The paper discusses the role of HRD ministry, UGC and other state legislations influencing Higher Education Scenario in India. The paper also discusses the role of Private Universities in India
Indian higher education system, growth and regulatory bodies, Governance and role of Vice chancellors, Autonomy, University industry linkage,problems and lacunae of Indian Higher education .
Paper presentation made by Maddali Laxmi Swetha, MBA (HR)
Maddali Swetha Blog - http://maddaliswetha.blogspot.com/ https://in.linkedin.com/in/maddali-swetha-a0a424a6
https://twitter.com/maddali_swetha
E-Mail ID: maddali_swetha@yahoo.com
Thank You
Privatization in Education and its impact on Indian SociertRushita Thakkar
Details of why Privatization occurred in Education, its effects, pros and cons, the comparison between private and public sector in education, economic perspectives etc.
Indian higher education system, growth and regulatory bodies, Governance and role of Vice chancellors, Autonomy, University industry linkage,problems and lacunae of Indian Higher education .
Paper presentation made by Maddali Laxmi Swetha, MBA (HR)
Maddali Swetha Blog - http://maddaliswetha.blogspot.com/ https://in.linkedin.com/in/maddali-swetha-a0a424a6
https://twitter.com/maddali_swetha
E-Mail ID: maddali_swetha@yahoo.com
Thank You
Privatization in Education and its impact on Indian SociertRushita Thakkar
Details of why Privatization occurred in Education, its effects, pros and cons, the comparison between private and public sector in education, economic perspectives etc.
The National Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020), which was approved by the Union Cabinet of India on 29 July 2020, outlines the vision of India's new education system
Education is the manifestation of the perfection already in man.”
- Swami Vivekananda
Indigenous Education.
Our goal should be making education for all free of cost.
Commercialization of Education.
Government Funding.
Corporate Funding.
Funding from Society.
Good Governance and Transparency in Education.
Education Loan.
Technology Enabled Learning (TEL).
Bridging Social Gaps.
Learning with earning.
WE want the Education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the intellect is expanded, an by which one can stand on one's own feet.
Muhammad Tahir Rabbani is well-renowned teacher, trainer,parenting coach,writer, an inspirational speaker and leader, a success coach and a practical educationist of Pakistan.
Status of Higher Education in India: Achievement and Challengesijtsrd
Higher education is an important part of the era of science and technology. In modern world, it plays an important role to transform human beings into modern human resources. Immense increase in Higher education institutions is also a challenge to our government. In India, a number of the higher educational institutions are not well mapped out, maximum which are not providing the quality education. There are many drawbacks in our higher education system, as a result many problems are faced by the students as well as teachers and common people. Under certain circumstances it is seen that access and equity is a big challenge to the government. The paper highlights the attainments and challenges in higher education and tries to find out the problems in the light of some aspects. Dr. Nain Singh | Prem Pal"Status of Higher Education in India: Achievement and Challenges" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-1 , December 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd5882.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/5882/status-of-higher-education-in-india-achievement-and-challenges/dr-nain-singh
The higher education market in India accounts for a substantial share of the total education in India. This segment is estimated to be worth INR 6.5 bn and is expected to be growing at 12% per annum. This space has seen large scale public and private participation. The government has undertaken various initiatives towards developing the market. The growth in the student population is fuelling growth in this sector.
The report begins with an introduction to the higher education industry covering the various regulatory bodies and councils that exist in this space including their functions with respect to specific courses. The overview section indicates the market size and growth of the higher education sector and institutions in this space as well as information regarding market segmentation. The intake of students across India for various courses has also been mentioned. The current scenario in India has been discussed covering the fundamental shortcomings in the market, low gross enrolment ratio, low public spending, not-for-profit mandate of the government and the approach adopted by private players, lack of co-operation between public and private sector and lack of large players in the market.
The key initiatives of the government identified include the introduction of National Commission for Higher Education and Research (NCHER), Foreign Educational Institutions Bill of 2007, provisions for higher education under the 11th Five Year Plan and passing of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Bill. An analysis of the drivers explains growth factors such as growing middle class with the ability to afford a private education, India’s demographic advantages, poor perception towards alternative education streams, growing private players due to large demand-supply gap and expenditure on foreign education.
The competition section highlights the major private players including their business focus and expansion plans.
The National Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020), which was approved by the Union Cabinet of India on 29 July 2020, outlines the vision of India's new education system
Education is the manifestation of the perfection already in man.”
- Swami Vivekananda
Indigenous Education.
Our goal should be making education for all free of cost.
Commercialization of Education.
Government Funding.
Corporate Funding.
Funding from Society.
Good Governance and Transparency in Education.
Education Loan.
Technology Enabled Learning (TEL).
Bridging Social Gaps.
Learning with earning.
WE want the Education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the intellect is expanded, an by which one can stand on one's own feet.
Muhammad Tahir Rabbani is well-renowned teacher, trainer,parenting coach,writer, an inspirational speaker and leader, a success coach and a practical educationist of Pakistan.
Status of Higher Education in India: Achievement and Challengesijtsrd
Higher education is an important part of the era of science and technology. In modern world, it plays an important role to transform human beings into modern human resources. Immense increase in Higher education institutions is also a challenge to our government. In India, a number of the higher educational institutions are not well mapped out, maximum which are not providing the quality education. There are many drawbacks in our higher education system, as a result many problems are faced by the students as well as teachers and common people. Under certain circumstances it is seen that access and equity is a big challenge to the government. The paper highlights the attainments and challenges in higher education and tries to find out the problems in the light of some aspects. Dr. Nain Singh | Prem Pal"Status of Higher Education in India: Achievement and Challenges" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-1 , December 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd5882.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/5882/status-of-higher-education-in-india-achievement-and-challenges/dr-nain-singh
The higher education market in India accounts for a substantial share of the total education in India. This segment is estimated to be worth INR 6.5 bn and is expected to be growing at 12% per annum. This space has seen large scale public and private participation. The government has undertaken various initiatives towards developing the market. The growth in the student population is fuelling growth in this sector.
The report begins with an introduction to the higher education industry covering the various regulatory bodies and councils that exist in this space including their functions with respect to specific courses. The overview section indicates the market size and growth of the higher education sector and institutions in this space as well as information regarding market segmentation. The intake of students across India for various courses has also been mentioned. The current scenario in India has been discussed covering the fundamental shortcomings in the market, low gross enrolment ratio, low public spending, not-for-profit mandate of the government and the approach adopted by private players, lack of co-operation between public and private sector and lack of large players in the market.
The key initiatives of the government identified include the introduction of National Commission for Higher Education and Research (NCHER), Foreign Educational Institutions Bill of 2007, provisions for higher education under the 11th Five Year Plan and passing of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Bill. An analysis of the drivers explains growth factors such as growing middle class with the ability to afford a private education, India’s demographic advantages, poor perception towards alternative education streams, growing private players due to large demand-supply gap and expenditure on foreign education.
The competition section highlights the major private players including their business focus and expansion plans.
This paper was released by Devesh Kapur, University of Pennsylvania and Pratap Bhanu Mehta, Centre for Policy Research.
This paper analyzes two interrelated facets of Higher Education policy in India: the key distortions in higher education policies and what explains them. It first sets the stage by laying out the principal conceptual issues that need to be considered when thinking about an appropriate policy framework for higher education in India. It then examines three key distortions in Indian higher education with regards to markets, the state and civil society (philanthropy). The next part of the paper examines the political economy of Indian higher (tertiary) education and seeks to explain the ideological and political underpinnings of these distortions and how they work in practice. We conclude with some indicative some policy directions for Indian higher education. The purpose of this exercise is not to make detailed policy recommendations, but rather to flag the kinds of issues that ought to be addressed.
The key argument of this section of the paper is twofold. The first is that higher education in India is being de facto privatized on a massive scale.2 But this privatization is not a result of changing preferences of the key actors—the state, the judiciary or India’s propertied classes. Rather, this privatization has resulted from a breakdown of the state system. As a result, it is a form of privatization in which ideological and institutional underpinnings remain very weak. Instead of being part of a comprehensive program of education reform, much of the private initiative remains hostage to the discretionary actions of the state. Consequently, the education system remains suspended between over-regulation by the state on the one hand, and a discretionary privatization that is unable to mobilize private capital in productive ways. Any policy intervention, if it is to succeed will have to change this political economy equilibrium. However, vicious circles of interest will impede reform, whether of public or private institutions. We focus on the political economy not just because it explains the current regulatory regime. This political economy also explains why even conceptualization of issues in Higher Education is likely to remain distorted for some time.
This report analyses the current regulatory framework of higher education in India and highlights areas that require important policy reforms in order to encourage greater private participation. This participation would eventually lead to a more competitive environment in the higher education sector and foster growth, which is needed to achieve the target of 10% increase in Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) set by the 12th Five Year Plan (FYP).
'Higher Education in India: A snapshot'
As a part of Sannam S4 research team, I have analysed the Educational Statistics of India: At a glance (2013-14) report published by Ministry of Human Resources Development of India and has published the key findings for the benefit of our education clients
This presentation examines the structure of higher education in India and the mechanisms of its regulation. It also captures future trends of Indian higher education.
Private higher education is recently new to India. However, it faces a host of problems. The presentation also provides strategies for the effectiveness of private universities.
This presentation was part of a special panel organized by the CSAMES & International Program at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign including Indian Consul General Mukta D.Tomar; Prof. P.R. Kumar, Electrical and Computer Engineering ; Prof. Madhu Viswanathan, Business Administration; Mousumi Mukherjee, Doctoral student in the Department of Educational Policy Studies http://illinois.edu/calendar/Calendar?ACTION=VIEW_EVENT&calId=779&eventId=196292
An Analysis Of the Union Budget from 2010- 2015 Education SectorSneha J Chouhan
This presentation explains about the Highlights of the Indian Union Budget for 5 years in the education sector and its impact.
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www.spaaindia.in
Khelega India Khilega India
Certificate in Sports Management
SPAA India has a copyright in developing UG and PG courses in sports management.
Dr. Devendra Arora and Team worked on this program since last 7 years with 7 dedicated professors. they awarded Copyright from registrar of copyright, ministry of higher education under ministry of human resource development(MHRD) New Delhi India.
Sports Academy Association of India (SPAA) is architect for developing sports education in India. Team SPAA developed course curriculum in UG and PG program in Sports Management and have Copyright from Registrar of Copy right, Ministry of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource development. Registration number ( 56416-6115/2014-2015) owner name is Dr. Devendra Arora and a team of professors
India is rich in Educational Infrastructure, Intellectual Capital and has the largest Youth power in the world. IPL, HPL. Kabbadi, Boxing , Badminton , Wrestling, Cricket, and many more premium league Sports Teams, generate plenty of opportunities for youngsters in the area of Sports Events. It has become a billion dollar industry in last 7 years .With National & International Championships organized by Various nations , entire world has become a small sports village to promote traditional games of each other . Sports events are frequently organized by many countries, which helps to increase revenue from tourism and contribute towards a GDP of a Nation.
In India we have Youth power, and most of the students who have passed 12th want to play and participate in Various Sports activities. SPPA having observed all these factors has developed Professional Employable Graduate Program for MASS YOUTH of India
.After theses program they will be able to become Professional Sports Event Organizers at International Platform. (INTEREST + ENERGY will help them to grow their career in Sports Events Industry)
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN SPORTS MANGEMENT
SPAA- DDA AND UNIVERSITIES takes upmost care to provide the students with the latest knowledge in sports. While we at DDA also take care that the students get placed in good companies. DDA provides guidance to students after they complete their courses in order to secure appropriate jobs.
There are over 10000 sports management, sports event management and other sports products related companies in India, where students can apply for jobs for various profiles, after completing the courses offered by DDA.
The successful completion of these courses would enable participants to take active part in the organization of Sports events at the National and International level, IT companies sports events.
Participants will get jobs / assignments as Managers and Coordinators in organizing different Sports events at various Clubs / Associations / Federations.
Participants will get jobs in Gymnasiums, Sport Academies, and Sport Departments in IT Companies, Educational Institutes/Schools/Colleges/ Universities.
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The issues and challenges in Higher Education Sector in India
1. Hewlett-Packard | [Type the company address]
0
Understanding the Status
of Higher Education in
India: Challenges and
Scepticism towards
Serious Investments in
the Sector
January 27, 2015
ABSTRACT
The paper examines the higher
education scenario in India and attempts
to point out why very few serious
investors invest in higher educational
sector. Several factors are responsible
for this. Primary among these are the
legal and legislative hurdles in several
federal states. It is also seen that the bad
precedent set by the existing institutions
dissuade serious investments.
These factors have led to specific
problems for serious investors in this
sector in India. The paper identifies
these problems and suggests that a
possible change in perception towards
higher education would be most desired
in the current milieu. Certain contours
of change in perception are identified.
D. Dhanuraj and Rahul V. Kumar
Centre for Public Policy Research
Centre for Public Policy Research
2. Centre for Public Policy Research
1 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India: Challenges and
Scepticism towards Serious Investments in the Sector
Introduction
A. The Higher Educational Infrastructure in India
Figure 1 shows the spectrum of higher educational institutions in India. Higher education in
India is provided by five groups of institutions: Central, state, private, deemed universitiesi
and „Institutions of National Importance‟.ii
There are 52 such institutions. They
predominantly consist of the Indian Institutes of Technology, National Institutes of
Technology and prominent medical colleges, including the All India Institute of Medical
Science. There are 43 central universities, 312 state universities, 183 private universities and
115 deemed universities in India as listed by the University Grants Commission (UGC), the
apex regulatory body for higher education.iii
All the above university groups are legally entitled to grant degrees. State universities are the
only institutions that are allowed to affiliate private as well as public colleges under them.
However, these colleges are allowed to operate only within the individual federal state
borders. Private colleges offering professional courses, which match specific needs of a
sector or industry, are often affiliated to state universities. It is difficult to estimate the total
number of colleges in various federal states. However, affiliated colleges which are provided
grants by the UGC are listed on its website. These colleges are called 2f and 12 b colleges.
According to the latest figures, there are approximately 9,195 such affiliated colleges in India
supported by the UGC. The federal states of Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra have the
maximum number of affiliated colleges numbering 1,677 and 1,185 respectively. Karnataka
(766), Chattisgarh (488), Gujarat (486), Tamil Nadu (468), and West Bengal (433) too have
large number of affiliated colleges under their federal state universities. While private
universities do not have affiliated colleges, these universities also offer professional as well
as regular courses in it.
3. Centre for Public Policy Research
2 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
Figure 1: Universe of Higher Educational Institutions in India
The Ministry of Human Resources Development notes that since 1950 until 2009, university
and university level institutions in India have increased approximately 18 times (from 27 in
1950 to 504 in 2009). Despite this increase, the required capacity remains much higher.
Conservative estimates showed that by 2006 India required “at least 3,000 more universities
each having the capacity to enrol not less than 10,000 students” to meet its demands
(Bhargava, 2006).iv
By mid-2000 Private investments in higher education was already becoming an alternative
route to meet this demand. The number of privately funded institutions for higher education
increased from approximately 43 per cent in 2000-01 to approximately 64 per cent in 2005-
06. Gross enrolment in these institutions increased during the same period from
approximately 33 per cent to 52 per cent during the same period (Prakash, 2009, 3254).
Universities in India
Institutions allowed to
grant degrees
Central State Private Deemed National Importance
Act of Parliament
Under
Department of
Higher Education
MHRD
Federal State
Legislation
Federal State
Legislation
Under
Department of
Higher
Education
MHRD
Under
Department of
Higher
Education
MHRD
Provides Degrees
to Courses
Offered at
Affiliated
Colleges
Not Legally
Permitted to
Establish
Affiliated
Colleges
Not Legally
Permitted to
Establish
Affiliated
Colleges
Do not have
Affiliated
Colleges but
provides Degrees
to course offered
at selected
institutions.
4. Centre for Public Policy Research
3 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
B. Legislations and Institutional Regulations in Higher Education
In India, education is in the concurrent list, where federal states and the central government
share responsibilities.v
Until recently, legislations in higher education prohibited profit
making in the sector. Higher education was defined as a not-for-profit sector. Private
investments were to be made by sponsoring bodies that had to be a “Society registered under
the Societies Registration Act 1860, or any other corresponding law for the time being in
force in a state, or a public trust or a company registered under Section 25 of the Companies
Act, 1956.”vi
The State provided for tax exemptions for donations made to this sector
(Loomba, 2014).vii
It was only during the Twelfth Five Year Plan in India (2012-2017) that
the state considered re-evaluating this status of higher education in India.viii
However, until
recently there has been no clarity on how this suggestion would be implemented.
A 100 per cent Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is promoted in higher education through the
automatic route which requires no prior approval from the state. However, the regulatory
environment prescribes several conditions for foreign universities including fixing of fees, or
the need of foreign institutions to affiliate with an Indian counterpart, which has dissuaded
investments.ix
The nodal ministry for education in India is the Ministry of Human Resource Development
(MHRD). The MHRD has a Department of Higher education which is the apex department
“for the overall development of the basic infrastructure of Higher Education sector”.x
The
University Grants Commission (UGC) under the Department of Higher Education in the
MHRD acts as the coordinator as well as prescriber of standards for education in the country.
UGC, established by an Act of parliament in 1956, is a statutory body of the Government of
India. UGC has its head office in New Delhi and six regional centres (Pune, Hyderabad,
Kolkata, Bhopal, Guwahati and Bengaluru) to cater to various regions in the country and it
has the following mandates:
Promoting and coordinating university education.
Determining and maintaining standards of teaching, examination and research in
universities.
Framing regulations on minimum standards of education.
Monitoring developments in the field of collegiate and university education;
disbursing grants to universities and colleges.
5. Centre for Public Policy Research
4 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
Serving as a vital link between the Union and state governments and institutions of
higher learning.
Advising the central and state governments on the measures necessary for
improvement of university education.xi
This mandate makes the UGC a major regulator of higher education in India. However, the
regulatory environment is not limited to the UGC alone. All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE), Department of Electronics Accreditation of Computer Courses
(DOEACC), Distance Education Council (DEC), Indian Council for Agricultural Research
(ICAR), Bar Council of India (BCI), National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE),
Rehabilitation Council of India, Medical Council of India, Pharmacy Council of India (PCI)
Indian Nursing Council (INC), Dentist Council of India (DCI), Central Council of
Homeopathy (CCH), Central Council of Indian Medicine, Council for Architecture, National
Council for Rural Institute, and State Councils for Higher Education together decide the
quality of higher educational institutions in India. Despite this regulatory environment, the
Indian judiciary has been constantly involved in defining private investments in higher
education indicating the inadequacy of the present regulatory system.xii
.
C. Accreditation
Accreditation of higher educational institutions in India has remained a contentious issue.
Several autonomous bodies function to grant accreditation. Foremost among them are the
National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), and the National Board of
Accreditation (NBA). Accreditation of higher educational institutions was made mandatory
under UGC (Mandatory Assessment and Accreditation of higher Educational Institutions)
Regulations, 2012. The institutions are accredited for a period of five years and this status
was tied to the funds which they would receive from the UGC.
Accreditations are also made mandatory for any higher educational institutions to receive the
title of a university. There is an increasing requirement to expand accrediting institutions to
keep pace with the growing number of higher educational institutions.xiii
The NAAC was
established to operate under the UGC in 1994 to maintain the quality of higher educational
institutions in India. For technical education under the AICTE, the NBA was established
during the same year. The major problem which stymied the functioning of these institutions
providing accreditation were their dependence and existence as appendages to the regulators
6. Centre for Public Policy Research
5 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
(UGC and AICTE). The situation continued for nearly a decade before the NBA separated
and became independent from the AICTE. However, NAAC has until very recently remained
part of the UGC. The process of separation is currently being decided.xiv
Observations
1. There is a huge requirement for higher educational institutions in India. Private
investments were considered the answer to this requirement and have become vital
since 2000.
2. There is continuous involvement from the judiciary to decide the trajectory of private
higher educational institutions. This indicates that the regulatory and legislative
environment is ill-equipped to meet the growing private sector.
3. The regulatory environment dominated by the UGC is directly influenced by the
federal government. This has implications on its independent functioning. In addition
accreditation institutions are more or less appendages of the UGC which in turn
affects its independence.
Private Sector in Higher Education: Prevailing Scepticism
The higher educational sector, until the entry of private investors, was dominated by state- led
institutions. With the entry of private investors to this sector there was a noticeable failure to
improve the existing regulatory requirements to accommodate them. This led to incompetent
players and illegal practices. It was some time before this was recognised and measures were
adopted to counteract them.
The prevailing scepticism faced by the sector owes much to the dominance of such players.
Starting from 2002, a series of incidents were reported in private higher educational
institutions in India which revealed corruption, cronyism, rifts in the manner of its
functioning and compromise with quality. The federal state of Chattisgarh was one of the first
where private universities were legally challenged. The Supreme Court challenged provisions
in the Chattisgarh Private Sector University Act (2002) allowing for a proliferation of private
universities in the state; 112 private universities in the state were declared void and
unconstitutional by the Court in 2005.xv
This opened up a gamut of issues on the operation of
these universities. As a follow-up to regulating and monitoring the standards of these
institutions, a series of steps were adopted by the UGC, under the privileges it held (UGC Act
1956) which were reiterated by the Court ruling in Chhattisgarh. The guidelines were set
7. Centre for Public Policy Research
6 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
primarily under the UGC (Establishment of and Maintenance of Standards in Private
Universities) Regulation, 2003.
A. Allegations against Private Colleges and Deemed Universities
Following the issue in Chattisgarh, media reports indicated that the condition of other
affiliated private colleges and universities across India were not very different. Several
serious allegations and exposures were made against these institutions. These incidents posed
questions on the ability of these institutions to offer a professional and competitive
environment. This was also a pointer towards the ailing higher educational institutions in
India. Some prominent issues over the period since 2002 had a negative impact on the status
of private sector providers of higher education. Selected incidents are noted below.
a. Arbitrary nature of fees collected in private medical colleges in Chennai (capital of
the southern federal state of Tamil Nadu) in 2009, also led to exposure of the family
fiefdom that deemed universities had become. It showed that most of the family
members who held influential positions in these universities worked with honorary
decorates earned from foreign universities.xvi
This issue reopened questions on the
credentials of investors in the sectors.
b. It was reported that entrance to these deemed medical and engineering colleges in
India were mostly made through the offer of „capitation fees‟ paid in cash. The fee
ranged from USD 100,000 to 200,000. The southern federal states of India were
notorious for the prevalence of this system. In Tamil Nadu, there were 16 blacklisted
universities while in Karnataka there were six.xvii
There have also been reports that in
the eastern federal state of West Bengal similar amounts were collected from students
admitted to medical colleges.xviii
c. Entrance of students to these institutions also took place through what is defined as
management quotas. The fee charged under this can be as high as 40-50 per cent of
the existing fees.xix
d. Proliferation of these deemed universities led to the constitution of a Central
government panel xx
which recommended blacklisting of 44 deemed universities in
2010. This included 31 private universities and 13 public institutions. Approximately
200,000 students were studying in these institutions. This case is pending before the
Supreme Court.xxi
8. Centre for Public Policy Research
7 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
e. State universities (deemed, as well as private), which were restricted by law to set up
institutions beyond their borders, developed an innovative model where they started
several franchises across the country. This model of franchising led to awarding
degrees to several students without evaluations.xxii
This was done with the help of
consultancy firms which offered to start study centres across the country. The fee
charged at these centres for specific courses were 5 to 20 times the usual rates. Over
time, some of these centres were almost selling degrees for a price.xxiii
f. In a very recent expose, violations and malpractices were discovered under colleges
affiliated to the Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha (GGSIP) University, New Delhi. It
is reported that colleges under this university are ill equipped to organise courses.xxiv
Violations of all norms in education have also been reported in the federal state of
Madhya Pradesh where university officials have been arrested over the sex-for-marks
scandal in Rani Durgavati Vishwavidyalaya (RDVV) in Jabalpur.xxv
g. The number of affiliated colleges in federal state universities have been dramatically
increasing. This made it difficult for the state universities to manage these colleges
and ensure quality of output.xxvi
The federal government as part of its 12th
Five Year
Plan came up with different options to revamp the affiliation system. However, no
concrete development has occurred so far.xxvii
B. Issues Plaguing the Private University System in India
The spread of private investment in higher education in India reflects a pattern. While private
colleges providing professional courses in medical and engineering fields abound in the
southern federal states, the northern federal states have more investors in universities. The
southern states are conspicuous in the absence of private universities. Private universities are
enacted through legislations at the level of the federal states. The southern states have stood
firmly against bringing such legislations although the requirements in enrolment for higher
education remain high. Recent efforts in Kerala to bring out a legislation was turned down by
the state government.xxviii
However, it should be noted that the number of deemed universities
have been relatively high in the southern federal states.xxix
Some observations on the private
universities across India are noteworthy.
a) Not all federal states allow private universities: Federal states with high literacy rates
have not issued legislation favouring establishment of private universities. Only
9. Centre for Public Policy Research
8 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
Mizoram and Tripura are exceptions to this feature. The reason behind this remains
unexplored. However, discussion with practitioners in the field reveals that these
decisions are based on political considerations.
b) Northern federal states and states with low achievements in primary and secondary
education have more private universities. Most of the northern federal states have
enacted legislations favouring private universities. Twenty states in India has private
universities enacted through state legislations. Out of these, 13 states have relatively
low literacy levels compared to the rest of India.
c) Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh have maximum number of Private Universities: Out of
these 13 states, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh are noteworthy. They rank 29 and 33
with respect to the literacy levels achieved. The literacy levels in these federal states
are approximately 67 and 69 per cent respectively. This roughly indicates the status of
primary and secondary education levels in these states. If these states are not
concerned with the low levels of achievement in primary education even as they
promote private universities, it could be indicative that are using the sector to generate
revenue.
d) Cronyism is prevalent in these institutions: If we take the specific case of Uttar
Pradesh, we find that in all the 21 private universities in the state, politicians have an
active stake in the management of seven. Another seven universities have
businessmen holding key positions. In at least one of these universities, the vice
chancellor and his relatives have been accused of rape and murder of one of their
students. Thirteen of the private universities do not have any accreditation till date.
Identifying the Problems in Higher Educational Institutions in India
What is noticed in higher education in India is that much of the issues reported have occurred
at colleges and universities (deemed and private) which are controlled by federal state
legislations. This indicates that there are severe issues in how the federal state promote and
manage these higher educational institutions. It is also indicative from the above observations
that the regulatory environment was least proactive to limit the number of such incidents. In
addition, repeated occurrences of such incidents question the accreditation practices existing
in India. The outreach of the existing regulatory structures seems to have been bypassed in
the federal states.
10. Centre for Public Policy Research
9 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
The following broad problems are identified as constraints to expanding the higher
educational infrastructure in India. These problems are classified under the three categories of
Regulatory, Institutional and Decision making
Regulatory
Problem 1: The regulatory environment and the existing system of accreditation in India has
proved to be inefficient in the sector. There are two issues here.
a) Centralisation of regulatory and accrediting institutions: Regulation and accreditation
in India are centralised with poor outreach in the federal states. There is a significant
requirement for expanding the reach of accrediting institutions across the country for
keeping pace with the growing number of higher educational institutions.xxx
The
dependence and existence of accrediting institutions as appendages to the regulators
stymied its functioning. The process of separation is currently being decided.xxxi
b) Corrupt practices within regulatory agencies: Corruption by officials of UGC and
AICTE has often been reported in the various federal states.xxxii
In addition to the
UGC and AICTE, there exist a number of statutory professional councils which act as
regulators of higher educational institutions. However, the functioning of some of
these councils like the Medical Council of India (MCI) was questionable. In 2010 the
president of MCI was arrested for allegedly taking bribes to give recognition to
private medical colleges. The inefficient legal structures guiding these organisations
are reflected in the fact that the same person was taken on board a few years later.xxxiii
In an attempt to standardize medical education in India the National Commission for
Human Resources for Health (NCHRH) Bill, 2011, was introduced in the parliament.
The bill proposed to dismantle the existing professional councils with an overarching
regulatory body. In view of concerns raised by the federal states the bill was rejected
seeking further recommendations.xxxiv
There is no effective mechanism to challenge
corruption in these institutions. The National Accreditation Regulatory Authority for
Higher Educational Institutions Bill (2010) which is still pending debates in
Parliament is a necessary start towards these issues.xxxv
The situation reflects
inefficiency and indecisiveness in managing the sector.
11. Centre for Public Policy Research
10 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
Problem 2: Ambiguous Legislations at the Federal State level.
The not-for-profit model in higher education in India is often considered a hurdle to attract
serious players. A for-profit-model is argued to make investments more legible in an
accounting sense and thereby expanding the tax base in the state. It is also argued that this
model would further the linkage between the academia and industry. In furthering
competition, entrepreneurs are expected to take proactive and innovative steps to further the
development in the sector. The inherent delays in the bureaucratic system will also be
eliminated under a competitive environment (Loomba, 2014, 236-240). The present system
does not allow for any of these advantages.
Legislations required for establishing private universities further highlights ambiguities in
legislations at the federal states. Separate state Acts are required to create private universities
across federal states in India. Across states in India where private universities exist, there is
no transparent and comprehensive legislation for these universities. Instead each of these
universities are formed through separate Acts. In some cases like Rajasthan, there is a general
guideline for establishing a university. However, there are significant loopholes in this. In
Uttar Pradesh, which has 21 private universities, each registered under separate acts without
any uniform guideline or a comprehensive law to govern them. Some examples of these state
legislations for selected universities in UP are noted below. These are reported in the
university websites and have been reproduced as such to highlight the issue.
1. "Mangalayatan University, Uttar Pradesh Act" and notified by the Government of
Uttar Pradesh as Act No. 32 of 2006, by its Gazette No. 362/VII-V-1-1(Ka)-
12/2006 dated October 30, 2006
2. Mohammad Ali Jauhar University Act 2005 (UP Act no 19 of 2006)
Notification No. 710/17-2005 VII – V -1 – 1 – (Ka) dated 19.6.2006
3. Invertis University, Uttar Pradesh has been established as a State Private
University at Bareilly by Act No. 5 of 2009 State Legislature of Uttar Pradesh;
With reference to State Government notification no 1105(2)/LXXIX-V-1-10-
1(Ka)29-2009 Dated 1 Sep 2010, on the above subject, UGC is directed to say by
reference no 8-23/2010(CPP-I/PU) Dated 7 Feb 2011 that Invertis University
,Bareilly has been established by an Act(No22 of 2010) of state legislature of
Uttar Pradesh as a State Private University
12. Centre for Public Policy Research
11 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
4. The Noida International University is a UGC (University Grants Commission)
recognised university and is sponsored by the Maruti Educational Trust. It was
given the status of a university by the Government of Uttar Pradesh vide
notification No. 1108/79-vi-1-10-1 (Ka) 23-10 Lucknow, dated October 12, 2010,
Act No. 27 of 2010
5. Monad University, Hapur has been established vide Act No.23 of 2010 of the
Government of Uttar Pradesh. This has been published in its Official Gazette on
October 12, 2010
These descriptions are not only confusing but are also opaque. While these Acts could
indicate that these universities are legal, other details of these separate Acts are unavailable.
Some of these Acts are also confusing; as in the case of Invertis University. Such
heterogeneity of legislations make us question the implications of these legislation if the
attempt is to standardise the higher educational infrastructure in India.
Separate legislations for each university lack transparency and breeds cronyism and
corruption. Each state government has to frame the rules for the sector and not for individual
applicants. This endangers the basic tenants of equality before law. Since the intent is to
promote private universities (again, the state has to clarify its position in the policy) the State
has to ensure a level playing field for the competent parties. When the sector is opened up,
the objective should be to improve the quality of education, upgradation of the courses on
timely basis and availability and accessibility to higher education avenues. These guidelines
should be incorporated in the legislation rather giving space for arbitrage.
Problem 3: Ambiguous Guidelines Defined at the Federal State Level
In federal states where comprehensive guidelines exist for the creation of private universities
there are glaring loopholes. One of the most visible comprehensive guidelines for
establishing a private university is provided by the federal state of Rajasthan. The document
is titled “Guidelines for the Establishment of Private Universities by Separate Act replacing
the Rajasthan Private Universities Act, 2005”.xxxvi
These guidelines cover three stages of
entry of any player into private universities: an application stage, a stage where a government
committee approves the sponsoring body, and a compliance stage where the government
ensures that the conditions are met. While these umbrella guidelines exist there are two
factors which facilitate cronyism. The sponsoring body of private universities in this state
could evade strict monitoring under this legislation. This is because there are no clear
13. Centre for Public Policy Research
12 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
definitions on who would constitute the committee (to approve the sponsoring body‟s
proposal) and what the criteria would be for selecting this committee.
In addition, the power given to the committee to evaluate the sponsoring body‟s proposal
based on “background of the sponsoring body, that is to say its expertise and experience in
the field of education, its general reputation etc. and its commitment to follow the norms of
the regulating bodies; and potentiality of the courses proposed to be offered that is to say the
courses are able to develop the human resources as per the requirements of contemporary
demands, the courses have new features and include emerging branches of learning” are open
to questions and challenges.
Institutional
Problem 4: The Question on Affiliated Colleges
UGC regulations do not grant private universities the right to start affiliated colleges.
Affiliated colleges are allowed only under state universities. Section 2 (f) of the UGC Act
1956 regulates these colleges across the states which submit their proposals for financial
assistance from the UGC.xxxvii
Affiliated colleges under state universities provide for most of
the under-graduate education in India. The system of affiliated colleges has been identified as
increasingly becoming a burden to state universities. The Madhava Menon committee
identified these problems in the federal state of Kerala. Alternatives recommended by the
committee included providing autonomy to these colleges, or grouping them to form cluster
universities.xxxviii
The legislation for private universities do not incentivize undergraduate courses. The
existing fee structure for undergraduate programmes are relatively low. This builds a system
where private universities are keen to provide professional courses in management,
engineering or medicine where the fees charged are relatively higher.xxxix
The second problem with promoting a university system which has no incentive to promote
liberal arts, humanities, social sciences and science has much to do with defining the purpose
of education. The strength of this argument is derived from suggestions made in the Yeshpal
Committee report 2009.xl
The report notes that “there is a need to expose students, especially
at the undergraduate level, to various disciplines like humanities, social sciences, aesthetics
etc., in an integrated manner. This should be irrespective of the discipline they would like to
specialize in subsequently” (Yeshpal, 2009, 21).
14. Centre for Public Policy Research
13 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
Decision making
Problem 5: Fee Decisions made by the Federal States
Fee structures for the various courses are fixed by the federal state governments.xli
Admission
and Fee Regulatory Committees (AFRC) exist in most of the federal states to determine the
fee structures in private-professional educational institutions. There are contentions between
the state and these private institutions on whether the fee charged should be uniform across
students. The state aims at differential fee structures based on economic and social criteria.
However, the private educational institutions argue for a uniform fee structure. Private
educational institutions also point out that the AFRCs are vulnerable and easily influenced by
the federal state governments. This affects their capacity to act as independent regulatory
organisations.xlii
It has also been recognised that the fee structure can vary with factors like location,
infrastructure, or funds required to expand the institutions. Uniform fee structures are likely
to influence the functioning of private providers that require funds for these purposes. Such
regulations could restrict fund requirements and contribute to corruption and cronyism. In
affiliated colleges of state universities expenditure incurred by the federal state governments
to provide subsidised education is huge.xliii
Problem 6: Freedom to Start a Course and Design it
Section 22 of UGC Act 1956 says that, “the right of conferring or granting degrees shall be
exercised only by a University established or incorporated by or under a Central Act, a
Provincial Act or a State Act or an institution deemed to be a University under Section 3 or
an institution specially empowered by an Act of Parliament to confer or grant degrees.” This
clause has been used by the UGC to prevent academic independence of universities in India
to design and develop courses.
The UGC came up with a gazette notification on July 5, 2014 (with the approval of the
Central government) naming specific degrees („approved nomenclature‟ numbering 129)
which universities could grant for their higher educational courses. The nomenclature was
prescribed by the UGC stating that they should be “generally recognised, globally
acknowledged and widely accepted”. In this gazette publication, the UGC allows for
integrated and dual degree programmes with the freedom for “additional interactive courses”.
However, these freedoms are subject to regulations prescribed by the UGC and various
15. Centre for Public Policy Research
14 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
statutory authorities as well as political interferences. For instance, although the UGC gazette
provides options for “additional interactive courses” the existing system in the federal state of
Kerala would authorize the university syndicate to approve it. Autonomy of educational
institutions should allow these decisions to be made at the college level.
Cost of Regulating the Sector
In India, until the beginning of the 21st century, the number of people enrolled in higher
education was significantly low compared to developed and developing nations (Tilak,
1995).xliv
The strategy until then was to increase state intervention by subsidising the sector.
The inability of the state to invest „6 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for
education‟ was considered to be a major hurdle in expanding the sector. Arguably, higher
education was considered as a merit goodxlv
capable of producing inter-generational
externalities. This continued to be a justification for state involvement in the sector.
Institutions of national importance which were continually funded by the state and remained
the most prestigious were highlighted as success stories. However, the limited number of
seats in these institutions and inability of the state to replicate this success at other state-
owned higher educational institutions became obvious. Private investment in higher
education provided an alternative to the state at this point.
However, a regulated environment continues to stymie the sector. The Gross Enrolment Ratio
(GER) in higher education in India remains at approximately 14 per cent in 2010.xlvi
This
reflects the continued restricted access to higher education in the country that stands much
below global trends. A study by Ernst & Young specifically notes the role of private sector in
higher education in major countries. In the US, private institutions accounted for
approximately 40 per cent of the enrolments in 2009. For-profit institutions played an active
role in increasing this share. In Japan, private sector accounted for more than three-fourth of
the universities. The enrolments rates in these countries were far ahead of India. The state
functioned in these countries as enablers of the private sector in higher education. This
included facilitating legislations, providing subsidies to ease operating costs, or giving
student aids in for-profit institutions.
The present paper notes that private investments, ever since it‟s entry to the sector, have been
perceived with scepticism. A major reason for this was the reported cases of corruption and
cronyism in the sector. These distortions in the market were the direct result of an ill-
equipped regulatory environment. While the system remained over-regulated, governance of
16. Centre for Public Policy Research
15 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
these institutions remained inefficient. The regulatory and accrediting institutions also
functioned as appendages of the state and hence could not operate independently. In this new
environment where private players could play a major role in higher education in India it
becomes essential that they are facilitated by removing these bottlenecks.
The paper identifies six major problems in this context. Undue restrictions imposed on
private investors are likely to have a serious impact on all major stakeholders. For the
students, accessibility to higher educational institutions need to be facilitated. For the state,
the challenge would be on two fronts: the funds required to build the system and the need to
constantly improve human resources in the country. For any serious investor, entry to the
system itself pose a serious challenge. Correcting the system by addressing the problems
identified is essential to remove arbitrary involvement of the state as well as to usher in
serious investors in this field.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
i
“University Grants Commission (Institutions Deemed to be Universities) Regulation, 2010”, Refer:
http://www.ugc.ac.in/page/Deemed-Universities.aspx The Regulation defined and provided eligibility
conditions for deemed universities.
ii
In India, a university means “a University established or incorporated by or under a Central Act, a Provincial
Act or a State Act and includes any such institution as may, in consultation with the University concerned, be
recognised by the University Grants Commission (UGC) in accordance with the regulations made in this regard
under this Act.” A Private University is “A university established through a State/Central Act by a sponsoring
body viz. A Society registered under the Societies Registration Act 1860, or any other corresponding law for the
time being in force in a State or a Public Trust or a Company registered under Section 25 of the Companies Act,
1956.” Refer: http://mhrd.gov.in/overview_uni_higher_english.
iii
University Grants Commission http://www.ugc.ac.in/
iv
P. Bhargava, “Knowledge and National Development”, paper presented in the National Seminar on the
Education Commission organised by NUEPA, New Delhi from December 26-28. 2006, mimeo. in Ved Prakash
“Trends in Growth and Financing of Higher Education in India,” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 42, No.
31 (Aug. 4-10, 2007), pp. 3249-3258.
v
Education was introduced in the concurrent list following the constitutional amendment of Article 42 of the
Indian constitution in 1976.
vi
UGC (Establishment of and Maintenance of Standards in Private Universities) Regulations, 2003,
www.ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/regulations/establishment_maintenance.pdf
vii
Gayatri Loomba, “Profiteering in Higher Education in India”, 2014, Journal of Indian Law and Society, Vol.
4: Monsoon, pp. 212-246
viii
Ritika Chopra, “Plan Panel versus Sibal on profit in varsities: Twelfth plan report says higher education can
be run for profit,” Mail online India, September 23, 2012,
17. Centre for Public Policy Research
16 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome/indianews/article-2207565/Plan-Panel-versus-Sibal-Profit-Varsities-
Twelfth-plan-report-says-higher-education-run-profit.html
ix
“Education”, Overseas Indian Facilitation Centre, September 2014, http://www.oifc.in/education
x
Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resources Development, Government of India,
http://mhrd.gov.in/higher_education
xi
“Mandate”, University Grants Commission, http://www.ugc.ac.in/page/Mandate.aspx
xii
J.P. Unnikrishnan vs. State Government of Andhra Pradesh, (1993); T.M.A Pai Foundation vs. State of
Karnataka (1994); P.A. Inamdar v State of Maharashtra (2005) were some of the crucial judicial involvements
which defined the trajectory of private investment in higher education. Details of these judicial involvements
can be seen in http://indiankanoon.org/
xiii
“The UGC has made it mandatory for all colleges and universities in the country to get accredited by June 25,
2015”, The New Indian Express, January 11, 2015, https://mbcet.wordpress.com/2015/01/12/the-ugc-has-made-
it-mandatory-for-all-colleges-and-universities-in-the-country-to-get-accredited-by-june-25-2015/
xiv
Hemali Chhapia, “NAAC finally moves towards autonomy, to come out of UGC‟s shadow”, The Times of
India, July 26 2014, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/NAAC-finally-moves-towards-
autonomy-to-come-out-of-UGCs-shadow/articleshow/39010429.cms
xv
J. Venkatesan, “Supreme Court declares 112 private universities in Chattisgarh illegal”, The Hindu, February
12, 2005, http://www.thehindu.com/2005/02/12/stories/2005021205600100.htm
xvi
Raghavendra Verma, “India: Scandal results in university review”, University World News, June 21, 2009
http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090618200456244
xvii
AbhayAnand, “India‟s education system second only to politics in corruption: WikiLeaks”, India Education
Review, April 10, 2013, http://www.indiaeducationreview.com/features/indias-education-system-second-only-
politics-corruption-wikileaks,
xviii
Romita Dutta, “Private engineering, medical colleges in West Bengal under scrutiny”, Livemint, August 15.
2014, http://www.livemint.com/Politics/NFOvbfPhMDXa8mpAOZnGcK/Private-engineering-medical-
colleges-in-West-Bengal-under-s.html
xix
Anjali Nayar, “Developing world: Educating India”, Nature, 6 April, 2011
http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110406/full/472024a.html
xx
The Committee was headed by Prof. P. N. Tandon and was called the “The Committee for Review of Existing
Institutions Deemed to be Universities”. It submitted its report in 2009.
xxi
J. Venkatesan, “SC grants time to UGC till Sep. 30 to submit report on 41 deemed universities”, The Hindu,
August 22, 2014, http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/sc-grants-time-to-ugc-till-sep-30-to-submit-report-
on-41-deemed-universities/article6342464.ece
xxii
Basant Kumar Mohanty, “UGC bars franchises”, The Telegraph, June 27. 2013,
http://www.telegraphindia.com/1130627/jsp/nation/story_17053591.jsp#.VBfXce9xlOw
xxiii
Urmila Rao, “Education scam exposed: Degrees for sale!”, Yahoo Finance India, August 1, 2012,
https://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/education-scam-exposed--degrees-for-sale-.html?page=all
xxiv
Rajesh Kumar, “IP Varsity Colleges Schools for Scandal!”, The Pioneer, August 12, 2014,
http://www.dailypioneer.com/city/ip-varsity-coleges-schools-for-scandal.html
xxv
Anup Dutta, “MP govt to probe sex-for-marks scandal”, Mail Today, March 5, 2011,
http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/madhya-pradesh-government-orders-probe-into-sex-for-marks-
scandal/1/131565.html
xxvi
Isha Jain, “UGC Recommends Cap on Affiliated College Count”, The Times of India, February 28, 2012,
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/UGC-recommends-cap-on-affiliated-colleges-
count/articleshow/12064731.cms
18. Centre for Public Policy Research
17 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
xxvii
Cluster Universities, Autonomous colleges etc. have been suggested as alternatives to affiliated colleges.
Refer, Ritika Chopra, “Planning Commission to junk university affiliation system?”, Mail Today, January 11,
2012, http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/planning-commission-university-affiliation-system/1/168293.html
xxviii
“Kerala govt turns down proposal to set up private universities”, The Times of India, January 21, 2014,
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/Kerala-govt-turns-down-proposal-to-set-up-private-
varsities/articleshow/29148805.cms
xxix
“Deemed University” in University Grants Commission, http://www.ugc.ac.in/deemeduniversity.aspxThe
federal state of Tamil Nadu has 29 deemed universities, while Karnataka has 15
xxx
https://mbcet.wordpress.com/category/naac-accreditation/
xxxi
Hemali Chappia, “NAAC finally moves towards autonomy, to come out of UGC‟s shadow”, The Times of
India, July 26, 2014, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/NAAC-finally-moves-towards-
autonomy-to-come-out-of-UGCs-shadow/articleshow/39010429.cms
xxxii
Refer for instance reports on corruption in UGC and AICTE: Akshaya Mukul, “CBI raids on UGC official
over corruption", The Times of India, November 5, 2009, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/CBI-raids-
on-UGC-official-over-corruption/articleshow/5198163.cms; “Standing up against Corruption in AICTE”, I Paid
a Bribe, September 4, 2013, http://www.ipaidabribe.com/champions/standing-against-corruption-
aicte#gsc.tab=0; “AICTE officials held for corruption”, Deccan Herald, 17 July 2009,
http://www.deccanherald.com/content/14204/F; “AICTE chairman suspended over corruption case”, Indian
Express, July 30, 2009, http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/aicte-chairman-suspended-over-corruption-
case/495925/
xxxiii
Arun Ram, “Ketan Desai is back in Medical Council of India”, The Times of India, October 29, 2013,
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Ketan-Desai-is-back-in-Medical-Council-of-
India/articleshow/24841425.cms
xxxiv
Aarti Dhar, “House panel rejects bill on health education standards”, The Hindu, November 1, 2012,
http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/house-panel-rejects-bill-on-health-education-
standards/article4052713.ece
xxxv
There are various aspects in the current form of this bill which dilutes its intentions. Refer: The National
Accreditation Regulatory Authority for Higher Educational Institutions Bill, 2010, PRS Education Research,
http://www.prsindia.org/billtrack/the-national-accreditation-regulatory-authority-for-higher-educational-
institutions-bill-2010-1140/
xxxvi
Such a state level guideline is absent for most other federal states in India.
xxxvii
“Colleges from section 2 (f) and 12 (B) of the UGC Act 1956”, University Grants Commission,
http://www.ugc.ac.in/recog_College.aspx
xxxviii
“Report of the Committee on Autonomy of Colleges in Kerala”, April 2013,
http://www.kshec.kerala.gov.in/images/documents/report_autonomy_kshec.pdf
xxxix
See for instance the number of courses offered in Management and Engineering in Noida International
University in Uttar Pradesh. Refer: http://niu.edu.in/admissions/courses-offered/
xl
The Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education (2009)
xli
“Government fixes fee structure of MBA, MCA colleges”, The Times of India, October 10, 2012,
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Govt-fixes-fee-structure-of-MBA-MCA-
colleges/articleshow/16745623.cms
xlii
“HC tells govt to fix MBBS, BDS fee structure in three weeks”, The New Indian Express, May 3, 2014,
http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/HC-Tells-Govt-to-Fix-MBBS-BDS-Fee-Structure-in-
Three-Weeks/2014/05/03/article2203408.ece; Also refer the committee in the federal state of Uttar Pradesh
“Admission and Fee Regulatory Committee Uttar Pradesh” http://afrcup.in/act2.htm; “Admission
19. Centre for Public Policy Research
18 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India
Supervisory/Fee Regulatory Committee for Professional Colleges” in Kerala
http://www.asckerala.org/members
xliii
Bharath Joshi, “State spending Rs 60k on each student in Govt Engg colleges”, The New Indian Express,
April 9, 2014. http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bangalore/State-Spending-Rs-60k-on-Each-Student-in-
Govt-Engg-Colleges/2014/04/09/article2157934.ece
xliv
Jandhyala B. G. Tilak; “Funding Higher Education in India”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 30, No. 9
(Mar. 4, 1995), pp. 426-429
xlv
This raises the debate on the nature of private education: whether it is a private, a public or a merit good.
There are arguments in favour of and against each of these categorizations. Given the revolution in
communication and internet technologies, it is doubtful whether higher education can be considered as a merit
good at all which requires subsidising by the government for making it affordable and accessible to the people.
xlvi
“Private Sector Participation in Indian Higher Education, FICCI Higher Education Summit 2011”, Refer
study by Ernst & Young (2011),
http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/Private_sector_participation_in_Indian_higher_education/$FILE/P
rivate_sector_participation_in_Indian_higher_education.pdf.