The document discusses the process of research and preparation for argumentation and debate. It outlines various methods for gathering information from different sources, including consulting dictionaries, books, newspapers, and experts. It emphasizes the importance of thoroughly researching both sides of an issue. It also discusses different systems for organizing research materials, such as notebooks or index cards, and the need to properly cite sources. The goal of research is to collect facts, data, statistics, and inferences to both establish one's own argument and refute opposing arguments.
This document discusses the basics of debate, including:
1) Debate involves a formal discussion on a particular topic where opposing arguments are presented. There are typically two sides: affirmative and negative.
2) There are several types of debates, including Lincoln-Douglas debates involving one speaker from each side, rebuttal debates with multiple speakers from each side presenting and rebutting arguments, and modified rebuttal debates.
3) Elements of a debate include constructive speeches to present arguments, interpellation which allows opposing questions, and rebuttals to summarize and defend positions. Propositions state the topic, and roles include moderator, timekeeper, jury, audience, affirmative and negative sides.
Oxford – Oregon Debate (How to's and tips)Carmela Yasay
The document outlines the traditional format for debates, including the roles of the affirmative and negative sides in proving or disproving the debate proposition. It also details the structure of speeches and interpellations, as well as guidelines and best practices for participants. Key aspects include three speakers from each side, with constructive and rebuttal speeches of limited time periods, and interpellations allowing for questioning between speeches. The judges determine the winning team based on factors such as evidence, delivery, and rebuttals.
This document summarizes and provides examples of common logical fallacies. It discusses 12 different fallacies: hasty generalization, missing the point, post hoc, slippery slope, weak analogy, appeal to authority, appeal to pity, appeal to ignorance, straw man, red herring, and false dichotomy. For each fallacy, it provides a definition and hypothetical example to illustrate how the fallacy works in an argument. The document is intended to help readers identify and avoid using logically fallacious reasoning.
The document provides information about different types of logical fallacies, including fallacies of relevance and fallacies of insufficient evidence. It defines what a fallacy is, and categorizes them into two types - fallacies of relevance and fallacies of insufficient evidence. For fallacies of relevance, it gives examples and explanations of different types like personal attack, attacking the motive, look who's talking, two wrongs make a right, scare tactics, appeal to emotion, bandwagon argument, straw man, red herring, equivocation, and begging the question. For fallacies of insufficient evidence, it discusses false authority, appeal to ignorance, false dilemma, loaded question, false cause, hasty generalization, slippery slope, weak analogy
This document outlines the powers and responsibilities of the President of the Philippines according to the country's constitution. It discusses that the executive power is vested in the President, who must be a natural born citizen at least 40 years old. The President serves a single 6-year term and takes an oath of office upon assuming the position. The document then examines the President's powers, including appointment, removal, control of the executive branch, military authority, pardoning powers, and foreign borrowing. It provides details on qualifications, succession, prohibitions, and notable Supreme Court cases related to the presidency.
This document provides an overview of the executive branch of the Philippine government. It discusses the roles and powers of the President, Vice President, Cabinet Secretaries, and local governments as outlined in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. The President is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Key powers of the President include signing treaties, granting pardons, contracting loans, and submitting the annual budget. The qualifications to run for President and Vice President are also specified. Cabinet Secretaries head executive departments and act as advisors to the President. Local governments have autonomy but fall under presidential supervision.
This document outlines the powers and responsibilities of the President of the Philippines according to the country's constitution. It discusses the qualifications for President, the term of office, election process, and oath. It then examines the various powers granted to the President, including executive power, power of appointment and removal, military powers, pardoning power, borrowing power, diplomatic power, budgetary power, informing power, and residual powers. It provides examples of relevant court cases and constitutional limitations on presidential powers.
This document discusses the basics of debate, including:
1) Debate involves a formal discussion on a particular topic where opposing arguments are presented. There are typically two sides: affirmative and negative.
2) There are several types of debates, including Lincoln-Douglas debates involving one speaker from each side, rebuttal debates with multiple speakers from each side presenting and rebutting arguments, and modified rebuttal debates.
3) Elements of a debate include constructive speeches to present arguments, interpellation which allows opposing questions, and rebuttals to summarize and defend positions. Propositions state the topic, and roles include moderator, timekeeper, jury, audience, affirmative and negative sides.
Oxford – Oregon Debate (How to's and tips)Carmela Yasay
The document outlines the traditional format for debates, including the roles of the affirmative and negative sides in proving or disproving the debate proposition. It also details the structure of speeches and interpellations, as well as guidelines and best practices for participants. Key aspects include three speakers from each side, with constructive and rebuttal speeches of limited time periods, and interpellations allowing for questioning between speeches. The judges determine the winning team based on factors such as evidence, delivery, and rebuttals.
This document summarizes and provides examples of common logical fallacies. It discusses 12 different fallacies: hasty generalization, missing the point, post hoc, slippery slope, weak analogy, appeal to authority, appeal to pity, appeal to ignorance, straw man, red herring, and false dichotomy. For each fallacy, it provides a definition and hypothetical example to illustrate how the fallacy works in an argument. The document is intended to help readers identify and avoid using logically fallacious reasoning.
The document provides information about different types of logical fallacies, including fallacies of relevance and fallacies of insufficient evidence. It defines what a fallacy is, and categorizes them into two types - fallacies of relevance and fallacies of insufficient evidence. For fallacies of relevance, it gives examples and explanations of different types like personal attack, attacking the motive, look who's talking, two wrongs make a right, scare tactics, appeal to emotion, bandwagon argument, straw man, red herring, equivocation, and begging the question. For fallacies of insufficient evidence, it discusses false authority, appeal to ignorance, false dilemma, loaded question, false cause, hasty generalization, slippery slope, weak analogy
This document outlines the powers and responsibilities of the President of the Philippines according to the country's constitution. It discusses that the executive power is vested in the President, who must be a natural born citizen at least 40 years old. The President serves a single 6-year term and takes an oath of office upon assuming the position. The document then examines the President's powers, including appointment, removal, control of the executive branch, military authority, pardoning powers, and foreign borrowing. It provides details on qualifications, succession, prohibitions, and notable Supreme Court cases related to the presidency.
This document provides an overview of the executive branch of the Philippine government. It discusses the roles and powers of the President, Vice President, Cabinet Secretaries, and local governments as outlined in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. The President is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Key powers of the President include signing treaties, granting pardons, contracting loans, and submitting the annual budget. The qualifications to run for President and Vice President are also specified. Cabinet Secretaries head executive departments and act as advisors to the President. Local governments have autonomy but fall under presidential supervision.
This document outlines the powers and responsibilities of the President of the Philippines according to the country's constitution. It discusses the qualifications for President, the term of office, election process, and oath. It then examines the various powers granted to the President, including executive power, power of appointment and removal, military powers, pardoning power, borrowing power, diplomatic power, budgetary power, informing power, and residual powers. It provides examples of relevant court cases and constitutional limitations on presidential powers.
Philippine Government: The Executive Branchbrianbelen
The document provides an overview of the executive branch of the Philippine government, including qualifications for the president, presidential powers and privileges, causes for vacancy in the office, and a brief history of Philippine presidents. Key points are that the president is elected to a 6-year term, can appoint heads of departments and ambassadors, and has powers like negotiating treaties and declaring martial law. Causes for vacancy include death, disability, resignation or impeachment.
The Philippine Congress is the bicameral legislative branch of the Philippine government. It consists of the Senate, with 24 senators serving 6-year terms, and the House of Representatives with 200 district representatives and 50 party-list representatives serving 3-year terms. Bills pass through committees and three readings in each chamber before being sent to the President for approval or veto. Congress has the power to create laws, approve the budget, and ratify treaties.
This document provides information about formal debate structure and processes. It discusses the key parts of an argument including the introduction, discussion, and conclusion. The introduction aims to arouse audience interest, explain the proposition, and state the issues being debated. The discussion includes the opposing affirmative and negative sides addressing the necessity, beneficiality, and practicability of the proposition. The conclusion summarizes each team's arguments and defenses. It also outlines the speaker roles and speech formats for the 1A, 1N, 2A, 2N, and 3A, 3N speakers.
The judiciary, also known as the court system, interprets and applies the law, provides dispute resolution, and ensures equal justice. It consists of a Supreme Court as the highest court and lower courts. The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court and lower statutory courts established by law. The judiciary settles legal controversies and determines if other branches abused their discretion or jurisdiction.
This document discusses the meaning and nature of propositions. It defines a proposition as a statement of judgment that identifies the central issue in controversy. A proposition must be expressed as a complete statement with a subject and predicate that allows for affirmation or denial. It also outlines the key characteristics of a good proposition, including that it must be in the form of an assertion, express a single judgment, have a clear interpretation, be unprejudiced, avoid abstractions, be concise and simple, allow debate, and place the burden of proof on the affirmative side. Finally, it states that a proposition must also be interesting to both speakers and the audience.
The document defines suffrage and elections in the context of the 1987 Philippine Constitution. It states that suffrage is the right to vote enjoyed by citizens, which allows them to participate in establishing and administering government through elections, plebiscites, referendums, initiatives and recalls. It further outlines the qualifications to vote, types of suffrage (e.g. universal, woman), rules governing elections, and the Philippine electoral system.
This document outlines the format and rules for an Oxford-style debate. It discusses the traditional debate structure used in various settings which involves two opposing sides - affirmative and negative. Each side has three speakers who give constructive speeches and rebuttals. The debate is moderated and judged based on evidence, delivery, responses to questions, and rebuttals. Specific guidelines are provided around constructing arguments, asking and answering questions during the debate, and providing rebuttals.
The document discusses the roles and powers of the Philippine president. It explains that the president is the head of the executive branch and is charged with executing and administering the country's laws. The president has many powers, including appointing cabinet officials, negotiating treaties, declaring martial law, and granting acts of clemency. The qualifications to run for president are also outlined, such as being a natural born citizen over 40 years old. Term limits and the line of succession when the presidency becomes vacant are also summarized.
The document discusses the judicial power of the Philippines as outlined in Article VIII. It states that judicial power shall be vested in the Supreme Court and lower courts established by law. It also describes the duties of the courts, which include settling actual controversies involving legally enforceable rights and determining if there has been a grave abuse of discretion by government bodies.
The document summarizes the structure and roles of the judicial branch in the Philippines. It begins with an overview of the judiciary and doctrine of separation of powers. It then describes the key courts in the system from highest to lowest: the Supreme Court acts as the court of final appeal. Below it are the Court of Appeals, Sandiganbayan, Court of Tax Appeals, Regional Trial Courts, Municipal Trial Courts, Metropolitan Trial Courts, and Municipal Circuit Trial Courts. It also discusses the Shari'a District Courts and Shari'a Circuit Courts, which handle cases involving Muslim personal laws.
This document provides an overview of the benefits and process of debate. It discusses how debate can be academically beneficial, help prepare students for their careers, and aid in self-actualization. The document then gives examples of successful individuals who debated, including politicians and celebrities. It outlines the basic structure of a debate, including definitions, motions, types of debates, the two opposing sides, formats, and the roles and responsibilities of different speakers.
Explanation and Summary of Legislative Department in Article VI of the Philippine Constitution.
Reference Book: Philippine Governance and the 1987 Constitution
The document outlines the powers and duties of the Executive Branch in the Philippines according to Article 7 of the Philippine Constitution. It discusses that the executive power is vested in the President who enforces and administers laws. The President must be a natural born citizen at least 40 years old and resident in the Philippines for 10 years prior to election. The President serves a 6-year term and cannot be reelected. In the event of a vacancy, the Vice President assumes the presidency. The President has various powers including appointment with Commission on Appointments consent, removal, control of executive departments, and military powers like suspension of habeas corpus and declaration of martial law in times of invasion or rebellion.
The document discusses the structure and powers of the Philippine government based on the Constitution. It notes that the government is divided into three branches - legislative, executive, and judicial - based on the separation of powers doctrine. The legislative branch, or Congress, has the power to create and repeal laws, appropriate funds, levy taxes, and approve treaties. These powers are delegated by the people through the Constitution but are subject to checks and balances from the other branches to prevent abuse of power.
The document discusses the judicial department and powers of courts in the Philippines. It outlines that judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court and lower courts, and generally entails settling legal disputes and determining abuse of power. The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review to interpret laws. It is composed of a Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. When a court reaches a decision, a justice writes an opinion certified by the Chief Justice and served to parties.
The document outlines the requisites of a good written constitution. It should be brief but comprehensive, covering the constitution of government, liberty, and sovereignty. A constitution differs from a statute in that it establishes the general framework of law and government from the people, intended to govern the future, and acts as the supreme law of the land to which all other laws must conform.
Techniques in Selecting and organizing Information & Types of WritingAndre Philip Tacderas
The document discusses various techniques for selecting and organizing information, including brainstorming, clustering/mapping, free writing, and outlining. It also covers different types of writing like narrative, descriptive, expository, and persuasive writing. Narratives are divided into fiction and nonfiction types. Descriptive writing uses details to present impressions, while expository writing informs or explains using facts.
The document discusses the three Constitutional Commissions established in the Philippines' Constitution: the Civil Service Commission, Commission on Elections, and Commission on Audit. It outlines their common provisions, including their independent appointment powers, fiscal autonomy, and impeachment as the sole means of removal. It then details the specific powers and functions of the Civil Service Commission, including its role in appointments based on merit and qualifications. The Commission oversees the civil service and determines qualifications for positions.
The powers of the government, by virtue of this principle are divided into three (3) distinct classes: the legislative, the executive and the judicial. They are distributed, respectively among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches or departments of the government.
Under the principle of co-equal and coordinate powers among the three (3) branches, the officers entrusted with each of these powers are not permitted to encroach upon the powers confided to the others. If one department goes beyond the limits set by the Constitution, its acts are null and void. The adoption of this principle was motivated by the belief that arbitrary rule would result if the same person or body were to exercise all the powers of the government.
Inductive, Deductive, Integrated and Lecture Method of TeachingVhey Razon
The document discusses different teaching methods including inductive, deductive, and integrated methods. The inductive method goes from specific examples to general principles, while the deductive method goes the other way, from general principles to specific examples. The integrated method combines aspects of different methods. Both inductive and deductive teaching have benefits, and combining the two into an integrated approach can optimize learning.
An Introduction to Deductive Qualitative AnalysisJane Gilgun
This slideshow defines deductive qualitative analysis and describes some of its procedures. Deductive qualitative analysis is a way of testing theory qualitatively. it is important for graduate students and researchers seeking funding because DQA starts with research and theory, a requirement for dissertation committees and funders. The product is a grounded theory and descriptions of human phenomena from informants' points of view. This method brings the experiences of informants into public dialogue.
Philippine Government: The Executive Branchbrianbelen
The document provides an overview of the executive branch of the Philippine government, including qualifications for the president, presidential powers and privileges, causes for vacancy in the office, and a brief history of Philippine presidents. Key points are that the president is elected to a 6-year term, can appoint heads of departments and ambassadors, and has powers like negotiating treaties and declaring martial law. Causes for vacancy include death, disability, resignation or impeachment.
The Philippine Congress is the bicameral legislative branch of the Philippine government. It consists of the Senate, with 24 senators serving 6-year terms, and the House of Representatives with 200 district representatives and 50 party-list representatives serving 3-year terms. Bills pass through committees and three readings in each chamber before being sent to the President for approval or veto. Congress has the power to create laws, approve the budget, and ratify treaties.
This document provides information about formal debate structure and processes. It discusses the key parts of an argument including the introduction, discussion, and conclusion. The introduction aims to arouse audience interest, explain the proposition, and state the issues being debated. The discussion includes the opposing affirmative and negative sides addressing the necessity, beneficiality, and practicability of the proposition. The conclusion summarizes each team's arguments and defenses. It also outlines the speaker roles and speech formats for the 1A, 1N, 2A, 2N, and 3A, 3N speakers.
The judiciary, also known as the court system, interprets and applies the law, provides dispute resolution, and ensures equal justice. It consists of a Supreme Court as the highest court and lower courts. The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court and lower statutory courts established by law. The judiciary settles legal controversies and determines if other branches abused their discretion or jurisdiction.
This document discusses the meaning and nature of propositions. It defines a proposition as a statement of judgment that identifies the central issue in controversy. A proposition must be expressed as a complete statement with a subject and predicate that allows for affirmation or denial. It also outlines the key characteristics of a good proposition, including that it must be in the form of an assertion, express a single judgment, have a clear interpretation, be unprejudiced, avoid abstractions, be concise and simple, allow debate, and place the burden of proof on the affirmative side. Finally, it states that a proposition must also be interesting to both speakers and the audience.
The document defines suffrage and elections in the context of the 1987 Philippine Constitution. It states that suffrage is the right to vote enjoyed by citizens, which allows them to participate in establishing and administering government through elections, plebiscites, referendums, initiatives and recalls. It further outlines the qualifications to vote, types of suffrage (e.g. universal, woman), rules governing elections, and the Philippine electoral system.
This document outlines the format and rules for an Oxford-style debate. It discusses the traditional debate structure used in various settings which involves two opposing sides - affirmative and negative. Each side has three speakers who give constructive speeches and rebuttals. The debate is moderated and judged based on evidence, delivery, responses to questions, and rebuttals. Specific guidelines are provided around constructing arguments, asking and answering questions during the debate, and providing rebuttals.
The document discusses the roles and powers of the Philippine president. It explains that the president is the head of the executive branch and is charged with executing and administering the country's laws. The president has many powers, including appointing cabinet officials, negotiating treaties, declaring martial law, and granting acts of clemency. The qualifications to run for president are also outlined, such as being a natural born citizen over 40 years old. Term limits and the line of succession when the presidency becomes vacant are also summarized.
The document discusses the judicial power of the Philippines as outlined in Article VIII. It states that judicial power shall be vested in the Supreme Court and lower courts established by law. It also describes the duties of the courts, which include settling actual controversies involving legally enforceable rights and determining if there has been a grave abuse of discretion by government bodies.
The document summarizes the structure and roles of the judicial branch in the Philippines. It begins with an overview of the judiciary and doctrine of separation of powers. It then describes the key courts in the system from highest to lowest: the Supreme Court acts as the court of final appeal. Below it are the Court of Appeals, Sandiganbayan, Court of Tax Appeals, Regional Trial Courts, Municipal Trial Courts, Metropolitan Trial Courts, and Municipal Circuit Trial Courts. It also discusses the Shari'a District Courts and Shari'a Circuit Courts, which handle cases involving Muslim personal laws.
This document provides an overview of the benefits and process of debate. It discusses how debate can be academically beneficial, help prepare students for their careers, and aid in self-actualization. The document then gives examples of successful individuals who debated, including politicians and celebrities. It outlines the basic structure of a debate, including definitions, motions, types of debates, the two opposing sides, formats, and the roles and responsibilities of different speakers.
Explanation and Summary of Legislative Department in Article VI of the Philippine Constitution.
Reference Book: Philippine Governance and the 1987 Constitution
The document outlines the powers and duties of the Executive Branch in the Philippines according to Article 7 of the Philippine Constitution. It discusses that the executive power is vested in the President who enforces and administers laws. The President must be a natural born citizen at least 40 years old and resident in the Philippines for 10 years prior to election. The President serves a 6-year term and cannot be reelected. In the event of a vacancy, the Vice President assumes the presidency. The President has various powers including appointment with Commission on Appointments consent, removal, control of executive departments, and military powers like suspension of habeas corpus and declaration of martial law in times of invasion or rebellion.
The document discusses the structure and powers of the Philippine government based on the Constitution. It notes that the government is divided into three branches - legislative, executive, and judicial - based on the separation of powers doctrine. The legislative branch, or Congress, has the power to create and repeal laws, appropriate funds, levy taxes, and approve treaties. These powers are delegated by the people through the Constitution but are subject to checks and balances from the other branches to prevent abuse of power.
The document discusses the judicial department and powers of courts in the Philippines. It outlines that judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court and lower courts, and generally entails settling legal disputes and determining abuse of power. The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review to interpret laws. It is composed of a Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. When a court reaches a decision, a justice writes an opinion certified by the Chief Justice and served to parties.
The document outlines the requisites of a good written constitution. It should be brief but comprehensive, covering the constitution of government, liberty, and sovereignty. A constitution differs from a statute in that it establishes the general framework of law and government from the people, intended to govern the future, and acts as the supreme law of the land to which all other laws must conform.
Techniques in Selecting and organizing Information & Types of WritingAndre Philip Tacderas
The document discusses various techniques for selecting and organizing information, including brainstorming, clustering/mapping, free writing, and outlining. It also covers different types of writing like narrative, descriptive, expository, and persuasive writing. Narratives are divided into fiction and nonfiction types. Descriptive writing uses details to present impressions, while expository writing informs or explains using facts.
The document discusses the three Constitutional Commissions established in the Philippines' Constitution: the Civil Service Commission, Commission on Elections, and Commission on Audit. It outlines their common provisions, including their independent appointment powers, fiscal autonomy, and impeachment as the sole means of removal. It then details the specific powers and functions of the Civil Service Commission, including its role in appointments based on merit and qualifications. The Commission oversees the civil service and determines qualifications for positions.
The powers of the government, by virtue of this principle are divided into three (3) distinct classes: the legislative, the executive and the judicial. They are distributed, respectively among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches or departments of the government.
Under the principle of co-equal and coordinate powers among the three (3) branches, the officers entrusted with each of these powers are not permitted to encroach upon the powers confided to the others. If one department goes beyond the limits set by the Constitution, its acts are null and void. The adoption of this principle was motivated by the belief that arbitrary rule would result if the same person or body were to exercise all the powers of the government.
Inductive, Deductive, Integrated and Lecture Method of TeachingVhey Razon
The document discusses different teaching methods including inductive, deductive, and integrated methods. The inductive method goes from specific examples to general principles, while the deductive method goes the other way, from general principles to specific examples. The integrated method combines aspects of different methods. Both inductive and deductive teaching have benefits, and combining the two into an integrated approach can optimize learning.
An Introduction to Deductive Qualitative AnalysisJane Gilgun
This slideshow defines deductive qualitative analysis and describes some of its procedures. Deductive qualitative analysis is a way of testing theory qualitatively. it is important for graduate students and researchers seeking funding because DQA starts with research and theory, a requirement for dissertation committees and funders. The product is a grounded theory and descriptions of human phenomena from informants' points of view. This method brings the experiences of informants into public dialogue.
Research and planning is essential for creating a successful media text. It involves investigating current works, audiences, and production elements like cinematography, editing, and sound. For a horror film specifically, research should be done on other horror movies, film companies, marketing strategies, and budgets, and planning is needed for the film's storyboarding, marketing, budgets, and casting.
Analysis - Inductive and Deductive ArgumentsAlwyn Lau
The document discusses deductive and inductive arguments. It defines deductive arguments as trying to prove conclusions with inescapable logic, while inductive arguments claim conclusions are probable or likely given the premises. Common patterns of deductive reasoning include hypothetical syllogisms, categorical syllogisms, elimination arguments, and arguments based on definitions. Common patterns of inductive reasoning include generalization, prediction, appeals to authority, causal reasoning, statistics, and analogy.
The document discusses inductive and deductive reasoning. It defines them as the two types of arguments: deductive arguments provide logically conclusive support to conclusions while inductive arguments provide probable support. Deductive arguments are based on laws and principles, using premises to logically derive a conclusion. Inductive arguments are based on experience and observation, using specific examples to generalize to broader conclusions. Examples of deductive arguments using major and minor premises are provided, along with discussions of constructing valid deductive arguments and indirect deductive methods like reductio ad absurdum. The differences between strong, weak, and cogent inductive arguments are also outlined.
The document discusses different types of reasoning and logical fallacies. It begins by defining deductive reasoning, which uses facts and rules to arrive at a conclusion, and inductive reasoning, which uses patterns to arrive at a conjecture. Examples of each are provided. Common fallacies are also explained, including fallacies of relevance where the argument is irrelevant, causal fallacies where the cause does not make logical sense, false generalizations from insufficient evidence, and fallacies of ambiguity from equivocal language. Overall, the document provides an overview of deductive and inductive reasoning as well as common logical fallacies that can undermine arguments.
Introduction to inductive and deductive reasoningrbangerter
The document provides an introduction to inductive and deductive reasoning. It explains that inductive reasoning uses specific examples to derive a probable conclusion about all cases, while deductive reasoning applies a general principle to a specific instance to logically conclude. Several examples of inductive and deductive arguments are given to illustrate the concepts.
The document discusses different approaches to teaching - deductive and inductive. The deductive approach involves the teacher directly presenting information to students, while the inductive approach involves the teacher presenting many examples for students to observe patterns and concepts from. Some key differences are noted: the deductive approach is more predictable but the inductive approach tends to lead to deeper understanding and retention. The document also asks questions about personalizing learning, predictability of lessons, desired depth of understanding, and time available to consider which approach may be better suited for a given situation.
Asian Parliamentary Debate outlines the key components and characteristics of parliamentary debate. It discusses the purpose of debate as a venue for reasoned discussion between opposing sides to convince an audience. The key elements that must be present in a debate are identified as the topic, format, opposing teams, arguments, venue, and audience. Debate should be informative, well-reasoned, persuasive, and orderly. Motions can be open or closed and take various forms including positive, negative, abstract, direct, value judgments, and policy motions. Local and international issues are common topics.
The slides aim to train members of Ateneo Debate Union to detect fallacies in argumentation. It is the hope that this would enhance their case construction skills. The principles used borrows heavily from logic.
The document discusses various debate formats including:
- Affirmative and negative positions that argue for or against a topic.
- Presidential debates in the US that date back to 1858.
- High school debates that often involve teams assigned positions.
- The importance of logic, emotion, understanding topics in-depth, and rebutting opponents' positions.
- Debate formats like parliamentary, British parliamentary, legislative, Lincoln-Douglas, and mock trial that have distinct rules and focuses.
Conflict Resolution as a relatively young and emerging interdisciplinary endeavor is being utilized in mediation proceedings, as well as in the other Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) modes of conflict management. This presentation may be of use in transcending this age-old upheaval besetting humankind, hitherto.
The briefing conducted by Rishad Sharif , Fardeen Ameen , Aaqib Hossain & Nabil Hasan of the Bangladesh Debating Council
Content Credit: WUDC Berlin 2013
Theory essay 1A brief look upon the world today will show us jus.docxchristalgrieg
Theory essay 1
A brief look upon the world today will show us just how crucial compromise Truly is for our society. If any given community tries to become utopian, then Compromise is definitely the driving force behind that community.
According to the Oxford dictionary, compromise may be defined as an agreement or settlement of a dispute that is reached by each side making concessions.
From that definition, we can clearly see that compromise is heavily embedded in many if not all aspects of our lives; Moreover, if compromise affects us directly then it is our duty to implement compromise unconditionally in order to make reliable decisions.
We argue that compromise is an unconditional moral value, because compromise effects all groups and communities no matter how extravagant or trivial they might seem.
To see the effect of compromise in different aspects of our lives, we will briefly explain in the following:
1- in marriage, compromised means understanding that a relationship consists of two individuals and the key to the success of any relationship is by reaching a mutual understanding which requires a level of sacrifice from each of the individuals.
2- In politics, compromise is often misunderstood as mere weakness or the inefficiency of a politician to realize the goals of her/his campaign; However, History tells us that this is simply not true, Compromise in politics is a concept of finding agreement through communication, through a mutual acceptance of terms—often involving variations from an original goal or desires; In other words, compromise in politics is an absolute moral value since it is based on the realization that we are all parts of a bigger global society.
3- in the classroom, Compromise is shown when a professor changes his/her method of teaching in order to creatively find new ways to teach the students. (different students have different mindsets which require different ways of delivering the information to them)
4- in religion, Compromise is apparent when different followers of different faiths come together and unite in order to benefit the whole world spiritually by aspiring to unite as one body.
5- in a democracy, The concept of democracy itself is built on the idea that the control of any organization or group should be done by the majority of its members; In other words, we could ever meet all of the different requirements we can never satisfy everyone so in order to prevent chaos and actually have the country to continue running, we compromise to satisfy the different parties involved in order for us to not become fixated upon a single issue and forget the end goal of our society which is to further improve our ever lasting civilization.
There are many criticisms and arguments against the concept of compromise; Nonetheless, i will start off by quoting Greg Laurie in his book the dangers of compromise: "Have you ever heard the story of the guy who could not decide what side he wanted to fi ...
This document discusses rhetorical appeals, including logos, ethos, and pathos. It defines each appeal and provides examples. Logos appeals to logic and reason through facts, statistics, and logical arguments. Ethos appeals to credibility and authority through the reputation and expertise of the source. Pathos appeals to emotion through stories, anecdotes, and the elicitation of feelings like love, pity, fear, and anger. The document suggests analyzing arguments to identify which appeals are used and how effectively, and provides exercises for students to practice using and identifying appeals.
Mission CriticalHumanities 1BFallacies and Non-RaIlonaThornburg83
This document discusses various types of fallacious arguments and non-rational persuasion techniques. It begins by defining fallacious appeals and dividing them into misdirected appeals and emotional appeals. It then provides examples and detailed explanations of different types of misdirected appeals, including appeals to authority, common belief, common practice, and indirect consequences. It also discusses several common emotional appeals such as appeals to fear, loyalty, pity, prejudice, spite, and vanity. The document aims to help readers identify and evaluate fallacious arguments.
The document provides an overview of basic debating skills. It defines what a debate is, the roles of different speakers, how to structure arguments and rebuttals, and tips for effective delivery. A debate involves presenting structured speeches on opposing sides of an issue to determine the stronger argument. Each speaker has a designated role, such as introducing the topic or rebutting the other side's arguments. Debaters are scored on the substance of their arguments, how they organize their presentation, and their public speaking mannerisms. The goal is a logical, well-structured exchange of ideas, not an undisciplined shouting match.
The document discusses various rhetorical devices and techniques of persuasion that can be used to positively or negatively frame information, including euphemisms, comparisons, definitions, explanations, loaded questions, exaggeration, ridicule, and implied or unavailable evidence. It notes that even subtle or fleeting uses of such techniques can influence behavior and have long-lasting effects below the threshold of consciousness. Critical thinking is important for identifying non-argumentative persuasion attempts and checking spontaneous beliefs.
Critical thinking involves systematically evaluating beliefs and statements using rational standards. It examines life through examining one's beliefs, as Socrates said an unexamined life is not worth living. Critical thinking uses distinct procedures like identifying claims, premises, conclusions, and arguments to rationally assess existing beliefs and form new ones. Common impediments include self-interested, group, and subjective thinking. Deductive arguments aim to conclusively support conclusions while inductive arguments probably support conclusions. Fallacies involve irrelevant or unacceptable premises while various reasoning patterns help strengthen arguments.
The document provides examples and explanations to help identify the premises and conclusions of arguments. It demonstrates how to distinguish premises from conclusions by looking for indicator words and logical connections. The ability to break down arguments into their component premises and conclusions is an important critical thinking skill.
The document provides examples and explanations to help identify the premises and conclusions of arguments. It demonstrates how to distinguish premises from conclusions by looking for indicator words and rephrasing statements with words like "therefore". The ability to break down arguments into their premises and conclusions is essential for understanding and evaluating reasoning.
Chapter 3Evaluating Moral ArgumentsWhat Is Moral Reasoning.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3
Evaluating Moral Arguments
What Is Moral Reasoning?
Moral reasoningis ordinary critical reasoning applied to ethics.
Critical reasoning(also called critical thinking) is the careful, systematic evaluation of statementsand arguments.
Statements
A statement(or claim) is the assertion that something is either true or false. The following are examples of statements:“Murder is wrong.”“1 + 1 = 2”“Shakespeare wrote The Tempest.”
Statements and Arguments –1
When at least one statement attempts to provide reasons for believing another statement, we have an argument—a group of statements, one of which is supposed to be supported by the rest.
Statements and Arguments –2
The supporting statements are called premises.
The statement that is being supported by the others is the conclusion.
Identifying ArgumentsAn argumentis intended to prove something.All arguments share a pattern: at least one premise is required to support a conclusion.A cluster of unsupported claims is not an argument.The most reliable way to identify arguments is to look for the conclusion first.Look for indicator words:terms that often appear in arguments and signal that a premise or conclusion may be nearby.
Some words indicating a conclusion:
Therefore, consequently, hence, it follows that, thus, so, it must be thatSome words indicating a premise:
Because, since, for, given that, due to the fact that, for the reason that, the reason being, assuming that, as indicated by
Two Forms of Argument
A deductive argumentis supposed to give logically conclusivesupport to its conclusion.
An inductive argumentis supposed to offer probablesupport to its conclusion.
Common Deductive Argument FormsValid forms:Denying the antecedentAffirming the consequent Invalid forms:Affirming the antecedent(modus ponens)Denying the consequent(modus tollens)The hypothetical syllogism
Deductive Arguments
A deductive argument isvalidif the premises support the conclusion. That is, the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.
A deductive argument is invalidif the premises do not support the conclusion. That is, the conclusion does not follow necessarily from the premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion may or may not be true.
A deductive argument is sound if it is valid and all its premises are true.
A deductive argument is unsound if it is invalid and/or any of its premises are false.
Inductive Arguments
An inductive argument is strongif it gives probable support to its conclusion. That is, if its premises are true, its conclusion is also likely to be true.
An inductive argument is weak if it does not give probable support to its conclusion. That is, if its premises are true, its conclusion is not more probable than not to be true.
An inductive argument is cogentif it is strong and all of its premises are true.
An inductive argument is not cogent if it is weakand/or any of.
Senior High School Reading and Writing Skillsqueenpressman14
The document discusses five types of claims that are commonly used in arguments: claims of fact, definition, cause, value, and policy. It provides examples and descriptions of each type of claim. Claims of fact address whether something happened or is true. Definition claims focus on how something should be defined. Cause claims examine what caused something or what the effects will be. Value claims establish whether something is good or bad. Policy claims suggest solutions to problems or future courses of action. Arguments can contain a mix of these different claim types, but usually one type will predominate. Identifying the predominant claim helps determine the main purpose of the argument.
This document provides information about a debate workshop to be held on December 2nd. It discusses the purpose of debates and different debate styles and formats that will be covered, including team policy debates, Lincoln-Douglas debates, and parliamentary debates. The workshop will cover four types of debate topics and compare different debate styles such as cross-examination debates, public forum debates, and their various formats and procedures.
Introduction to Philosophy 101 HomeworkSection 3 Deductive Argum.pdffazilfootsteps
Introduction to Philosophy 101: Homework
Section 3: Deductive Arguments and Standard Form/Short Answer
Directions: Put the following deductive arguments into standard form and determine whether the
arguments are of the form modus ponens, modus tollens, disjunctive syllogism, or hypothetical
syllogism.
1. If it is true that everyone lies to serve their own interest, then no one can be trusted. But,
obviously I know many people who can be trusted. Therefore, it cannot be true that everyone lies
to serve their own interest.
1.
2.
___________________________________________________
3.
Form:
2. If large cattle farms are more harmful to the environment than driving automobiles, then
eating beef is morally wrong. Large cattle farms are more harmful than driving automobiles.
Thus, this must mean that eating beef is morally wrong.
1.
2.
_____________________________________________________
3.
Form:
3. If determinism is true then no human being can ever be responsible for any of their actions. If
human beings cannot be responsible for their actions, then there is no such thing as universal
ethics. Therefore, if determinism is true, then there is no such thing as universal ethics.
1.
2.
________________________________________________________
3.
Form:
4. Explain Sophistic rhetoric. What is its purpose?
5. Why does Socrates claim that he is the wisest in all of Athens?
6. Explain Socrates’ idea of truth. Does truth exist?
7. Explain Dqescartes’ method of doubt and the rational truth he discovers.
8. According to Berkeley, “if a tree falls in the woods, does it make a sound?” Explain this in
terms of his philosophy.
9. When referring to the theory of Dualism, what is the problem of interaction?
10. Briefly define Physicalism.
Solution
2. If large cattle farms are more harmful to the environment than driving automobiles, then
eating beef is morally wrong. Large cattle farms are more harmful than driving automobiles.
Thus, this must mean that eating beef is morally wrong.
Form: modus ponens
P: Large cattle farms are more harmful than driving automobiles
Q: that eating beef is morally wrong.
If P Q and P are true, then Q is true, by modus ponens.
3. If determinism is true then no human being can ever be responsible for any of their actions. If
human beings cannot be responsible for their actions, then there is no such thing as universal
ethics. Therefore, if determinism is true, then there is no such thing as universal ethics.
Form:disjunctive syllogism.
1. If it is true that everyone lies to serve their own interest, then no one can be trusted. But,
obviously I know many people who can be trusted. Therefore, it cannot be true that everyone lies
to serve their own interest.
Form: modus tollens
4. Explain Sophistic rhetoric. What is its purpose?
The Sophists were orators, public speakers, mouths for hire in an oral culture. They were gifted
with speech. They were skilled in what becomes known as Rhetoric. They were respected,
feared and hated. They had a gift.
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This presentation was uploaded with the author’s consent.
2. A word is a mere symbol of an idea or a conception. It denotes some general
concept existing in the mind.
A term is any word or group of words which serves to point out any imaginable
subject of discourse.
A word or a term does not assert an act of judgement to be affirmed or to be
denied.
An “act of judgement is a mental assertion of something as true or untrue.”
TO ILLUSTRATE:
woman is a word: Filipino woman is a term.
Woman or Filipino woman does not assert an act of judgement to be affirmed
or to be denied.
Therefore, a word or a term may not be the subject of argumentation.
3. The subject of argumentation must be a proposition.
A proposition is defined as “an expression in words of an act of
judgement.”
A proposition is expressed in a complete statement, with a subject
and a predicate.
It allows an affirmance and a denial.
ILLUSTRATIONS:
1) The Filipino woman of yesterday was better than the Filipino
woman of today.
2) Capital punishment should be abolished.
3) City mayors should be elected by popular vote.
4. PROPOSITIONS OF FACT
is one that is concerned with the truth or falsity of an act of
judgement.
It aims at belief.
It settles the question: “Is this assertion true?”
Examples:
(1) Resolved, That elective city mayors are more efficient than
appointive ones.
(2) Resolved, That the Chinese are a menace to our national security.
5. PROPOSITIONS OF POLICY
Is one that is concerned with the wisdom or unwisdom, the
expediency or inexpediency, of a course of action.
It aims at action.
It answers the questions: “Should it be done?” “Should this
course of action be followed?”
Examples:
(1) Resolved, That the Filipino women should be disfranchised.
(2) Resolved, That the term of office of the President be six years,
without reelection.
6. READER/HEARER
To determine whether the debater
satisfies the requirements of the
burden of proof, he must know
what the dispute is all about.
If he did not, he cannot follow the
progress of the debate.
ARGUER/DEBATER
Before arguing, the debater must
know what it is that he should
establish.
If he cannot understand his own
position, he cannot understand
the position taken by his
opponent, and thus he will not be
able to refute him.
7. In contest debates, the proposition must always be expressed in
the introduction.
In public discussions, it is not always advisable to do so.
In a formal contest debate, it is imperative that the proposition
be always expressed in the form of a resolution.
Example:
Resolved, That a partyless democracy be established in the
Philippines.
8. a) In a club. Such as a fraternity or a class organization, the proposition is
presented in the form of a motion from the floor.
b) In a parliamentary body. Such as the House of Representatives, the
proposition is presented in any of the following forms: a bill, a resolution, or
a motion.
c) In a municipal council. Such as the Municipal Board of the City of Manila,
the proposition is presented in the following forms: an ordinance, a
resolution, or a motion.
d) In a court of law. The proposition is presented in the form of pleading.
Pleading are found inn the ff. forms: (1) Complaint, (2) Information, (3)
Petition, (4) Motion.
9. Not all propositions are good for debates.
The nature of the audience should be taken into
account. (education, likes and dislikes, interests)
A proposition may be chosen because it is timely, its
discussion profitable, or it is best adapted to the
interests of the debaters or those of the audience.
10. (a) The proposition must be in the form of an assertion.
The proposition should be stated in a categorical, declarative, positive
statement, not a question.
Example:
“Resolved, That capital punishment be abolished.”
NOT, “Should capital punishment be abolished?”
“Resolved, that capital punishment should not be abolished.”
11. (b) The proposition must express only one act of
judgement.
If there are two assertions or two courses of action or problems expressed in
one proposition, confusion will arise.
Example:
“Resolved, That the Philippines establish a unicameral legislature and that the
Speaker of the House of Representatives be elected by direct popular vote.”
(c) The proposition must be susceptible of only one
interpretation.
The words used should be clear.
General terms susceptible of more than one interpretation should be
avoided.
12. (d) The proposition must be unprejudiced.
There should be no phraseology that assumes the truth of the point to be
proved.
There should not be used words of praise or of blame.
Example:
“Resolved, That dishonest officials be weeded from the service.”
(e) The proposition should avoid abstractions and
generalizations.
The propositions should be as concrete as specific as possible.
Example:
“Resolved, That women should organize a civic club.”
13. (f) The proposition must be concise and simple.
All unnecessary words should be omitted and the words used should be easy to
comprehend.
Example:
“Resolved, That, in order to serve the end of justice and meet public demand, retail
trade be nationalized.”
(g) The proposition must be debatable.
The act of judgement expressed should not be obviously true or false.
THE FF. PROPOSITIONS ARE NOT DEBATABLE:
(1) Resolved, That to be honest is to be honorable.
(2) Resolved, That China is bigger than Japan
14. (h) The proposition must be so worded that the burden of proof shall fall on the
affirmative side.
Whoever will take up the affirmative side of the question must be the party who is
dissatisfied with the present order of things and, therefore demands a change in the
existing situation.
Example:
“Resolved, That the Filipino woman should be granted the right of suffrage.”
(i) The proposition must be interesting.
The word interesting, as it is used here, is a relative form.
Depends upon the education, the aptitude, the experience, the likes and dislikes of
both the speaker and the audience, and the peculiar conditions of the time.
Must be within the comprehension of both the speaker and the audience.
Example:
“Resolved, That coronary thrombosis is curable.”
16. 1. The nature of the burden of proof.
Justice and common sense demand that one who asserts
something must prove his assertion.
The theory of the burden of proof is an application of the Latin
maxim: Ei incumbit probatio, qui dicit, non qui negat. (It is the
duty of the one who alleges to prove what he says, not of the one
who denies it.)
BURDEN OF PROOF
Is the duty of the affirmative to present evidences and arguments to
establish his claim.
17. Example:
If Pedro alleges that Juan owes him ₱100.00, it is his duty to present all the
evidences he has at hand, testimonial or documentary, to establish his claim.
If Pedro fails to do so, Juan, the negative, does not have the duty to prove
that he does not owe Pedro.
PRIMA FACIE CASE
Is one of sufficient strength to win if it is not refuted.
BURDEN OF REBUTTAL
Is the duty of either party to the controversy to present evidences and
arguments at any stage of the case to overthrow the contention of the
opposing side.
18. A counterproposition is one that is presented by the
negative, adverse to the main proposition.
Burden of proof never shifts: it always lies on the
affirmative side.
Burden of Rebuttal shifts from side to side as the
debate progresses.
19. In law, the term of rebuttal is not used.
The term burden of proof covers the meaning of both burden of proof
and burden of rebuttal.
The burden of rebuttal in law is termed weight of evidence in legal
procedure.
A rebuttal evidence or a rebuttal argument is either an evidence or an
argument presented by a party to a controversy to overthrow the
opposing case.
In law, the counterproposition is called affirmative defense or confession
and avoidance.
20. THE THEORY OF THE PRESUMPTIONS.
In general, are logical inferences of the truth or falsity of a point in
dispute.
Man is surrounded by the inexorable operation of the laws of nature,
physical and human.
He makes inferences from his observation.
All the innumerable inferences that man makes are based on his
experience.
21. PRESUMPTIONS OF FACT.
They are simple logical inferences.
May be regarded by the judge.
They do not have the force of legal rules.
PRESUMPTIONS OF LAW.
Are legal assumptions of the truth or falsity of a point in
dispute.
Must be regarded by the judge
23. Where there is freedom of thought and expression, there necessarily
follow differences of opinions. One person may assert a certain fact;
another may deny such as assertion.
These differences of opinion—assertions affirmed by the affirmative
and denied by the negative—are generally called issues.
In our daily conversation, the word issues refers to clashes of
opinions and beliefs.
24. In general argumentation, issues are defined as
“the inherently vital points, elements, or subpropositions, affirmed by the
affirmative and denied by the negative, upon the establishment of which
depends the establishment of the main proposition.”
Issues are inherent in the proposition.
They are also vital in the sense that, unless they are established, the main
proposition cannot be established.
To make out a prima facie case, the issues must first be established by
competent evidence, proof, or argument.
25. Starting point of the debate.
ISSUE OF FACT – a point raised by a party who denies something alleged in
his opponent’s pleading.
ISSUE OF LAW - a point of law upon which the two parties differ.
GENERAL ISSUE - refers to a defense which denies simpliciter the whole
declaration of the affirmative.
SPECIAL ISSUE - does not deny the whole declaration, but one or more of the
the allegations of law or fact.
26. Issues are inherent in the proposition.
It is the task of the debaters to discover, explain, and
define the issues through logical and careful analysis.
The audience as well as the debaters themselves will
understand the points on which opinions clash.
27. Potential issues are simply the inherently vital points involved in the
proposition that the affirmative should establish to make out a prima facie
case.
Admitted issues are those potential issues on which there is no clash of
opinion because they are not controverted by the negative.
Stock issues refer to the formulas of issues: i.e., issues that are considered
always involved in a proposition of policy.
For example:
In a proposition of policy, the debater will usually consider the ff. questions: (1)
Is the measure necessary? (2) Will the measure be beneficial? and (3) Is the
measure practicable?
28. READER/HEARER
The reader who does not
comprehend precisely the point in
dispute cannot determine the
relevancy or the irrelevancy or the
logical sufficiency or in-sufficiency
of the evidences and arguments
that are presented.
He is likely to get confused and,
therefore, cannot follow the
progress of the debate.
ARGUER/DEBATER
He may waste his time and
energy proving some fact that will
not help in establishing his case.
He may be surprised by an attack
on some vital point.
He may fail to appreciate the
relevancy of the evidence and
arguments that he may adduce.
He will likely confuse them.
29. The affirmative must establish all the issues, unless the
negative admits one or some of them.
If the affirmative fails to prove any one of the issues, he
loses the case.
As he fails thus to make out a prima facie case, the
negative has no obligation to present any evidence in
his defense.
30. JOINING THE ISSUES
The process of determining what issues are admitted
and what issues are denied.
He may admit all the issues except one and fight the
affirmative on this remaining one.
31. A contest debate is not decided on the merits of the case—neither in the
strength of the evidence presented nor on the strength of the arguments
adduced.
It is decided on the basis of the ability of the debaters—i.e., their
reasoning, their analysis of the question, the quality of their language, their
application of the rules of argumentation and debate as an art, their ability
to talk to an audience, and the measure of preparation they demonstrate.
The affirmative may fail to establish a prima facie and yet win the debate.
32. ISSUES
Are the vital points involved in a proposition that the affirmative
must establish his case.
Issues are always vital.
PARTITION
Is the term used to designate the statement of the main points to
taken up in the course of the discussion.
The points in partition must be important, but not necessarily vital.
34. Consult the dictionary for the definitions of the terms used in the proposition.
Read books written by recognized authorities on the question under
discussion.
Read the newspapers, magazine articles, and pamphlets for whatever
information may be useful in establishing his case.
Interview important persons to get their views on the question or to get
suggestions in getting the materials needed.
From pertinent sources he gathers data, statistics, and such other information
to make him thoroughly conversant with both sides of the question and with
all its phases and aspects.
35. The process of gathering from all available sources of
information such facts, data, statistics, and inferences as
are necessary to establish one’s case and to overthrow
the case of the opponent.
A study of evidence, forms of arguments, and fallacies
is necessary to make the work of research effective.
36. THE NOTE-BOOK SYSTEM
ADVANTAGES
More handy to carry around
More convenient for taking down
long quotations or extracts and for
preserving clippings
DISADVANTAGES
Not very convenient in sorting and
filing the materials gathered
Not convenient for platform use
THE CARD SYSTEM
ADVANTAGES
Easy and convenient to remove from or
add to the pack new cards on any subject
Much more convenient for use on the
platform in actual debate
DISADVANTAGES
The debater may lose some of the cards
Too small for long quotations or extracts
and for preserving clippings
37. Is the precision or correctness of noting the sources of
information used in argumentation.
The researcher must be careful in copying quotations or
extracts from his sources of information.
Give credit to whom credit is due.
38. The researcher should look for all the available
information—facts, data, statistics, inferences—
on both sides of the proposition.
Get all the information available on every phase
of the question—political, economic, sociological,
aesthetic.
39. Colleges and Universities have adequate libraries to meet
the needs of their students.
In the Philippines we have the National Library.
These libraries have published bibliographies and card
indexes. These make references handy.
In some cases, students should consult their professors.
40. Assimilation is the process of converting the materials
gathered and determined useful to advance one’s case
into the fibers of one’s finished arguments.
Demands the constant application of the processes of
thought in the materials gathered until the ideas
expressed in them become a part of one’s stock of
information or knowledge.