The document discusses coastal ecosystems like intertidal zones, kelp forests, and the impacts of human activity. It provides background on coastal ecosystems and their importance as a food source and for tourism. Intertidal zones and kelp forests are described, including different zones and species found. The impacts of the fur trade nearly driving sea otters extinct are summarized, and how this disrupted the coastal ecosystem by allowing sea urchin populations to explode unchecked by sea otter predation. Sea otters are now described as a keystone species that help balance coastal ecosystem dynamics.
Marine ecology deals with the study of the environment and life in marine waters. It involves the study of marine organisms and their habitat. The details of marine ecosystems are given in this module.
A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail.
Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life. Whether any individual wetland performs these functions, and the degree to which it performs them, depends on characteristics of that wetland and the lands and waters near it. Wetlands occur naturally on every continent.The main wetland types are
swamp marsh bog fen
Many peatlands are wetlands. The water in wetlands is either freshwater, brackish, or saltwater.
"the conservation and wise use of wetlands by national action and international cooperation as a means to achieving sustainable development throughout the world
he Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar 1971), commonly known as Ramsar Convention, is a crucial intergovernmental treaty, with mission "Conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local, regional and natural actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world.“
The convention entered into force in Pakistan on 23 November 1976. Pakistan currently has 19 sites designated as Wetlands of International Importance
Presented by IWMI's Priyanie Amerasinghe at a World Wetlands Day dialogue: 'Getting Wetland Research into Policy & Practice' held in Colombo, Sri Lanka, on February, 2, 2018
Marine ecology deals with the study of the environment and life in marine waters. It involves the study of marine organisms and their habitat. The details of marine ecosystems are given in this module.
A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail.
Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life. Whether any individual wetland performs these functions, and the degree to which it performs them, depends on characteristics of that wetland and the lands and waters near it. Wetlands occur naturally on every continent.The main wetland types are
swamp marsh bog fen
Many peatlands are wetlands. The water in wetlands is either freshwater, brackish, or saltwater.
"the conservation and wise use of wetlands by national action and international cooperation as a means to achieving sustainable development throughout the world
he Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar 1971), commonly known as Ramsar Convention, is a crucial intergovernmental treaty, with mission "Conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local, regional and natural actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world.“
The convention entered into force in Pakistan on 23 November 1976. Pakistan currently has 19 sites designated as Wetlands of International Importance
Presented by IWMI's Priyanie Amerasinghe at a World Wetlands Day dialogue: 'Getting Wetland Research into Policy & Practice' held in Colombo, Sri Lanka, on February, 2, 2018
Biological oceanography is a major scientific discipline dealing with all aspects of marine life under different zones of the oceanic environments. The interest to study biology by humans started as early as fourth century BC when Aristotle described about 180 species of marine animals. The geographical knowledge of oceans got improved after several great sea expeditions conducted by the people from 15th to 16th centuries. Through Ocean explorations people conducted detailed underwater surveys and mapped the ocean floors with respect to their physical features, chemistry and biological conditions.
Macrobenthic community-structure--an-approach-to-assess-coastal-water-polluti...Md. Monjurul Hasan
A research on the assemblages of benthic macro faunal community in the coastal areas of Bangladesh was
conducted during February-March, 2015 following the standard methods to assess the status of environmental
pollution. The abundance (r=0.846) and species richness (r=0.864) of the macrobenthic communities were
signifcantly influenced by the water salinity of the sampling sites (p ≤ 0.05). Both the study areas namely the
Bakkhali River Estuary and the Meghna River Estuary showing the highest (3909 ± 540 ind./m2) and lowest (2236
± 689 ind./m2) density of benthic macrofaunal abundance respectively might be considered as moderately polluted
areas according to the results obtained from Shannon-Wiener index of species diversity (2.69 ± 0.13 and 2.00 ± 0.11
respectively) and Margalef’s species richness (2.21 ± 0.43 and 1.36 ± 0.11 respectively). Therefore, it is plausible
that the macrobenthic community explained in the present study might be a key future outline to assess the status of
coastal water pollution of those concerned areas of Bangladesh.
Wetlands exist along the borders of water courses and water bodies, in topographically low lying areas. Wetlands are the interfaces between land and water. This module explains the importance of wetlands as promising ecosystems.
The effects of wetland degradation on the socio economic welfare of rubaga di...Dennis Kateregga
This research study investigates the effects of wetland degradation on the socio – economic welfare. In Uganda, wetland degradation has been going since 1940’s on a small scale; it was not until in the 1980’s that wetlands become a subject of large scale interventions, most notably for crop cultivation. In the Rubaga division, wetland degradation started in the late 1970’s.
The study was carried out in Rubaga division where a sample of 60 people was selected as respondents. The sample was based on purposeful and multi – stage random sampling designs enhanced by the inclusion of key respondents. The data was collected using questionnaires, interview techniques reinforced by field observations, photography and informal discussions with local people. Data collected was there after analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively (using descriptive statistics and by computation of Chi – square tests).
In thee investigated sample, the study revealed that wetland degradation has resulted in serious effects such as changes in micro – climate and hence loss of biological diversity, lowered water tables leading to drying of wells, shortage of raw materials for handcraft and some medical plants. The study revealed a number of factors that influence wetland degradation such as high population densities and declining yields on land. Hence the influence on education levels, awareness and shortage of land could not be confirmed.
Basing on the above findings, the study therefore recommends environmental education and public awareness campaigns, legislative controls provision of alternative sources of income, practice of family planning and use of collaborative management of the wetland resources.
Biological oceanography is a major scientific discipline dealing with all aspects of marine life under different zones of the oceanic environments. The interest to study biology by humans started as early as fourth century BC when Aristotle described about 180 species of marine animals. The geographical knowledge of oceans got improved after several great sea expeditions conducted by the people from 15th to 16th centuries. Through Ocean explorations people conducted detailed underwater surveys and mapped the ocean floors with respect to their physical features, chemistry and biological conditions.
Macrobenthic community-structure--an-approach-to-assess-coastal-water-polluti...Md. Monjurul Hasan
A research on the assemblages of benthic macro faunal community in the coastal areas of Bangladesh was
conducted during February-March, 2015 following the standard methods to assess the status of environmental
pollution. The abundance (r=0.846) and species richness (r=0.864) of the macrobenthic communities were
signifcantly influenced by the water salinity of the sampling sites (p ≤ 0.05). Both the study areas namely the
Bakkhali River Estuary and the Meghna River Estuary showing the highest (3909 ± 540 ind./m2) and lowest (2236
± 689 ind./m2) density of benthic macrofaunal abundance respectively might be considered as moderately polluted
areas according to the results obtained from Shannon-Wiener index of species diversity (2.69 ± 0.13 and 2.00 ± 0.11
respectively) and Margalef’s species richness (2.21 ± 0.43 and 1.36 ± 0.11 respectively). Therefore, it is plausible
that the macrobenthic community explained in the present study might be a key future outline to assess the status of
coastal water pollution of those concerned areas of Bangladesh.
Wetlands exist along the borders of water courses and water bodies, in topographically low lying areas. Wetlands are the interfaces between land and water. This module explains the importance of wetlands as promising ecosystems.
The effects of wetland degradation on the socio economic welfare of rubaga di...Dennis Kateregga
This research study investigates the effects of wetland degradation on the socio – economic welfare. In Uganda, wetland degradation has been going since 1940’s on a small scale; it was not until in the 1980’s that wetlands become a subject of large scale interventions, most notably for crop cultivation. In the Rubaga division, wetland degradation started in the late 1970’s.
The study was carried out in Rubaga division where a sample of 60 people was selected as respondents. The sample was based on purposeful and multi – stage random sampling designs enhanced by the inclusion of key respondents. The data was collected using questionnaires, interview techniques reinforced by field observations, photography and informal discussions with local people. Data collected was there after analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively (using descriptive statistics and by computation of Chi – square tests).
In thee investigated sample, the study revealed that wetland degradation has resulted in serious effects such as changes in micro – climate and hence loss of biological diversity, lowered water tables leading to drying of wells, shortage of raw materials for handcraft and some medical plants. The study revealed a number of factors that influence wetland degradation such as high population densities and declining yields on land. Hence the influence on education levels, awareness and shortage of land could not be confirmed.
Basing on the above findings, the study therefore recommends environmental education and public awareness campaigns, legislative controls provision of alternative sources of income, practice of family planning and use of collaborative management of the wetland resources.
Biological oceanography gradually grew into a major scientific discipline with all these observations of marine organisms and their environments. In this episode, the following modules are highlighted:1. Nature of marine environment, 2. Classification of Marine environment, 3. Role of abiotic parameters on marine life, 4. Marine Flora , and 5. Marine Fauna.
The immense region of the world’s seas has long enraptured human interest, filling in as both a wellspring of secret and a boondocks for logical investigation. Throughout the long term, propels in sea life science have unfurled like the pages of a convincing story, uncovering the complexities of maritime environments, the elements of marine life, and the significant impact of the seas on Earth’s environment. From the beginning of sea investigation to the present state of the art advancements, the excursion of understanding our seas has been set apart by constant development and disclosure.
This gathering plans to diagram the momentous advances in sea life science, giving a thorough outline of the developing scene of maritime exploration. We will investigate the pivotal moments, revolutionary technologies, and collaborative efforts that have shaped our understanding of the oceans as we delve into the depths of this multidisciplinary field. From the revelation of aqueous vents and the planning of sea flows to the investigation of outrageous remote ocean conditions, every part in this investigation of sea life science mirrors the vigorous quest for information that drives researchers, specialists, and pioneers the same.
The job of sea life science reaches out past the domains of unadulterated interest. It assumes a critical part in tending to squeezing worldwide difficulties, for example, environmental change, overfishing, and the protection of biodiversity. As we face a period of exceptional ecological change, the bits of knowledge acquired from sea life science become progressively crucial for educated independent direction and supportable administration regarding our seas.
Coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, delta systems, and coral reefs are increasingly at risk due in large part to
settlement and development along rapidly urbanizing coasts. The resulting degradation of these ecosystems,
especially the degradation of natural infrastructure, increasingly exposes coastal cities and their inhabitants to
more frequent and severe natural hazards and disproportionately impacts poor populations who often rely on these ecosystems for livelihoods, food, and other essential benefits.
Ecological Society of America Science CommonsTom Moritz
Ecological Society of America
"Obstacles to Data Sharing in Ecology"
(NSF Workshop)
National Evolutionary Synthesis Center
Durham, North Carolina
May 30, 2007
Science and the limits of our current regime for intellectual property.
Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this work is to contribute to valorization de Nephelium lappaceum by the characterization of kinetics of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum. The seeds were dehydrated until a constant mass respectively in a drying oven and a microwawe oven. The temperatures and the powers of drying are respectively: 50, 60 and 70°C and 140, 280 and 420 W. The results show that the curves of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum do not present a phase of constant kinetics. The coefficients of diffusion vary between 2.09.10-8 to 2.98. 10-8m-2/s in the interval of 50°C at 70°C and between 4.83×10-07 at 9.04×10-07 m-8/s for the powers going of 140 W with 420 W the relation between Arrhenius and a value of energy of activation of 16.49 kJ. mol-1 expressed the effect of the temperature on effective diffusivity.
"Understanding the Carbon Cycle: Processes, Human Impacts, and Strategies for...MMariSelvam4
The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and driving climate change. Understanding the intricacies of the carbon cycle is essential for assessing the impacts of these changes and developing effective mitigation strategies.
By studying the carbon cycle, scientists can identify carbon sources and sinks, measure carbon fluxes, and predict future trends. This knowledge is crucial for crafting policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, enhancing carbon storage, and promoting sustainable practices. The carbon cycle's interplay with climate systems, ecosystems, and human activities underscores its importance in maintaining a stable and healthy planet.
In-depth exploration of the carbon cycle reveals the delicate balance required to sustain life and the urgent need to address anthropogenic influences. Through research, education, and policy, we can work towards restoring equilibrium in the carbon cycle and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
Artificial Reefs by Kuddle Life Foundation - May 2024punit537210
Situated in Pondicherry, India, Kuddle Life Foundation is a charitable, non-profit and non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to improving the living standards of coastal communities and simultaneously placing a strong emphasis on the protection of marine ecosystems.
One of the key areas we work in is Artificial Reefs. This presentation captures our journey so far and our learnings. We hope you get as excited about marine conservation and artificial reefs as we are.
Please visit our website: https://kuddlelife.org
Our Instagram channel:
@kuddlelifefoundation
Our Linkedin Page:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/kuddlelifefoundation/
and write to us if you have any questions:
info@kuddlelife.org
UNDERSTANDING WHAT GREEN WASHING IS!.pdfJulietMogola
Many companies today use green washing to lure the public into thinking they are conserving the environment but in real sense they are doing more harm. There have been such several cases from very big companies here in Kenya and also globally. This ranges from various sectors from manufacturing and goes to consumer products. Educating people on greenwashing will enable people to make better choices based on their analysis and not on what they see on marketing sites.
WRI’s brand new “Food Service Playbook for Promoting Sustainable Food Choices” gives food service operators the very latest strategies for creating dining environments that empower consumers to choose sustainable, plant-rich dishes. This research builds off our first guide for food service, now with industry experience and insights from nearly 350 academic trials.
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Venturesgreendigital
Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
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Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
Natural farming @ Dr. Siddhartha S. Jena.pptxsidjena70
A brief about organic farming/ Natural farming/ Zero budget natural farming/ Subash Palekar Natural farming which keeps us and environment safe and healthy. Next gen Agricultural practices of chemical free farming.
2. “Coastal Ecosystems”
“In 1995 more than 2.2 billion people, 39% of the world's
population, lived within 100 kilometers (km) of a
coastline. Add to these the millions more who vacation
in coastal regions annually. In 1997 more than 18.8
million tourists visited the Caribbean alone.
“Coastal ecosystems are also an important food source. In
1997, 64 million metric tons of fish and shellfish were
harvested from oceans and inland waters and 29
million metric tons from aquaculture for human
consumption. Another 29 million metric tons were
processed for animal feed. “
4. “Natural and Altered Landcover within 100Km of a Coast”
http://www.pbs.org/earthonedge/ecosystems/coastal1.html
5. “Biogeochemistry”
“Biogeochemistry has matured as a scientific discipline as we have come to recognize that
the current human impact on our planet may disrupt the stable chemistry of our
evolutionary environment, which is at least partially determined by the diversity of
species that occupy this planet with us. The level of CO2 in the atmosphere, the amount
of precipitation that falls on land, the content of nitrogen and phosphorus in rivers, and
the silicon that is deposited in ocean sediments are all determined by biota – ranging
from bacteria to higher plants. Life’s diversity – the bio in biogeochemistry – performs a
great service to us, which we must understand better if we are to preserve its function.”
David M. Karl, William H. Schlesinger, in Treatise on Geochemistry (Second Edition), 2014
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/coastal-landscape/pdf
6. “Salt Marsh Biogeochemistry—An Overview”
“Salt marshes are fluid in terms of geomorphology, biogeochemistry, and
their role in the coastal landscape. They are subject to the synergistic effects
of global scale climate forcings and local-scale human impacts… there has
been a large increase in the number of published papers that have
examined biogeochemical responses to environmental changes such as
increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations, eutrophication of coastal
waters, and climate change/global warming. Salt marsh responses to these
and other stressors occur at the scale of soil biogeochemistry, plant
productivity, and geomorphology and may likely alter the role of marshes in
the coastal landscape. “
-- Craig Tobias, Scott C. Neubauer, “Salt Marsh Biogeochemistry—An Overview,”
(in Coastal Wetlands, 2019)
7. NOAA: Tides and Currents
“The word "tides" is a generic term used to define the alternating rise and fall in sea level with
respect to the land, produced by the gravitational attraction of the moon and the sun. To a
much smaller extent, tides also occur in large lakes, the atmosphere, and within the solid
crust of the earth, acted upon by these same gravitational forces of the moon and sun.
Additional nonastronomical factors such as configuration of the coastline, local depth of
the water, ocean-floor topography, and other hydrographic and meteorological influences
may play an important role in altering the range, interval between high and low water, an
times of arrival of the tides.
“The most familiar evidence of the tides along our seashores is the observed recurrence of high
and low water - usually, but not always, twice daily. The term tide correctly refers only to
such a relatively short-period, astronomically induced vertical change in the height of the sea
surface (exclusive of wind-actuated waves and swell); the expression tidal current relates to
accompanying periodic horizontal movement of the ocean water, both near the coast and
offshore (but as distinct from the continuous, stream-flow type of ocean current).
“Knowledge of the times, heights, and extent of inflow and outflow of tidal waters is of
importance in a wide range of practical applications such as the following: Navigation through
intracoastal waterways, and within estuaries, bays, and harbors; work on harbor engineering
projects, such as the construction of bridges, docks, breakwaters, and deep-water channels;
the establishment of standard chart datums for hydrography and for demarcation of a base
line or "legal coastline" for fixing offshore territorial limits both on the sea surface and on the
submerged lands of the Continental Shelf; provision of information necessary for underwater
demolition activities and other military engineering uses; and the furnishing of data
indispensable to fishing, boating, surfing, and a considerable variety of related water sport
activities.”
https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/restles1.html
10. “Between Pacific Tides”: Coastal Systems
Protected Outer Coast
Outer-Coast Rocky Shores
Outer-Coast Sandy Beaches
Open Coast
Open-Coast Rocky Shores
Open-Coast Sandy Beaches
Bays and Estuaries
Rocky Shores of Bays and Estuaries
Sand Flats
Eelgrass Flats
Mud Flats
Wharf Piling
Exposed Piles
Protected Piles
11. “Outer-Coast Sandy Beaches”
“PRESUMABLY because of their usually limited extent, the sandy beaches of the
protected outer coast are the most barren of all intertidal areas. They occupy a
strange position, biologically speaking. They are distinct, on the one hand, from
the typical Pacific sandy beach, which is completely exposed and subjected to
violent surf but nevertheless supports a highly specialized fauna, although it is
neither abundant nor greatly varied. In closed bays, sounds, and sloughs, on the
other hand, we find the completely protected sandy beaches supporting a fauna
both rich and varied. No doubt the total area available for colonization is the chief
factor in both the latter cases, for characteristic animals will not develop for a type
of region that is represented by small and widely separated areas only, like the
sandy beaches in question. Such beaches ordinarily occur in short stretches of a
few hundred yards or a few miles, between outcroppings of rock and are almost
destitute of life. It might reasonably be asked why such areas are not colonized by
the animals of surf-swept beaches; the answer is, apparently, that the animals of
surf-swept beaches will not tolerate the more sheltered conditions. The same
answer, reversed, would apply to completely protected bay animals, for whom
these areas would be too exposed. At any rate, barrenness is the rule, and we have
three animals to record from the semi-sheltered sandy beaches, ignoring those
forms which may occasionally be washed up from other habitats. “
17. Primary Forces
in the Intertidal Environment
Desiccation
Light
Salinity
Wave Shock/ Sand Scour/ Rock Movement
Predation
Competition: Food/ Space
Intra-specific: mates
Inter-specific
30. “Beach Wrack”???
“Spiller found that washed-up seaweed is in fact a resource "subsidy" that's consumed by flies
and small amphipods such as beach fleas, which in turn are eaten by lizards and predatory
arthropods like spiders.
“Seaweed also decomposes directly into the soil, providing nutrients to plants. In the study, the
growth rate of land-based plants near seaweed-subsidized plots was 70 percent higher than in
non-seaweed-subsidized plots.
“In subsidized plots, the density of lizards also increased rapidly, averaging 63 percent higher than
in non-subsidized plots. In addition, lizards shifted their diets to marine-based prey.
“When clumps of seaweed appeared on the scene, they attracted marine amphipods that
reproduce rapidly. Lizards then went from land-based vegetation to seaweed to feast on the
treasure trove.
“The addition of seaweed also led to an increase in insect damage to plants living along the
beach. When lizards moved to seaweed from land-based vegetation, their usual prey--plant-
eating insects--were free to go on a spree, decimating plant leaves as they munched.
” ‘What we saw may be called a 'fertilization effect' in which seaweed adds nutrients to plants,
increasing their growth rate,’ says Spiller, ‘and a 'predator-diet-shift effect' in which lizards shift
from eating land-based prey to consuming small, marine detritivores that breed in seaweed.’ "
https://www.nsf.gov/discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=124910&org=NSF
43. “Just a few hundred years ago, thousands of sea otters peppered the coast of California, dwarfing
the current population of less than 3000 animals. A host of human impacts are to blame for
keeping otters near the edge of extinction today—loss of habitat, competition for food, diseases
carried by our pets and oils spills, to name just a few. But only the fur trade could whittle the
otter population down to the few dozen that were left in the early 1900s.
“When Russian explorer Vitus Bering stumbled upon a group of otters living on the Commander
Islands in 1741, he probably didn’t anticipate that these animals would play a role in changing
boundary lines on the world map and unhinging the fragile coastal ecosystem of North America.
What was clear was the value of their pelts. With up to a million hairs per square inch, otter fur
was prized for its softness and warmth—the warmest in the animal kingdom. For comparison, we
only have about 100,000 hairs on our heads.
“Until the late 19th century, Russian fur traders hop scotched through Alaska’s Aleutian Islands,
killing most of the curious, slow-moving otters in their path and then shipping the furs off to
profitable markets in back home in Russia and in China, Japan, and Europe. In the process, the
hunters decimated a relative of the manatee called the Stellar’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas).
These slow-swimming kelp-eaters provided the on-the-go meals the hunters needed. But unlike
sea otters, the sea cows didn’t survive the onslaught. The otter fur trade wiped them from
existence.”
Fur Trade
61. “Kelp forests are strongly influenced by macroinvertebrate grazing on fleshy macroalgae. In the
North Pacific Ocean, sea otter predation on macroinvertebrates substantially reduces the
intensity of herbivory on macroalgae. Temperate Australasia, in contrast, has no known predator
of comparable influence. These ecological and biogeographic patterns led us to predict that (i)
the intensity of herbivory should be greater in temperate Australasia than in the North Pacific
Ocean; thus (ii) Australasian seaweeds have been under stronger selection to evolve chemical
defenses and (iii) Australasian herbivores have been more strongly selected to tolerate these
compounds. We tested these predictions first by measuring rates of algal tissue loss to herbivory
at several locations in Australasian and North Pacific kelp forests. There were significant
differences in grazing rates among sea otter-dominated locations in the North Pacific (0-2% day-
1), Australasia (5-7% day-1), and a North Pacific location lacking sea otters (80% day-1). The
expectations that chronically high rates of herbivory in Australasia have selected for high
concentrations of defensive secondary metabolites (phlorotannins) in brown algae and increased
tolerance of these defenses in the herbivores also were supported… These findings suggest that
top-level consumers, acting through food chains of various lengths, can strongly influence the
ecology and evolution of plantherbivore interactions.” __ Steinberg, et al. “Evolutionary
Consequences of Food Chain Length in Kelp Forest Communities,” PNAS 92:18 8145-8148 (1995)
https://www.pnas.org/content/92/18/8145
(A) Number of sites in the dataset (n = 1,454) by ecoregion (16). Gray shading indicates ecoregions where kelps are present but for which no data were available. (B) Range of dates within each study within each ecoregion, with line shading indicating the weight of studies within that range.