There are two reasons.
1. Presence of natural immunity
2. Immunity to superinfection
Bacteria have defense mechanisms to combat phage infection. This comprises of restriction
endonuclease system, the enzyme system which modifies the host DNA and specifically
recognize and cleave the exogenous DNA. When a phage infects, only its genome is injected into
the host cell. The injected DNA is recognized by the host restriction endonuclease system and is
cleaved into fragments.
The other reason is that immunity to superinfection. If a lysogenic phage infects a host cell, it
integrates into genome into the host chromosome. At the same time, it also prevents the host
from being infected by another lysogenic phage. The accumulation of cI protein in the host due
to the existing prophage prevents infection by other phages.
Some other reasons for resistance are lack of a receptor that facilitates the entry of the phage,
lack of supporting machinery for the phage replication.
Solution
There are two reasons.
1. Presence of natural immunity
2. Immunity to superinfection
Bacteria have defense mechanisms to combat phage infection. This comprises of restriction
endonuclease system, the enzyme system which modifies the host DNA and specifically
recognize and cleave the exogenous DNA. When a phage infects, only its genome is injected into
the host cell. The injected DNA is recognized by the host restriction endonuclease system and is
cleaved into fragments.
The other reason is that immunity to superinfection. If a lysogenic phage infects a host cell, it
integrates into genome into the host chromosome. At the same time, it also prevents the host
from being infected by another lysogenic phage. The accumulation of cI protein in the host due
to the existing prophage prevents infection by other phages.
Some other reasons for resistance are lack of a receptor that facilitates the entry of the phage,
lack of supporting machinery for the phage replication..
review on virulence factors of bacteria done by Mohammed Bushera
knowledge about bacterial virulence factors is a key for medicene or vaccine production, that why I want to share this ppt to the public
Details of viral replication:
The viral replication cycle refers to the series of steps involved in the replication and multiplication of a virus within a host organism. While the specific details can vary among different types of viruses, the general replication cycle typically involves the following stages:
Attachment: The virus attaches to specific receptor molecules on the surface of the host cell. This attachment is usually mediated by viral proteins on the outer surface of the virus and complementary receptors on the host cell.
Entry: The virus enters the host cell, either through direct fusion of the viral envelope with the host cell membrane or by endocytosis, where the virus is engulfed by the host cell and enclosed in a vesicle called an endosome.
Uncoating: Once inside the host cell, the virus undergoes uncoating, which involves the removal of the viral capsid or envelope. This step exposes the viral genetic material, allowing it to be accessed and replicated by the host cell's machinery.
Genome Replication: The viral genetic material, which can be either DNA or RNA depending on the type of virus, is replicated by the host cell's enzymes and machinery. This step involves the synthesis of new viral nucleic acid molecules using the viral genome as a template.
Transcription and Translation: The newly synthesized viral genetic material is transcribed into viral messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, which are then translated by the host cell's ribosomes into viral proteins. These proteins serve various functions, including the assembly of new virus particles.
Assembly: The newly synthesized viral proteins and replicated genetic material come together to form new virus particles, also known as virions. This assembly process often occurs in specific regions of the host cell, such as the nucleus or cytoplasm, depending on the virus.
Release: Once assembled, the mature virus particles are released from the host cell. This can occur through various mechanisms, such as cell lysis, where the host cell bursts open, or through budding, where the virus acquires a portion of the host cell membrane as it exits, thus enveloping itself.
review on virulence factors of bacteria done by Mohammed Bushera
knowledge about bacterial virulence factors is a key for medicene or vaccine production, that why I want to share this ppt to the public
Details of viral replication:
The viral replication cycle refers to the series of steps involved in the replication and multiplication of a virus within a host organism. While the specific details can vary among different types of viruses, the general replication cycle typically involves the following stages:
Attachment: The virus attaches to specific receptor molecules on the surface of the host cell. This attachment is usually mediated by viral proteins on the outer surface of the virus and complementary receptors on the host cell.
Entry: The virus enters the host cell, either through direct fusion of the viral envelope with the host cell membrane or by endocytosis, where the virus is engulfed by the host cell and enclosed in a vesicle called an endosome.
Uncoating: Once inside the host cell, the virus undergoes uncoating, which involves the removal of the viral capsid or envelope. This step exposes the viral genetic material, allowing it to be accessed and replicated by the host cell's machinery.
Genome Replication: The viral genetic material, which can be either DNA or RNA depending on the type of virus, is replicated by the host cell's enzymes and machinery. This step involves the synthesis of new viral nucleic acid molecules using the viral genome as a template.
Transcription and Translation: The newly synthesized viral genetic material is transcribed into viral messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, which are then translated by the host cell's ribosomes into viral proteins. These proteins serve various functions, including the assembly of new virus particles.
Assembly: The newly synthesized viral proteins and replicated genetic material come together to form new virus particles, also known as virions. This assembly process often occurs in specific regions of the host cell, such as the nucleus or cytoplasm, depending on the virus.
Release: Once assembled, the mature virus particles are released from the host cell. This can occur through various mechanisms, such as cell lysis, where the host cell bursts open, or through budding, where the virus acquires a portion of the host cell membrane as it exits, thus enveloping itself.
Immunology and Microbiology,Host-Microbe Interactionsvarinder kumar
Immunology and Microbiology
Host-Microbe Interactions
Cellular Immunity
Principles of Immunization
Vaccines
Examples of bacterial exotoxins
Genetics of Pathogenicity
Mechanisms of Pathogenicity
Future developments & information
Applications of Principles of Immunity
Effects of Antigen-Antibody Interactions-2
Mechanism of pathogenicity-Exotoxin and endotoxinaiswarya thomas
Brief description on mechanisms of pathogenicity, actions of toxins produced by various bacteria and notable endotoxins and exotoxins. Mechanism of action of some of the commonest endotoxins and exotoxins are explained.
Immunity is the balanced state of multicellular organisms having adequate biological defenses to fight infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion, while having adequate tolerance to avoid allergy, and autoimmune diseases.
Gene therapy is the process of inserting therapeutic genes into cells to prevent or cure wide range of diseases. The newly introduced genes will encode proteins and correct the deficiencies that occur in genetic diseases. Gene therapy primarily involves genetic manipulations in animals or humans to correct a disease, and keep organism in good health. It is a technique for correcting defective genes responsible for disease and development.
Gene Therapy, Somatic cell gene therapy, germ line gene therapy, classical gene therapy, non-classical gene therapy, targets of gene therapy, barriers of gene therapy, ex vivo gene therapy, in vivo gene therapy, vectors for gene delivery, antisense therapy
Immunology and Microbiology,Host-Microbe Interactionsvarinder kumar
Immunology and Microbiology
Host-Microbe Interactions
Cellular Immunity
Principles of Immunization
Vaccines
Examples of bacterial exotoxins
Genetics of Pathogenicity
Mechanisms of Pathogenicity
Future developments & information
Applications of Principles of Immunity
Effects of Antigen-Antibody Interactions-2
Mechanism of pathogenicity-Exotoxin and endotoxinaiswarya thomas
Brief description on mechanisms of pathogenicity, actions of toxins produced by various bacteria and notable endotoxins and exotoxins. Mechanism of action of some of the commonest endotoxins and exotoxins are explained.
Immunity is the balanced state of multicellular organisms having adequate biological defenses to fight infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion, while having adequate tolerance to avoid allergy, and autoimmune diseases.
Gene therapy is the process of inserting therapeutic genes into cells to prevent or cure wide range of diseases. The newly introduced genes will encode proteins and correct the deficiencies that occur in genetic diseases. Gene therapy primarily involves genetic manipulations in animals or humans to correct a disease, and keep organism in good health. It is a technique for correcting defective genes responsible for disease and development.
Gene Therapy, Somatic cell gene therapy, germ line gene therapy, classical gene therapy, non-classical gene therapy, targets of gene therapy, barriers of gene therapy, ex vivo gene therapy, in vivo gene therapy, vectors for gene delivery, antisense therapy
moles of Na2CO3 = massmolecular mass = 0.50106 .pdfaashwini4
moles of Na2CO3 = mass/molecular mass = 0.50/106 = 4.72 x 10^-3 moles or 4.72
millimoles
Solution
moles of Na2CO3 = mass/molecular mass = 0.50/106 = 4.72 x 10^-3 moles or 4.72
millimoles.
This is mainly based on Hard - Soft acid base theory.Hard Acid .pdfaashwini4
This is mainly based on Hard - Soft acid base theory.
Hard Acid and bases :
i) Small in size
ii) Compact
iii) Nonpolarizable
Ex: Na+ , Al3+ , F-, Cl-
Soft acids and base :
i) Larger in size
ii) Low electronegativity
iii) Highly polarizable
ii) Low electronegativity
iii) Highly polarizable
Ex: Cu+, Hg+ , H-,I-
It should be remembered that hard acid reacts with a hard base and soft acid reacts with a soft
base.
Here Hg+ is a soft, so it reacts with a soft base to form a stable compound.
It should be remembered that hard acid reacts with a hard base and soft acid reacts with a soft
base.
Here Hg+ is a soft, so it reacts with a soft base to form a stable compound.
sulfide is a soft base whereas silicates, carbonates, and Oxides are hard bases. Hence Hg is
avilable as HgS.
Zn is a border line acid. It will have the intermediate properties between the hard and soft.
It is mainly avilable as ZnS. Even ZnO is also avilable.
Zn is a border line acid. It will have the intermediate properties between the hard and soft.
It is mainly avilable as ZnS. Even ZnO is also avilable.
Solution
This is mainly based on Hard - Soft acid base theory.
Hard Acid and bases :
i) Small in size
ii) Compact
iii) Nonpolarizable
Ex: Na+ , Al3+ , F-, Cl-
Soft acids and base :
i) Larger in size
ii) Low electronegativity
iii) Highly polarizable
ii) Low electronegativity
iii) Highly polarizable
Ex: Cu+, Hg+ , H-,I-
It should be remembered that hard acid reacts with a hard base and soft acid reacts with a soft
base.
Here Hg+ is a soft, so it reacts with a soft base to form a stable compound.
It should be remembered that hard acid reacts with a hard base and soft acid reacts with a soft
base.
Here Hg+ is a soft, so it reacts with a soft base to form a stable compound.
sulfide is a soft base whereas silicates, carbonates, and Oxides are hard bases. Hence Hg is
avilable as HgS.
Zn is a border line acid. It will have the intermediate properties between the hard and soft.
It is mainly avilable as ZnS. Even ZnO is also avilable.
Zn is a border line acid. It will have the intermediate properties between the hard and soft.
It is mainly avilable as ZnS. Even ZnO is also avilable..
We are generally omitt the concentration of the solids &the concentr.pdfaashwini4
We are generally omitt the concentration of the solids &the concentration of the solvents from
the equilibrium constantexpression.
So the omitted substances areI2(s) , BaCO3(s) , Mg(s) , FeO(s) ,H2O(l) (solvent)
Solution
We are generally omitt the concentration of the solids &the concentration of the solvents from
the equilibrium constantexpression.
So the omitted substances areI2(s) , BaCO3(s) , Mg(s) , FeO(s) ,H2O(l) (solvent).
The reaction is maintained at a low temperature with slow addition o.pdfaashwini4
The reaction is maintained at a low temperature with slow addition of the HNO3/H2SO4 mixture
to ensure that only one NO2 group is substituted into the benzene ring (i.e. mononitration).
If the temperature and nitronium ion (NO2+) concentration are too high (from quick addition of
HNO3/H2SO4), then the chances of more than one NO2 group substituting into the benzene ring
increases. This would give rise to unwanted dinitration products.
Solution
The reaction is maintained at a low temperature with slow addition of the HNO3/H2SO4 mixture
to ensure that only one NO2 group is substituted into the benzene ring (i.e. mononitration).
If the temperature and nitronium ion (NO2+) concentration are too high (from quick addition of
HNO3/H2SO4), then the chances of more than one NO2 group substituting into the benzene ring
increases. This would give rise to unwanted dinitration products..
The difference between maximization of value of the corporation and .pdfaashwini4
The difference between maximization of value of the corporation and profit maximization and
return to the shareholder and maximise their wealth is the difference of objectives of living one
and non-living legal entity.
The firms objective is not only the maximisation of the wealth or return to the Shareholders but
creating values in the product is produced, development of the society in which it operates and
growth of the persons attached to it like employees, suppliers and customers. On the other hand,
it is the Shareholders whose objective to invest in the corporation is mainly to earn return on
their investment. The shareholders wants the corporation to earns more and more profits for them
every quater. The value of the corporation can be raised by only when the general society would
recognises the company and its products and services. The corporation concentrates on the
growth and development whereas the Shareholders pay attention to the return or profits.
Solution
The difference between maximization of value of the corporation and profit maximization and
return to the shareholder and maximise their wealth is the difference of objectives of living one
and non-living legal entity.
The firms objective is not only the maximisation of the wealth or return to the Shareholders but
creating values in the product is produced, development of the society in which it operates and
growth of the persons attached to it like employees, suppliers and customers. On the other hand,
it is the Shareholders whose objective to invest in the corporation is mainly to earn return on
their investment. The shareholders wants the corporation to earns more and more profits for them
every quater. The value of the corporation can be raised by only when the general society would
recognises the company and its products and services. The corporation concentrates on the
growth and development whereas the Shareholders pay attention to the return or profits..
Spore forming bacteria (prokaryotes) such as Bacillus anthracis can .pdfaashwini4
Spore forming bacteria (prokaryotes) such as Bacillus anthracis can be dormant & survive even
for 1000 years under the exposure of ultra-violet rays (the longest UV exposure). This is because
of the following properties
Bacillus subtilis produce dormant spores by sporulation ate suitable conditions and these spores
are called as endospores. These endopores have the capability to survive at extreme temperatures
followed by insufficient nutrient availability and their spore DNA is completely resistant to
mutagens such as UV light, chemicals. They are also resistant to desiccation and resistant to
extreme freezing and chemical disinfectants.
Factor-1: These endospores possess very complex diversified structure that can withstand all the
possible mutation inducing changes. These possess structural adaptations such as exosporium,
hard spore coat and these are acts as very hard complex resistant materials, which can eliminate
digesting enzymes such as lysozymes. These endospores possess cortex composed of
peptidoglycan and it has a core wall that is present under the cortex and surrounds protoplast.
These layers potentially protect spore DNA material.
Factor-2: Core material of the spore also possesses calcium dipicolinate that enable stability of
chromosomal DNA by protecting it from oxidizing agents. Inside the core material, spore
possess DNA and it is covered by specifically small acid-soluble spore proteins an these are
similar to chromatin-like proteins and enable in protecting DNA from heat as well as UV
radiation inducing mutation.
Factor-3: In order to keep the spore dormancy all the spore structural components formed and
maintain signal transduction pathways, which further result in elevated activity of the cAMP-
dependent protein kinase, triggers rapid encapsulation.
Solution
Spore forming bacteria (prokaryotes) such as Bacillus anthracis can be dormant & survive even
for 1000 years under the exposure of ultra-violet rays (the longest UV exposure). This is because
of the following properties
Bacillus subtilis produce dormant spores by sporulation ate suitable conditions and these spores
are called as endospores. These endopores have the capability to survive at extreme temperatures
followed by insufficient nutrient availability and their spore DNA is completely resistant to
mutagens such as UV light, chemicals. They are also resistant to desiccation and resistant to
extreme freezing and chemical disinfectants.
Factor-1: These endospores possess very complex diversified structure that can withstand all the
possible mutation inducing changes. These possess structural adaptations such as exosporium,
hard spore coat and these are acts as very hard complex resistant materials, which can eliminate
digesting enzymes such as lysozymes. These endospores possess cortex composed of
peptidoglycan and it has a core wall that is present under the cortex and surrounds protoplast.
These layers potentially protect spore DNA material.
Factor-2: Core mater.
Partnership Firms are taxed at multiple levels the Corporate Level.pdfaashwini4
Partnership Firms are taxed at multiple levels : the Corporate Level, which is the taxation for the
firm, and individual level, which is the taxation of the individual partners on a one-to-one basis.
Solution
Partnership Firms are taxed at multiple levels : the Corporate Level, which is the taxation for the
firm, and individual level, which is the taxation of the individual partners on a one-to-one basis..
Please give the problem detailsWhat are the solutions being mixed.pdfaashwini4
Please give the problem details:
What are the solutions being mixed?, the volumes, concentrations?
Solution
Please give the problem details:
What are the solutions being mixed?, the volumes, concentrations?.
One case of paternity testing has been given in the figure. Four aut.pdfaashwini4
One case of paternity testing has been given in the figure. Four autoradiographs (autorads) that
show DNA \"fingerprints\" for three individuals: a mother, her child, and the child\'s alleged
father(said father/without proof). Each autorad compares the traits inherited by these three
individuals - four traits are looked at, one for each autorad.
Presence or absence of different alleles (called DNA fingerprints) has been compared in each
case. These alleles (DNA fragments) differ in length from person to person; for this reason they
are used as genetic markers.
In case I-these alleles are A, B, C and D
In case II-E, G and F
In case III-H, I, J and K
In case IV-L, M, N and O
Ans 1
Case
Genotype of Mother
Genotype of Child
Genotype of alleged father
I
A/D
A/C
B/C
II
G/G
E/G
E/F
III
I/J
I/K
H/K
IV
M/N
M/O
L/O
Ans 2
In each case, child has inherited one copy of allele from mother and one from father so by
looking at the genotype of child, contribution from the parents can be predicted (by comparing
the genotype of all three persons)
Case
Genotype of child
Allele inherited from mother
Allele inherited from father
I
A/C
A
C
II
E/G
G
E
III
I/K
I
K
IV
M/O
M
O
Ans-3
In each case, we can see that child has inherited one copy of allele from mother and one from
father. So by making the comparison, it can be predicted that that the alleged father could be the
biological father of this child.
Ans 4
The DNA fingerprint assay is also useful in chimerism analysis after liver transplantation. Four
percent of donor lymphocytes (transient lymphocytes) are present for up to 3 weeks after
transplantation. If the donor lymphocytes persist, they can cause graft-versus-host disease
(GVHD), which is an underdiagnosed and often fatal complication that occurs in approximately
1% of cases, usually 2 to 6 weeks after transplantation. The following cases illustrate the utility
of the this assay in chimerism analysis.
A liver transplant recipient presented with a skin rash 2 weeks after transplant, and a punch
biopsy of the skin was obtained. The pathologist noted the presence of a lymphocyte infiltrate in
the dermis. Possible causes included a drug reaction, a viral infection, or early GVHD. DNA was
extracted from the area of lymphocyte infiltration, and DNA fingerprinting analysis was
performed. The results showed that some of the lymphocytes were of donor origin, confirming
the diagnosis of early GVHD.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1200713/
Case
Genotype of Mother
Genotype of Child
Genotype of alleged father
I
A/D
A/C
B/C
II
G/G
E/G
E/F
III
I/J
I/K
H/K
IV
M/N
M/O
L/O
Solution
One case of paternity testing has been given in the figure. Four autoradiographs (autorads) that
show DNA \"fingerprints\" for three individuals: a mother, her child, and the child\'s alleged
father(said father/without proof). Each autorad compares the traits inherited by these three
individuals - four traits are looked at, one for each autorad.
Presence or absence of different alleles.
Answer is D. I (1) will add at the carbonyl rath.pdfaashwini4
Answer is D. I (1) will add at the carbonyl rather than the double bond
Solution
Answer is D. I (1) will add at the carbonyl rather than the double bond.
Nasal cavity( nasal mucosa)-In humans, olfaction occurs when odora.pdfaashwini4
Nasal cavity( nasal mucosa)
-In humans, olfaction occurs when odorant molecules bind to specific sites on the olfactory
receptors. These receptors are used to detect the presence of smell.
Solution
Nasal cavity( nasal mucosa)
-In humans, olfaction occurs when odorant molecules bind to specific sites on the olfactory
receptors. These receptors are used to detect the presence of smell..
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Thesis Statement for students diagnonsed withADHD.ppt
There are two reasons.1. Presence of natural immunity2. Immunity.pdf
1. There are two reasons.
1. Presence of natural immunity
2. Immunity to superinfection
Bacteria have defense mechanisms to combat phage infection. This comprises of restriction
endonuclease system, the enzyme system which modifies the host DNA and specifically
recognize and cleave the exogenous DNA. When a phage infects, only its genome is injected into
the host cell. The injected DNA is recognized by the host restriction endonuclease system and is
cleaved into fragments.
The other reason is that immunity to superinfection. If a lysogenic phage infects a host cell, it
integrates into genome into the host chromosome. At the same time, it also prevents the host
from being infected by another lysogenic phage. The accumulation of cI protein in the host due
to the existing prophage prevents infection by other phages.
Some other reasons for resistance are lack of a receptor that facilitates the entry of the phage,
lack of supporting machinery for the phage replication.
Solution
There are two reasons.
1. Presence of natural immunity
2. Immunity to superinfection
Bacteria have defense mechanisms to combat phage infection. This comprises of restriction
endonuclease system, the enzyme system which modifies the host DNA and specifically
recognize and cleave the exogenous DNA. When a phage infects, only its genome is injected into
the host cell. The injected DNA is recognized by the host restriction endonuclease system and is
cleaved into fragments.
The other reason is that immunity to superinfection. If a lysogenic phage infects a host cell, it
integrates into genome into the host chromosome. At the same time, it also prevents the host
from being infected by another lysogenic phage. The accumulation of cI protein in the host due
to the existing prophage prevents infection by other phages.
Some other reasons for resistance are lack of a receptor that facilitates the entry of the phage,
lack of supporting machinery for the phage replication.
