the topic, and discuss its main issues. It is important that you analyze the topic from all different possible points of view. How can you get all this information, though? It may be easier to start from an outline. 4.2 Starting the Literature Review from an Outline In order for you to be able to collect and organize all the information necessary, you can start from this outline: I. Specific concepts and theories related to the problem (you may need more space!). ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________
  • 67. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 50 II. Important variables and how they relate to the problem (you may need more space!) ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ III. Your point of view about the topic (the points that you want to make!) ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ IV. Different authors’ points of view about the topic (either supporting or refuting your points of view) ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________
  • 68. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 51 V. What is known about the problem from other empirical studies (i.e. results of research, also supporting or refuting your points of view). ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ Once you have come up with a list of items for the different sections of your literature review, get one of those large checked notebooks and organize your literature review there. First of all, divide every page in three columns, horizontally. Then label each column as: 1) Point to develop, 2) Information from sources, and 3) My point of view. Then, using your preliminary list of references, get copies of all the materials that you need, using the information given in Chapter One of this book. Put all of your copies together in a big binder, that will be your thesis bible. Then fill out the information into the different sections. The division of the notebook should be as shown below. POINT TO DEVELOP (concepts from outline) NOTES FROM BOOKS MY POINT OF VIEW 2.1 Defining Reading According to Nunan (1989), reading is “….. Reading is a very important and difficult language skill
  • 69. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 52 4.3 American Psychological Association (APA) Style Before you develop your outline, you should be aware that you must cite references in the body of your paper and in your list of references using the APA Style. Now, what is that? In case you have never used it before or even heard about it, let’s review it together. The term “APA style” refers to a standardized way of citing references in your text and in the list of references at the end of your thesis. The most important consideration is that there must be a one-to-one correspondence between the references in your text and those in your list of references: If a book is cited in the text, it should be in the list of references; and if a book is in the list of references, it should be cited somewhere in the text. The most common ways of citing references will be described below. For others, refer to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th Ed). 4.3.1 Citing References in Your Text The main advantage of APA style over others is that it makes footnotes unnecessary. There are two ways to cite references in the body of your text. First, the author’s name may be part of your sentence, as in the following examples: A typical finding about the families of mildly retarded children was reported by Richardson (1981), who administered group IQ tests to all youngsters’ ages 7 to 9 in a major city in Scotland. Scott and Karan (1987) described three levels of prevention of mental retardation: Primary, secondary, and tertiary. Note that the date of publication appears in parentheses and all the authors of a given study are listed in the order in which their names appear on the
  • 70. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 53 publication. Also, only last names are used. Do NOT write the authors’ full names or initials. Second, the authors’ names may not be part of your sentence, but are cited to support a given point you are making. Look at the two examples below. Executive function is another key factor in the poor performance of children who are mentally retarded (Baumeister & Brooks, 1981; Borkowski & Day, 1987; Sternberg, 1982). At one time, many children with IQ scores of 75 who are adapting poorly to school would have been placed in special programs for youngsters with mental retardation; they are not being placed there today (Reschly, 1981). Note that when more than one citation appears in parentheses, they are in alphabetical order by the name of the first author when there are more than one. Also, citations are separated by semi-colons (look at the first example). After the first time you have cited one reference with multiple authors (three or more) you may use et al. after the first author’s name. Here is an example: (First mention of the reference) Learning disabled youngsters are substantially less proficient than their nondisabled peers in computing the basic number facts of addition, subtraction, and multiplication (Fleischner, Garnett, & Shepard, 1982). (Second mention of the reference) Fleishner et al. (1982) also reported a higher incidence of counting strategies among third- and sixth-grade LD children than among normally achieving math students when they solved 12 basic addition facts.
  • 71. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 54 4.3.2 Citing a Word Discussed in a Secondary Source Present the secondary source in the reference list and cite the original work with the secondary source in the text. For example, if a study by Margould (1981) was cited in Tournaki (1990), in your text you should say: Margould’s (1981) study (cited in Tournaki, 1990) reported that underachieving students typically feel frustrated and dislike school learning. In your reference list at the end of your paper, you would list only Tournaki’s article, not Margould’s. 4.3.3 Citations in the Reference List at the End of Your Paper Citations in your reference list should be in alphabetical order by authors’ last name. Note that after the first line of the citation, all others are indented. Also, note that if there are multiple authors, a comma follows each name and an ampersand (&) precedes the last author. Only authors’ last names and initials are used: Never give the author’s first names or any titles (e.g., Ph.D.). Also notice that the publication year always appears in parentheses after the authors’ names. Formats for a variety of citations from different sources are presented below. 4.3.3.1 Journal Article Ackerman, P.T., Anhalt, J. M., & Dykman, R.A. (1986). Arithmetic automatization failure in children with attention and reading disorders: Associations and sequelae. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 222-232. The authors’ names appear in the order in which they appear on the article. The words in the article title are not capitalized (except the first word or the first after a colon). The words in the journal name are capitalized and the journal name is underlined, the volume number is underlined, but the pages are not. An
  • 72. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 55 alternative to underlining is using italics. The words “volume” and “pages” are not used. The journal “number” such as in “volume 3”, “number 2” is not given, unless each issue of the journal begins pagination with page sequentially so that, when they are bound, they will function like a book. In the latter case, the reference would appear as follows: Becker, L.J., & Selingman, C. (1981). Welcome to the energy crisis. Journal of Social Issues, 37(2), 1-7 4.3.3.2 Book Wadsworth, B.J. (1978). Piaget in the classroom. New York: Longman. Note once again that the author’s initials are used (not first or middle names), followed by the publication year in parentheses. The book title is underlined with only the first word capitalized. The publication location is followed (after a colon) by the publisher. 4.3.3.3 Chapter in a Book Ashcraft, M. H. (1987). Children’s knowledge of simple arithmetic: A developmental model and simulation. In J. Bezanz, C. Brainerd, & R. Kail (Eds.), Formal methods in developmental psychology (pp. 302-338). New York: Apringer-Verlag. Note that after the author and publication year, the chapter title (with only the first word and the first word after a colon capitalized) is presented. Then, the editors are listed, followed by the book title (underlined, first word only capitalized), and pages or volume in parentheses (this time with the pp. or Vol. Written). This is followed by the publication location and publisher.
  • 73. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 56 4.3.3.4 ERIC Document Gottfredson, L.S. (1980). How valid are occupational reinforce pattern scores? Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University, Center for Social Organization of Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 182-465). Note that after the author, year and title, the location and affiliation of the author appears, followed by the ERIC Document Number in parentheses. Well, you are now ready to use APA style in your theses. Always refer to this guide when in doubt… go ahead and start taking notes for chapter II! 4.4 Developing The Outline 4.4.1 Structure of the Literature Review Paragraph It is very easy to develop paragraphs for the review of literature from the outline that you wrote. In fact, the structure of a paragraph in a literature review is very simple... just look below! Structure of a Paragraph in the Literature Review A concept is introduced / A point is made (topic sentence)+ It is supported with references or previous research results + More support is added + If there is information refuting (contradicting) the point made, it is added + More negative evidence is added, if there is + The different points of view are compared and contrasted + A conclusion (restating the topic sentence) is drawn. As you can see, writing a literature review is not brain surgery. All you need to do is follow this structure. To further illustrate this, let’s look at some examples.
  • 74. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 57 Read the following paragraphs and find the topic sentences. Analyze them and try to find the structure above, underlining the different elements in the structure with different colors. Determine to what extent they follow this structure and state whether you see some differences. Note: This is an open question, the answer is not in the answer key. Paragraph One: Learning Styles In this section of the literature review, a brief overview of the main factors involved in second language acquisition and their influence on the process will be presented. In the end, learning styles, the factor on which this thesis is focused, will be explored in more detail. In an early attempt to identify such factors, Altman (1980) mentioned age, sex, previous experience in language learning, proficiency in the language, personality factors, language aptitude, attitudes and motivation, general intelligence, sense modality preference, sociological preference, cognitive styles, and learning strategies as some important learner differences that have an impact on the process of second language acquisition. In a later paper, Skehan (1989a), considered only four factors, three of which are included in the previous author’s classification: language aptitude, motivation, and language learning strategies. He added anxiety, and also considered cognitive and affective factors that included some learning styles and personality. All these factors can also be found in Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991). Finally, these last two authors provided a more complete and extensive list of factors impinging in the process of L2 acquisition, taking on from the classifications made by Altman (1980) and Skehan (1989a). As can be seen, all three authors consider learning styles (or cognitive styles) one of the factors that make a difference in the process of language acquisition.
  • 75. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 58 Paragraph Two: Learning Styles In order to understand best the importance of learning styles in the language classroom, it is first important to provide a definition of what learning styles are. Reid (1995) defines learning style as “an individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information ands skills”. In a similar way, Brown (2000) states that every person has their own natural way to perceive, transform, learn, and possess knowledge and information in their environment. Using a more narrow concept, Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991, p. 192) define ‘cognitive style’ as “the preferred way in which learners process information or address a task”. Their definition is limited in that, as will be seen when a classification of learning styles is given (Reid 1995), there are learning styles which do not depend on cognitive processes. Finally, it is important to mention that learning styles will not vary across teaching methods and content areas, they will persist (Reid 1995 and 1998); and, even though they develop gradually in children, they are supposed to be more or less permanent in adults (Brown 2000). It can then be concluded that learning styles are the somewhat permanent ways in which learners perceive, process, and understand the information around them. Paragraph Three: ESP English language teaching has widely diversified in order to be able to satisfy the demands of an ever-changing population of learners. Thus, since its emergence 35 years ago, the field of ESP has grown considerably to extend to domains such as science, medicine, law, and business (Hutchinson & Waters 1987, Robinson 1991, Swales 2000). These developments in ESP have grown parallel to the increasing acknowledgment of the learners’ needs and wants as a
  • 76. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 59 central part of curriculum development in general language teaching (Brindley 1984, Holliday 1994, Munby 1978, Nunan 1988, White 1988, Willis 1996, Yalden 1985). It is now recognized that any language program will be only as relevant as it fulfills the learners’ requirements within a wider social context. Paragraph Four: Curriculum Design The notions of curriculum and syllabus are crucial in the development of this project, and it is then necessary to outline a definition of both. Richards, Platt, & Platt (1992, p. 94) provide a most comprehensive definition of curriculum as “an educational programme” that includes an educational purpose (“the end”), some content, teaching procedures and learning experiences (“the means”), and some evaluation mechanisms. In this view, curriculum includes everything around a language program, from planning to implementing and evaluating. Similarly, Nunan (1988a) defines curriculum as “an educational program”, which consists of planning, implementation and evaluation. In a further definition, Allen (1984, cited in Flinders & Thornton 1997) explains that curriculum is seen as a general plan that “involves philosophical, social and administrative factors”, all of which are included in an educational program. Finally, Candlin (1984, cited in Reid, 1999) argues that curriculum is based on making general statements about learning language, learning purpose and experience, evaluation and the relationship between teachers and learners. In sum, curriculum can be seen as a general educational program with some objectives, some pedagogical philosophies, and some assessment and evaluation mechanisms. This is the definition of curriculum that will be considered for the purposes of this research.
  • 77. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 60 Comments about the organization of the paragraphs: ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ 4.4.2 Paragraph Writing Practice Exercise Six: On the following pages, look at the two sample notes for the literature review. Read the information carefully and develop each outline into a paragraph. Remember to use the structure outlined above. When you’re done, check with the answer key!
  • 78. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 61 CONCEPTS FROM OUTLINE NOTES FROM SOURCES MY POINT OF VIEW 2.4.3. The Relationship between L1 Literate Skills and L2 Writing Cook’s study (1988) on Spanish-speaking advanced ESL students, which intended to find evidence to support Kaplan’s hypothesis of the digressive patterns of rhetorical organization found, instead, that there was a correlation between L1 and L2 writing. De Jesus (1983) reported a moderate correlation between L1 and L2 writing ability, concluding that L1 writing proficiency is a fair predictor of L2 writing proficiency. In an impressive study with 14 adult Anglophone students of French, Cumming, Rebuffort, and Ladwell (1989a) found that their subjects’ use of equivalent proportions of higher-order problem solving strategies while writing summaries in both languages seemed unrelated to their L2 proficiency level (beginning and intermediate). Instead, literate expertise in the mother tongue correlated with the qualities of these summaries. If students read and write well and often in their first language, they can become good writers in a second language.
  • 79. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 62 CONCEPTS FROM OUTLINE NOTES FROM SOURCES MY POINT OF VIEW 2.2 Defining Syllabus “Description of the contents of a course of instruction and the order in which they are to be taught” (Richards et al. 1992, p. 368). Nunan (1988a): “syllabus is seen as being concerned essentially with the selection and grading of content, while methodology is concerned with the selection of learning tasks and activities”. Widdowson (1984, p. 26) defines syllabus as a general plan of activities that can be applied in a class to facilitate the learning process. Yalden (1984, p. 14): syllabus is considered as an instrument by means of which the teacher can achieve a degree of accomplishment between needs and social or individual actions in the class. A syllabus is useful because it specifies the content of the course to be taught
  • 80. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 63 Paragraph Five: _______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Paragraph Six: _______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________
  • 81. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 64 ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4.4.3 Successfully Expressing One’s Point of View: Coherence As stated above, one of the most important things in the literature review has to do with having a point of view. The outline above will help you develop and clearly state your main points, but you need much more than that. You need to use words that express relationships between the information you provide. In the same way, you need to manipulate the information so that it best expresses your point of view towards the different concepts and theoretical models you are presenting. These words are called logical connectors, and can be of great help in the development of your literature review. Swales and Feak (1994) provide the following list of connectors and their meanings. The table was modified to show you the correct punctuation that precedes and follows each one, and their place within the sentence. Look at the table and see which of these connectors you know and have used. Look up the unfamiliar ones in the dictionary, study their meaning, and practice writing some sentences where you use them.
  • 82. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 65 4.4.3.1 Sentence Connectors Table 1: Academic English Connectors and Their Meaning (Adapted from Swales and Feak 1994) Subordinators Sentence Connectors Phrase Linkers Addition Furthermore, … In addition, … Moreover, … In addition to…, … Adversative …, although Although …, … Even though…, … Despite the fact that.. However, … Nevertheless, … Despite …, … In spite of …, … Cause and Effect …because… Since…, … …, since … Therefore, … As a result, … Consequently, … …, hence… Thus, … Because of… Due to… As a result of… Clarification In other words, … That is, … i.e., … Contrast While …, … …, whereas … In contrast, … However, … On the other hand, ... Conversely, ... Unlike ... , ... Illustration For example, ... For instance, ... Intensification On the contrary, ... As a matter of fact, ... In fact, ...
  • 83. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 66 4.4.3.1.1 Uses of Connectors Different points of view can be taken and different arguments can be built from any given piece of information, depending on which part you emphasize and which one you de-emphasize. This is a matter of deciding on your stance and then using the appropriate logical connectors that express your position. Let’s look at some examples from everyday language. Information: John is very old and ugly, John is filthy rich. No point of view: John is very old, ugly, and filthy rich. Different points of view using connectors: 1. John is old and ugly. However, he is filthy rich 2. John is filthy rich. Nevertheless, he is old and ugly. 3. John is old and ugly. In addition to that, he is rich. 4. In spite of John’s age and ugliness, he is filthy rich, and consequently, women love him. 5. Despite the fact that John is old and ugly, women love him because he is filthy rich. 6. John has some qualities, for example, he is filthy rich. On the other hand, he has the unwanted characteristics of being old and ugly. 7. While Peter is young and handsome, John is old and ugly. In fact, John’s appearance is disgusting. 8. Unlike John, who is filthy rich, Peter is an abbreviated piece of nothing. As a result, women prefer John. 9. John is filthy rich and, although he is old and ugly, women love him. 10.John is filthy rich, therefore/ in consequence , women love him.
  • 84. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 67 And so on... we could come up with endless examples looking at the information from different points of view, but I think that it is not necessary because you got the point, right? Now let’s work with some exercises related to actual theory. 4.4.3.1.2 Using Connectors to Express One’s Point of View of the Literature In the following exercises, you will be asked to manipulate the information as to express different points of view, using support from sources. Also, you will use connectors that clearly reflect your point of view and the relationship between separate pieces of information. Have fun! Exercise Seven Point to be made: To explain how language acquisition takes place. Information from bibliography: External factors  the kind of input the learner is exposed to (Ellis 1994). Internal factors  individual learning styles, learning strategies, and motivation (Ellis 1994). Additional information: External factors are relevant. Ultimate success is usually caused by internal factors. Task: Use various logical connectors to put the information together in several short sentences. Remember: you will not write paragraphs, just sentences that express the point of view indicated. a) Simply explain the factors that cause acquisition. _______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________
  • 85. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 68 ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ b) Compare and contrast external and internal factors. _______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ c) Emphasize the role of external factors. _______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________
  • 86. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 69 ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ d) Emphasize the role of internal factors. _______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ Exercise Eight Point to be made: To explain the construct of writing ability. Information from bibliography:
  • 87. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A. 70 Lexico-grammatical ability  the ability to use correct structures and vocabulary (Hadley 1993). Cognitive ability  the ability to self-consciously use linguistic and intellectual resources (Bartholomae and Petrosky, 1986; Elbow, 1990; Nelson, 1991; Reid, 1993; Shaughnessy, 1977). Discourse ability  The ability to organize one’s ideas in a cohesive and coherent manner (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992) Sociolinguistic ability  the ability to use language that is appropriate in a social context (Scarcella and Oxford 1992) Additional information: All these abilities seem to be inextricably linked. Some people organize them into the broader concept of ‘communicative competence’ (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992). Task: Using connectors to express your point of view, write several paragraphs where you take different positions. a) Simply explain the components of the writing ability construct. _______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________