Personality is defined as characteristic behaviors, cognitions, and emotions that develop from biological and environmental factors. There are many theories that attempt to explain personality, including trait-based theories and psychodynamic theories. The document discusses two main types of personality - Type A and Type B. Type A personalities are characterized as competitive, time-urgent, and hostile/aggressive, while Type B personalities are more relaxed, patient, and easygoing. The theory of Type A personality originated from research linking certain behavioral patterns to increased risk of heart disease. Empirical research found that Type A individuals were nearly twice as likely to develop heart disease compared to Type B individuals. However, the theory of Type A/B personalities has been criticized for

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Theories of Personality
Development of personality in school
#Personality
Personality is defined as the characteristic set of behaviors, cognitions,
and emotional patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors.[1] While
there is no generally agreed upon definition of personality, most theories focus on
motivation and psychological interactions with one's environment. Trait-based
personality theories, such as those defined by Raymond Cattell define personality as
the traits that predict a person's behavior. On the other hand, more behaviorally based
approaches define personality through learning and habits. Nevertheless, most theories
view personality as relatively stable.
The study of the psychology of personality, called personality psychology, attempts to
explain the tendencies that underlie differences in behavior. Many approaches have
been taken on to study personality, including biological, cognitive, learning and trait
based theories, as well as psychodynamic, and humanistic approaches. Personality
psychology is divided among the first theorists, with a few influential theories being
posited by Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Gordon Allport, Hans Eysenck, Abraham
Maslow, and Carl Rogers.
Personality, a characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Personality
embraces moods, attitudes, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions
with other people. It includes behavioral characteristics, both inherent and acquired, that
distinguish one person from another and that can be observed in people’s relations to
the environment and to the social group.
The term personality has been defined in many ways, but as a psychological concept
two main meanings have evolved. The first pertains to the consistent differences that
exist between people: in this sense, the study of personality focuses on classifying and
explaining relatively stable human psychological characteristics. The second meaning
emphasizes those qualities that make all people alike and that distinguish psychological
man from other species; it directs the personality theorist to search for those regularities
among all people that define the nature of man as well as the factors that influence the
course of lives. This duality may help explain the two directions that personality studies
have taken: on the one hand, the study of ever more specific qualities in people, and, on
the other, the search for the organized totality of psychological functions that
emphasizes the interplay between organic and psychological events within people and
those social and biological events that surround them. The dual definition of personality
is interwoven in most of the topics discussed below. It should be emphasized, however,
that no definition of personality has found universal acceptance within the field.
The study of personality can be said to have its origins in the fundamental idea that
people are distinguished by their characteristic individual patterns of behavior—the
distinctive ways in which they walk, talk, furnish their living quarters, or express their

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urges. Whatever the behavior, personologists—as those who systematically study
personality are called—examine how people differ in the ways they express themselves
and attempt to determine the causes of these differences. Although other fields
of psychology examine many of the same functions and processes, such as attention,
thinking, or motivation, the personologist places emphasis on how these different
processes fit together and become integrated so as to give each person a distinctive
identity, or personality. The systematic psychological study of personality has emerged
from a number of different sources, including psychiatric case studies that focused on
lives in distress, from philosophy, which explores the nature of man, and from
physiology, anthropology, and social psychology.
#Nature of personality
There are two types of personality. These are:
Type A personality:
 Competitive
 Time Urgent
 Hostile and aggressive
Type B personality
 Relaxed
 Patient
 Easy going
Type A Personality:
This type of personality concerns how people respond to stress. However, although its
name implies a personality typology, it is more appropriately conceptualized as a trait
continuum, with extremes Type-A and Type-B individuals on each end.

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ResearchBackground:
Friedman and Rosenman (both cardiologists) actually discovered the Type A behavior
by accident after they realized that their waiting-room chairs needed to be reupholstered
much sooner than anticipated.
When the upholsterer arrived to do the work, he carefully inspected the chairs and
noted that the upholstery had worn in an unusual way: "there's something different
about your patients, I've never seen anyone wear out chairs like this."
Unlike most patients, who wait patiently, the cardiac patients seemed unable to sit in
their seats for long and wore out the arms of the chairs. They tended to sit on the edge
of the seat and leaped up frequently. However, the doctors initially dismissed this
remark, and it was only five years later that they began their formal research.
Friedman and Rosenman (1976) labeled this behavior Type A personality. They
subsequently conduced research to show that people with type A personality run a
higher risk of heart disease and high blood pressure than type Bs.
Although originally called 'Type A personality' by Friedman and Rosenman it has now
been conceptualized as a set of behavioral responses collectively known as Type A
Behavior Pattern.
Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP):
 Competitiveness
Type A individuals tend to be very competitive and self-critical. They strive toward goals
without feeling a sense of joy in their efforts or accomplishments.
Interrelated with this is the presence of a significant life imbalance. This is
characterized by a high work involvement. Type A individuals are easily ‘wound up’ and
tend to overreact. They also tend to have high blood pressure (hypertension).
 Time urgency
Type A personalities experience a constant sense of urgency: Type A people seem to
be in a constant struggle against the clock.
Often, they quickly become impatient with delays and unproductive time, schedule
commitments too tightly, and try to do more than one thing at a time, such as reading
while eating or watching television.
 Hostility
Type A individuals tend to be easily aroused to anger or hostility, which they may or
may not express overtly. Such individuals tend to see the worse in others, displaying
anger, envy and a lack of compassion.

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When this behavior is expressed overtly (i.e., physical behavior) it generally involves
aggression and possible bullying (Forshaw, 2012). Hostility appears to be the main
factor linked to heart disease and is a better predictor than the TAPB as a whole.
Type B Behavior Pattern (TBBP):
People with Type B personality tend to be more tolerant of others, are more relaxed
than Type A individuals, more reflective, experience lower levels of anxiety and display
a higher level of imagination and creativity.
The Type C personality has difficulty expressing emotion and tends to suppress
emotions, particularly negative ones such as anger. This means such individual also
display 'pathological niceness,' conflict avoidance, high social desirability, over
compliance and patience.

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EmpiricalResearch:
Friedman & Rosenman (1976) conducted a longitudinal study to test their hypothesis
that Type A personality could predict incidents of heart disease. The Western
Collaborative Group Study followed 3154 healthy men, aged between thirty-nine and
fifty-nine for eight and a half years.
Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire.
Examples of questions asked by Friedman & Rosenman:
 Do you feel guilty if you use spare time to relax?
 Do you need to win in order to derive enjoyment from games and sports?
 Do you generally move, walk and eat rapidly?
 Do you often try to do more than one thing at a time?
From their responses, and from their manner, each participant was put into one
of two groups:
Type A behavior: competitive, ambitious, impatient, aggressive, fast talking.
Type B behavior: relaxed, non-competitive.
According to the results of the questionnaire 1589 individuals were classified as
Type A personalities, and 1565 Type B.
Findings:
The researchers found that more than twice as many Type A people as Type B people
developed coronary heart disease. When the figures were adjusted for smoking,
lifestyle, etc. it still emerged that Type A people were nearly twice as likely to develop
heart disease as Type B people.
For example, eight years later 257 of the participants had developed coronary heart
disease. By the end of the study, 70% of the men who had developed coronary heart
disease (CHD) were Type A personalities.
The Type A personality types behavior makes them more prone to stress-related
illnesses such as CHD, raised blood pressure, etc.
Such people are more likely to have their ”flight or fight” response set off by things in
their environment.
As a result, they are more likely to have the stress hormones present, which over a long
period of time leads to a range of stress-related illnesses.

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ResearchEvaluation:
Limitations of the study involve problems with external validity. Because the study used
an all-male sample it is unknown if the results could be generalized to a female
population.
Studies carried out on women have not shown such a major difference between Type A
and Type B and subsequent health. This may suggest that different coping
strategies are just as important as personality.
The study was able to control for other important variables, such as smoking and
lifestyle. This is good as it makes it less likely that such extraneous variables could
confound the results of the study.
Theoretical Evaluation:
However, there are a number of problems with the type A and B approach. Such
approaches have been criticized for attempting to describe complex human experiences
within narrowly defined parameters. Many people may not fit easily into a type A or B
person.
A longitudinal study carried out by Ragland and Brand (1988) found that as predicted by
Friedman Type A men were more likely to suffer from coronary heart
disease. Interestingly, though, in a follow up to their study, they found that of the men
who survived coronary events Type A men died at a rate much lower than type B men.
The major problem with the Type A and Type B theory is actually determining which
factors are influencing coronary heart disease. Some research (e.g., Johnston, 1993)
has concentrated on hostility, arguing that the Type A behavior pattern is characterized
by underlying hostility which is a major factor leading to coronary heart disease.
Other research has investigated the way that type A people experience and cope with
stress, which is the major factor leading to coronary heart disease. It would seem that a
much more sophisticated model is needed to predict coronary heart disease than
Friedman and Rosenman's Type A & Type B approach.
# Psychologists Say There Are Only 5 Kinds of People in the World.
Which One Are You?
Your personality influences everything from the friends you choose to
the candidates you vote for in a political election. Yet many people never really spend
much time thinking about their personality traits.

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Understanding your personality can give you insight into your strengths and
weaknesses. It can also help you gain insight into how others see you.
Most modern-day psychologists agree there are five major personality types. Referred
to as the "five factor model," everyone possesses some degree of each.
Conscientiousness
People who rank highest in conscientiousness are efficient, well-organized, dependable,
and self-sufficient. They prefer to plan things in advance and aim for high achievement.
People who rank lower in conscientiousness may view those with this personality
trait as stubborn and obsessive.
Fun fact: Studies show marrying someone high in conscientiousness increases your
chances of workplace success. A conscientious spouse can boost your productivity and
help you achieve the most.
Extroversion
People who rank high in extroversion gain energy from social activity. They're talkative
and outgoing and they're comfortable in the spotlight. Others may view them as
domineering and attention-seeking.
Fun fact: Be on the lookout for a strong handshake. Studies show men with the
strongest handgrips are most likely to rank high in extroversion and least likely to be
neurotic. That doesn't hold true for women, however.
3. Agreeableness.
Those who rank high in agreeableness are trustworthy, kind, and affectionate toward
others. They're known for their pro-social behavior and they're often committed to
volunteer work and altruistic activities. Other people may view them as naïve and overly
passive.
Fun fact: Seek a financial investor who is high in agreeableness. Studies show
agreeable investors are least likely to lose money from risky trading. Avoid an investor

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high in openness--that personality is associated with overconfidence that can lead an
investor to take excessive risks.
Openness to Experience
People who rate high in openness are known for their broad range of interests and vivid
imaginations. They're curious and creative and they usually prefer variety over rigid
routines. They're known for their pursuits of self-actualization through intense, euphoric
experiences like meditative retreats or living abroad. Others may view them as
unpredictable and unfocused.
Fun fact: Openness is the only personality trait that consistently predicts political
orientation. Studies show people high in openness are more likely to endorse
liberalism and they're also more likely to express their political beliefs.
Neuroticism
Neurotic people experience a high degree of emotional instability. They're more likely to
be reactive and excitable and they report higher degrees of unpleasant emotions like
anxiety and irritability. Other people may view them as unstable and insecure.
Fun fact: Neurotic people seek acceptance by publishing a lot of pictures on
Facebook. Studies find they're less likely to post comments or updates that could be
seen as controversial, and much more likely to post lots of pictures (they also have the
most photos per album).
Understanding the basics of personality:
Personality remains relatively stable over time. The personality traits you exhibited at
age 7 are likely to predict much of your behavior as an adult.
Of course, you can change some of your personality traits. It takes hard work and effort
to make big changes, but most scientists agree that it is possible.
#Personality Disorders:
A personality disorder is a type of mental disorder in which you have a rigid and
unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning and behaving. A person with a personality

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disorder has trouble perceiving and relating to situations and people. This causes
significant problems and limitations in relationships, social activities, work and school.
In some cases, you may not realize that you have a personality disorder because your
way of thinking and behaving seems natural to you. And you may blame others for the
challenges you face.
Personality disorders usually begin in the teenage years or early adulthood. There are
many types of personality disorders. Some types may become less obvious throughout
middle age.
Symptoms
Types of personality disorders are grouped into three clusters, based on similar
characteristics and symptoms. Many people with one personality disorder also have
signs and symptoms of at least one additional personality disorder. It's not necessary to
exhibit all the signs and symptoms listed for a disorder to be diagnosed.
Cluster A personality disorders
Cluster A personality disorders are characterized by odd, eccentric thinking or behavior.
They include paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder and
schizotypal personality disorder.
Paranoid personality disorder
 Pervasive distrust and suspicion of others and their motives
 Unjustified belief that others are trying to harm or deceive you
 Unjustified suspicion of the loyalty or trustworthiness of others
 Hesitancy to confide in others due to unreasonable fear that others will use the
information against you
 Perception of innocent remarks or nonthreatening situations as personal insults
or attacks
 Angry or hostile reaction to perceived slights or insults

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 Tendency to hold grudges
 Unjustified, recurrent suspicion that spouse or sexual partner is unfaithful
Schizoid personality disorder
 Lack of interest in social or personal relationships, preferring to be alone
 Limited range of emotional expression
 Inability to take pleasure in most activities
 Inability to pick up normal social cues
 Appearance of being cold or indifferent to others
 Little or no interest in having sex with another person
Schizotypal personality disorder
 Peculiar dress, thinking, beliefs, speech or behavior
 Odd perceptual experiences, such as hearing a voice whisper your name
 Flat emotions or inappropriate emotional responses
 Social anxiety and a lack of or discomfort with close relationships
 Indifferent, inappropriate or suspicious response to others
 "Magical thinking" — believing you can influence people and events with your
thoughts
 Belief that certain casual incidents or events have hidden messages meant only
for you
Cluster B personality disorders
Cluster B personality disorders are characterized by dramatic, overly emotional or
unpredictable thinking or behavior. They include antisocial personality disorder,
borderline personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder and narcissistic
personality disorder.

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Antisocial personality disorder
 Disregard for others' needs or feelings
 Persistent lying, stealing, using aliases, conning others
 Recurring problems with the law
 Repeated violation of the rights of others
 Aggressive, often violent behavior
 Disregard for the safety of self or others
 Impulsive behavior
 Consistently irresponsible
 Lack of remorse for behavior
Borderline personality disorder
 Impulsive and risky behavior, such as having unsafe sex, gambling or binge
eating
 Unstable or fragile self-image
 Unstable and intense relationships
 Up and down moods, often as a reaction to interpersonal stress
 Suicidal behavior or threats of self-injury
 Intense fear of being alone or abandoned
 Ongoing feelings of emptiness
 Frequent, intense displays of anger
 Stress-related paranoia that comes and goes
Histrionic personality disorder
 Constantly seeking attention
 Excessively emotional, dramatic or sexually provocative to gain attention

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 Speaks dramatically with strong opinions, but few facts or details to back them up
 Easily influenced by others
 Shallow, rapidly changing emotions
 Excessive concern with physical appearance
 Thinks relationships with others are closer than they really are
Causes
Personality is the combination of thoughts, emotions and behaviors that makes you
unique. It's the way you view, understand and relate to the outside world, as well as how
you see yourself. Personality forms during childhood, shaped through an interaction of:
 Your genes. Certain personality traits may be passed on to you by your parents
through inherited genes. These traits are sometimes called your temperament.
 Your environment. This involves the surroundings you grew up in, events that
occurred, and relationships with family members and others.
Personality disorders are thought to be caused by a combination of these genetic and
environmental influences. Your genes may make you vulnerable to developing a
personality disorder, and a life situation may trigger the actual development.
Risk factors
Although the precise cause of personality disorders is not known, certain factors seem
to increase the risk of developing or triggering personality disorders, including:
 Family history of personality disorders or other mental illness
 Abusive, unstable or chaotic family life during childhood
 Being diagnosed with childhood conduct disorder
 Variations in brain chemistry and structure

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Complications
Personality disorders can significantly disrupt the lives of both the affected person and
those who care about that person. Personality disorders may cause problems with
relationships, work or school, and can lead to social isolation or alcohol or drug abuse.
# Humanistic (Carl Rogers theory):
Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that rose to prominence in the
mid-20th century in answer to the limitations of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic
theory and B. F. Skinner's behaviorism. With its roots running from Socrates through
the Renaissance, this approach emphasizes individuals' inherent drive towards self-
actualization, the process of realizing and expressing one's own capabilities and
creativity.
It helps the client gain the belief that all people are inherently good. It adopts
a holistic approach to human existence and pays special attention to such phenomena
as creativity, free will, and positive human potential. It encourages viewing ourselves as
a "whole person" greater than the sum of our parts and encourages self-exploration
rather than the study of behavior in other people. Humanistic psychology acknowledges
spiritual aspiration as an integral part of the psyche. It is linked to the emerging field
of transpersonal psychology.
Primarily, this type of therapy encourages a self-awareness and mindfulness that helps
the client change their state of mind and behavior from one set of reactions to a
healthier one with more productive self-awareness and thoughtful actions. Essentially,
this approach allows the merging of mindfulness and behavioral therapy, with positive
social support.
In an article from the Association for Humanistic Psychology, the benefits of humanistic
therapy are described as having a "crucial opportunity to lead our troubled culture back
to its own healthy path. More than any other therapy, Humanistic-Existential therapy
models democracy. It imposes ideologies of others upon the client less than other
therapeutic practices. Freedom to choose is maximized. We validate our clients' human
potential."
In the 20th century, humanistic psychology was referred to as the "third force" in
psychology, distinct from earlier, even less humanistic approaches
of psychoanalysis and behaviorism. In our postindustrial society, humanistic psychology
has become more significant; for example, neither psychoanalysis nor behaviorism
could have birthed emotional intelligence.
Its principal professional organizations in the US are the Association for Humanistic
Psychology and the Society for Humanistic Psychology (Division 32 of the American

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Psychological Association). In Britain, there is the UK Association for Humanistic
Psychology Practitioners.
[Carl Rogers (1902–1987), one of the founders of humanistic psychology]
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist who agreed with the main
assumptions of Abraham Maslow, but added that for a person to "grow", they need an
environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure),
acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being
listened to and understood).
Without these, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they should,
much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water.
Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals, wishes, and desires in life.
When, or rather if they did so, self-actualization took place. This was one of Carl
Rogers most important contributions to psychology, and for a person to reach their
potential a number of factors must be satisfied.
Self Actualization
"The organism has one basic tendency and striving - to actualize, maintain, and
enhance the experiencing organism” (Rogers, 1951, p. 487).
Rogers rejected the deterministic nature of both psychoanalysis and behaviorism and
maintained that we behave as we do because of the way we perceive our situation. "As
no one else can know how we perceive; we are the best experts on ourselves."

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Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to
self-actualize - i.e., to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-
beingness' we can. Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are
right, but which is constrained by its environment, so people will flourish and reach their
potential if their environment is good enough.
However, unlike a flower, the potential of the individual human is unique, and we are
meant to develop in different ways according to our personality. Rogers believed that
people are inherently good and creative.
They become destructive only when a poor self-concept or external constraints override
the valuing process. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization
they must be in a state of congruence.
This means that self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self” (i.e., who they
would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image). Rogers describes
an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. The main determinant of
whether we will become self-actualized is childhood experience.
The Fully FunctioningPerson
Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goal. This means that the person
is in touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings,
continually growing and changing.
In many ways, Rogers regarded the fully functioning person as an ideal and one that
people do not ultimately achieve. It is wrong to think of this as an end or completion of
life’s journey; rather it is a process of always becoming and changing.
Rogers identified five characteristicsof the fully functioning person:
1. Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative
feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense
mechanisms).
2. Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding
prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not
always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e., living for the moment).
3. Trust feelings: feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted.
People’s own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves to make the
right choices.
4. Creativity: creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person’s life. A person
does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek
new experiences.

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5. Fulfilled life: a person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new
challenges and experiences.
For Rogers, fully functioning people are well adjusted, well balanced and interesting to
know. Often such people are high achievers in society.
Critics claim that the fully functioning person is a product of Western culture. In other
cultures, such as Eastern cultures, the achievement of the group is valued more highly
than the achievement of any one person.
Personality Development
Central to Rogers' personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept. This is defined
as "the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself."
The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is our inner
personality, and can be likened to the soul, or Freud's psyche. The self is influenced by
the experiences a person has in their life, and out interpretations of those
experiences. Two primary sources that influence our self-concept are childhood
experiences and evaluation by others.
According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are
consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-
self. The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or
congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth.
A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their
experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image.
The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to
ourselves. The self-concept includes three components:
 Self-worth
Self-worth (or self-esteem) comprises what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed
feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction
of the child with the mother and father.
 Self-image
How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image
includes the influence of our body image on inner personality.
At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or
ugly. Self-image affects how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the world.

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 Ideal-self
This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life,
and is dynamic – i.e., forever changing.
The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc.
Positive Regard and Self Worth
Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive regard from
other people and self-worth.
How we think about ourselves, our feelings of self-worth are of fundamental importance
both to psychological health and to the likelihood that we can achieve goals and
ambitions in life and achieve self-actualization.
Self-worth may be seen as a continuum from very high to very low. For Carl Rogers
(1959) a person who has high self-worth, that is, has confidence and positive feelings
about him or she, faces challenges in life, accepts failure and unhappiness at times, and
is open with people.
A person with low self-worth may avoid challenges in life, not accept that life can be
painful and unhappy at times, and will be defensive and guarded with other people.
Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed
from the interaction of the child with the mother and father. As a child grows older,
interactions with significant others will affect feelings of self-worth.
Rogers believed that we need to be regarded positively by others; we need to feel
valued, respected, treated with affection and loved. Positive regard is to do with how
other people evaluate and judge us in social interaction. Rogers made a distinction
between unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard.
 Unconditional Positive Regard

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Unconditional positive regardis where parents, significant others (and the humanist
therapist) accepts and loves the person for what he or she is. Positive regard is not
withdrawn if the person does something wrong or makes a mistake.
The consequences of unconditional positive regard are that the person feels free to try
things out and make mistakes, even though this may lead to getting it worse at times.
People who are able to self-actualize are more likely to have received unconditional
positive regard from others, especially their parents in childhood.
 Conditional Positive Regard
Conditional positive regard is where positive regard, praise, and approval, depend upon
the child, for example, behaving in ways that the parents think correct.
Hence the child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on condition that he or she
behaves only in ways approved by the parent(s).
At the extreme, a person who constantly seeks approval from other people is likely only
to have experienced conditional positive regard as a child.
Congruence
A person’s ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in life and
experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a person’s ideal self
and actual experience. This is called incongruence.
Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state
of congruence exists. Rarely, if ever, does a total state of congruence exist; all people
experience a certain amount of incongruence.
The development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard. Carl
Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of
congruence.
According to Rogers, we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are
consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-
self.
The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or
congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth. A person is said to be in a
state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them
and is denied or distorted in the self-image.

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Incongruence is "a discrepancy between the actual experience of the organism and the
self-picture of the individual insofar as it represents that experience.
As we prefer to see ourselves in ways that are consistent with our self-image, we may
use defense mechanisms like denial or repression in order to feel less threatened by
some of what we consider to be our undesirable feelings. A person whose self-concept
is incongruent with her or his real feelings and experiences will defend because the
truth hurts.
Carl Rogers Quotes
"When I look at the world I'm pessimistic, but when I look at people I am optimistic."
"The very essence of the creative is its novelty, and hence we have no standard by
which to judge it" (Rogers, 1961, p. 351).
"I have gradually come to one negative conclusion about the good life. It seems to me
that the good life is not any fixed state. It is not, in my estimation, a state of virtue, or
contentment, or nirvana, or happiness. It is not a condition in which the individual is
adjusted or fulfilled or actualized. To use psychological terms, it is not a state of drive-
reduction, or tension-reduction, or homeostasis" (Rogers, 1967, p. 185-186).
"The good life is a process, not a state of being. It is a direction not a destination"
(Rogers, 1967, p. 187).

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# Indian conceptof Personality Development:
Patanjali
Written by S SRIDHARAN, TRUSTEE, KRISHNAMACHARYA YOGAMANDIRAM, CHENNAI
— from KYM Newsletter, April 2012
The ancient Indian model of human beings “Personality”, given in the Upanishads,
consists of the ‘five’ sheaths. They are ‘Annamaya’, ‘Pranamaya’, ‘Manomaya’,
‘Vijnanamaya’, and ‘Anandamaya’. ‘Annamaya’ represents that segment of the human
system which is nourished by ‘anna’, i.e. food. ‘Pranamaya’ is that segment which is
nourished by ‘prana’, i.e. ‘bio-energy’. ‘Manomaya’ is the segment nourished by
‘education’. ‘Vijnanamaya’ is nourished by ‘ego’ and ‘Anandamaya’ is the segment
nourished by ‘emotions’
[NOTE: THE WORD “KOSHAS” IS NOT USED TO REFERENCE TO THE
SHEATHS BECAUSE KRISHNAMACHARYA DID NOT BELIEVE THAT THE BODY COULD
BE REPRESENTED AS “BAGS”, WHICH IS WHAT KOSHAS MEANS]
Each of these five segments has a head, two wings, a body and a tail. ‘Vijnanamaya’
which represent our ‘individual personality’ has ‘shraddha (faith)’ as head, ‘rtham
(righteousness)’ as right wing, ‘satyam (truth)’ as left wing, ‘yoga (meditation)’ as body,
and ‘mahat (source of all knowledge)’ as the tail. “Vijnanamaya” represents ‘Buddhi’
which is the ‘determinative knowledge’ or ‘intelligence’ of what has been learnt through
the ‘Manomaya’.
This ‘Vijnanamaya’ is different from one person to another and that is why the textual
knowledge learnt is interpreted and practiced differently by different people. However,

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for the ‘Vijnanamaya’ to lead towards the right path, the most important factor is
‘Shraddha’, the faith in what one has learnt. It should be backed up with righteousness
and truth in practice. For these to be firmly imbibed one should take to ‘Yoga’.
 Development
While the words ‘Development’ and ‘Evolution’ are considered as one, there are
differences. Upanishads talk of ‘Evolution’ rather than simple
‘Development’. Evolution involves ‘discovery of the divine’ in us and everyone. While
‘Development’ calls for sharpening skills and adding certain traits, etc., ‘Evolution’ calls
for removal of impediments in the ‘realisation of Self’. The major impediment in
‘Evolution’ is the ‘Klesas’ which consist of ‘Avidya’ (Wrong knowledge), ‘Asmita’
(Ego). ‘Raaga’ (Lust). ‘Dvesha’ (Hatred). and ‘Abhinivasa” (Fear). ‘Evolution’ is
continuous process till the goal is reached. It does not stop with simple ‘recognitions’
by Society or Institutions.
 Modern day ills
In the modern day context, Personality Development is the sum total of the
achievements of the individual in academic, art, sports, business or other areas. Often
a successful person is considered to be a totally developed person. However, the
moral and ethical aspects of life are not given importance. Today’s ills are on account
of the fact that textual knowledge is segregated from the practice of ‘truth’. The
university education lacks ‘Shraddha’ and that causes the mind to act in ‘sinful’ ways. It
has become a common scene to see how highly educated individuals take to violence
and deceitful ways. To put it in terms of the ancient Indian model, the development is
just up to the “Manomaya” level.
 Holistic approach
A holistic approach in personality development, in this context, therefore, would mean a
proper development in all the five maya-s. Any practice should aim at developing the
maya-s simultaneously well and work in harmony. “Personality Development” is
“Evolution” towards reaching the ‘Divine’ in the individual which is at the ‘Anandamaya’
level.
 Message from Bhagavad Gita
The first and foremost message of Bhagavad Gita in the context of Personality
Development is that even the most learned, highly successful and fearless can
suddenly enter into a state of ‘despondency’ leading to ‘inaction’. Arjuna represents the
state of normal human beings, even though achieving greater heights have a chance to
‘fall’ if they don’t take to the path of ‘divinity’ and achieve the goal.
The ‘Divine’ qualities one should aim to possess are given in the Sixteenth Chapter and
are as follows:
Abhayam: Fearlessness
Sattva samsuddhi: Purity of Mind
Jnanayogavyavasthitam: Practice of Yoga for Self-realisation
Danam: Charity
Damam: Control of Senses
Yajnam: Performance of Sacrifice
Svadhyayam: Study of texts for ‘Self-realisation’
Tapas: Austerity
Aarjavam: Straightforwardness

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Ahimsa: Nonviolence
Satyam: Truthfulness
Akrodham: Absence of anger
Thyagam: Renunciation
Shanti: Tranquility
Apaishunam: Aversion to faultfinding
Daya: Compassion
Bhuteshvaloluptvam: Freedom from covetousness
Mardavam: Modesty
Hri: Shame in doing unrighteous deeds
Achapalam: Absence of craving
Tejas: Vigour
Kshama: Forgiveness
Dhriti: Fortitude
Soucham: Cleanliness
Adroham: Freedom from envy
Natimanita: Absence of self esteem
The ‘demonic’ qualities one should aim to get rid of are:
Dhamba: Pride
Darpa: Arrogance
Abhimanam: Conceit
Krodha: Anger
Parushyam: Sternness
Ajnanam: Ignorance
 Yoga the best tool for Personality Deveopment
Yoga is aptly fitted, for holistic personality development, because its tools are varied
and integrated. ‘Asana’ practice for ‘Annamaya’, ‘Pranayama’ for ‘Pranamaya’,
‘Svadhyaya’ or Study of scriptures for ‘Manomaya’, and ‘Vigyanamaya’ and
‘Isvarapranidhana’ for ‘Anandamaya’.
While the practice for everyone could differ from one to another, there are some ancient
methods which have been handed over from time immemorial. One such practice,
which aims at ‘holistic personality development’, is the ‘Sandhyavandanam’, the prayer
to Sun.
The word ‘Sandhyavandanam’ is split as ‘sandhya+vandanam’. ‘Sandhya” is the name
of ‘Sun God’ and ‘Vandanam’ means to ‘prostrate’. There are at least 22 steps, which
has ‘asana’, ‘pranayama’, ‘nyasa’. ‘mudra’, and ‘japa’.
There are a number of vedic mantras used in the ‘Sandhyavandanam’, but the main
mantra which is used for ‘japa’ is ‘Gayatri Mantra’.
The ‘Gayatri Mantra’ is:
“Om hurbhuvassuvah tatsaviturvareniyam bhargodevasyadeemahi
dhiyoyonapprachodayat”
The brief meaning is:
“Let me meditate on the effulgence of the Supreme Being in the Sun, which kindles our
intellect.”

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The concept behind this Mantra meaning is that all our actions lead us to happiness or
sorrow and behind the actions is the intellect. If the intellect is clear and is bereft of the
impurities of selfishness, greed and lust, our actions will always lead us to happiness.
Sun is considered as the ‘visible God’ (pratyaksha devata) the provider of life to the
Universe. Sun is responsible for all the development in the Universe.
The highest knowledge is that which takes one towards the Supreme Being and that is
‘Brahma Vidya’. The best form of meditation which qualifies one for enquiry into the
Supreme Being is Sandhyavandanam.
The holistic development should aim at making human being divine. Such a
development will make one realize divinity in the ‘self’ and in every aspect of the
Universe at large. There is total love and that brings the eternal peace.
# Personality Developmentin primary and secondary level:
Schools are the second home for children. The way in which their personalities
mould depends not only on the parental upbringing but also on the way they are evolved
in their school lives. Imparting just the bookish knowledge makes the student dumb and
insecure when it comes to challenging the competitive world. Steps are being taken in
some private and missionary schools, but reaching out to every corner of the country is a
matter of concern. Now the question arises that what reforms can be brought about to
inculcate the triggering of child personality development at school.
Firstly, one needs to realize the apparent meaning of child personality
development. Personality means the set of qualities which makes a person distinct from
the other. When such qualities emerge in the growing age of children, it is known as child
personality development. Now when the pace of the world is advancing, it has become
very crucial to make your child stand out from the rest and be unique. So how can this be
achieved? The answer is simple. It has got to be worked out at the root level to bring the
best out of them. Therefore, the development of a child in a way he/she becomes socially,
morally, and ethically progressive is the need of the hour. The way in which schools
respond to this context matters a lot. If the focus is just on grades and marks, there is a
possibility that the quality of students would be limited. An ideal school is the one which
focuses on both the studies as well as co-curricular activities to enhance their thinking
ability. It’s not important to tell them the answers to the problems; rather it’s important to
teach them how to hunt for the answers. Incorporating the logics in the mind of children
would make them smart and productive.
Some of the strategies that can be undertaken by the schools to help achieve overall
development of children are as follows:
The pre and primary school role:
The roles played by the preschools and primary schools have great significance over a
child’s personality development. It is therefore required to improvise the method of
imparting knowledge in them. Apart from games, organizing cultural programs, learning

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disciplinary tasks, clay modelling, celebrating national and international festivals at school
and upholding various competitions, there are points which often go neglected. These
include the assessment of children based on how they are able to interact with their
teacher and also among themselves and helping them understand the perks of learning
things so that they become active participants. Sports activities which build up their
presence of mind must be part of their regular activities. Children must be taught to get
rid of their stage-phobia from the very childhood.
The Secondary education role:
After a child finishes the primary education, most of the developments will have already
taken place. But there are certain things which can only be taken care of during this
phase. Here, it the role of the schools to make the children self-confident and motivated
towards their prime goals. Regular workshops and seminars can be used as a platform
to gain and share information. The ethics taught in school remains lifelong. So things like
valuing life, caring for animals, respecting cultural diversity and religions should be
positively fed into their hearts and minds.
Some basic qualities like being humble, polite, non-gullible and generous should be
taught in special classes of value-education. A period should be separately allocated for
group discussions on various topics which can improve their intellectual skills and
groupism. Lessons on music, art, craft, yoga and physical education should be given to
one and all, right from the kindergartens. Proper nurturing by the school faculty can do
wonders to the child development from a very appropriate age. It’s high time that the
school administrations adopt the effective learning to ensure the quality development of
its students and hence the future of our country.
#References:
i. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology
ii. https://lindasyoga.com/2012/04/12/personality-according-to-ancient-indian-
teachings/
iii. https://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-rogers.html
iv. https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3AEwqIOevSIbwJ%
3Ahttps%3A%2F%2Fawayofhappinessblog.wordpress.com%2F2017%2F07%2F
28%2Fchild-personality-development-in-school
v. %2F%20&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=bd
vi. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality
vii. Shikkahy monobiggan - mohammad najmul hoque, Sayra hosen, Md Ahsan
habib
viii. Shikkha monobiggan O nirdeshona – D. Shadhon kumar bisshawas, Sunita
bisshawas
ix. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201205/the-10-
personality-disorders
x. https://www.simplypsychology.org/personality-a.html

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