The document provides a comprehensive overview of text mining processes, including data assembly, processing, and visualization techniques. It elaborates on term weight calculations, similarity distance measures, and common text mining techniques such as n-grams and natural language processing. Additionally, it lists required R packages and examples for implementing the procedures, specifically focusing on Twitter data analysis and ensemble classification using Rtexttools.

1. Text Mining 101
Manohar Swamynathan
August 2012

2. agenda:
o Text Mining Process Steps
o Calculate Term Weight
o Similarity Distance Measure
o Common Text Mining Techniques
o Appendix
- Required R packages for Text Mining
- Implemented Examples
o R code for obtaining and analyzing tweets.
o RTextTools – Ensemble Classification
o References
Manohar Swamynathan
Aug 2012

3. Step 1 – Data assemble
Text Corpus
Flat files
Social
Corporate
Database
CommonTextDataSources

4. Data Processing Step Brief Description
Explore Corpus through
Exploratory Data Analysis
Understand the types of variables, their functions, permissible values, and so on. Some formats
including html and xml contain tags and other data structures that provide more metadata.
Convert text to lowercase This is to avoid distinguish between words simply on case.
Remove Number(if
required)
Numbers may or may not be relevant to our analyses.
Remove Punctuations Punctuation can provide grammatical context which supports understanding. Often for initial
analyses we ignore the punctuation. Later we will use punctuation to support the extraction of
meaning.
Remove English stop
words
Stop words are common words found in a language. Words like for, of, are, etc are common stop
words.
Remove Own stop words(if
required)
Along with English stop words, we could instead or in addition remove our own stop words. The
choice of own stop word might depend on the domain of discourse, and might not become
apparent until we've done some analysis.
Strip whitespace Eliminate extra white-spaces. Any additional space that is not the space that occur within the
sentence or between words.
Stemming Stemming uses an algorithm that removes common word endings for English words, such as “es”,
“ed” and “'s”. Example, "computer" & "computers" become "comput"
Lemmatization Transform to dictionary base form i.e., "produce" & "produced" become "produce"
Sparse terms We are often not interested in infrequent terms in our documents. Such “sparse" terms should be
removed from the document term matrix.
Document term matrix A document term matrix is simply a matrix with documents as the rows and terms as the columns
and a count of the frequency of words as the cells of the matrix.
Step 2 - Data Processing
4
Python packages – textmining, nltk
R packages - tm, qdap, openNLP

5. Step 3 - Data Visualization
Frequency Chart Word Cloud
Correlation Plot

6. Step 4 – Models
Clustering
Classification
Sentiment Analysis
Document

7. Term Frequency - How frequently term appears?
Term Frequency TF(t) = (Number of times term t appears in a document) / (Total number of terms in the
document)
Example:
Calculate Term Weight (TF * IDF)
Inverse Document Frequency - How important a term is?
Document Frequency DF = d (number of documents containing a given term) / D (the size of the collection of
documents)
To normalize take log(d/D), but often D > d and log(d/D) will give negative value. So invert the ratio inside log
expression. Essentially we are compressing the scale of values so that very large or very small quantities are
smoothly compared
Inverse Document Frequency IDF(t) = log(Total number of documents / Number of documents with term t in it)
7
- Assume we have overall 10 million documents and the word spindle appears in one thousand of these
- Consider 2 documents containing 100 total words each, and contains term spindle x number of times
Document spindle – Frequency Total Words TF IDF TF * IDF
1 3 100 3/100 = 0.03 log(10,000,000/1,000) = 4 0.03 * 4 = 0.12
2 30 100 30/100 = .3 log(10,000,000/1,000) = 4 0.3 * 4 = 1.2

8. Similarity Distance Measure
Example:
Text 1: statistics skills and programming skills are equally important for analytics
Text 2: statistics skills and domain knowledge are important for analytics
Text 3: I like reading books and travelling
The three vectors are:
T1 = (1,2,1,1,0,1,1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0)
T2 = (1,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0,0)
T3 = (0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,1,1,1)
Degree of Similarity (T1 & T2) = (T1 %*% T2) / (sqrt(sum(T1^2)) * sqrt(sum(T2^2))) = 77%
Degree of Similarity (T1 & T3) = (T1 %*% T3) / (sqrt(sum(T1^2)) * sqrt(sum(T3^2))) = 12%
Additional Reading: Here is a detailed paper on comparing the efficiency of different distance measures for text documents.
URL – 1) http://home.iitk.ac.in/~spranjal/cs671/project/report.pdf
2) http://users.dsic.upv.es/~prosso/resources/BarronEtAl_ICON09.pdf
statisticsskills and programming knowledge are equally important for analytics domain I like reading books travelling
Text 1 1 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Text 2 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
Text 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
X
Y
Euclidean
Cosine
- cosine value will be a
number between 0 and 1
- Smaller the angel bigger
the cosine value/similarity
8

9. Common Text Mining Techniques
• N-grams
• Shallow Natural Language Processing
• Deep Natural Language Processing

10. Example: "defense attorney for liberty and
montecito”
1-gram:
defense
attorney
for
liberty
and
montecito
2-gram:
defense attorney
for liberty
and montecito
attorney for
liberty and
attorney for
3-gram:
defense attorney for
liberty and montecito
attorney for liberty
for liberty and
liberty and montecito
4-gram:
defense attorney for liberty
attorney for liberty and
for liberty and montecito
5-gram:
defense attorney for liberty and montecito
attorney for liberty and montecito
Application:
 Probabilistic language model for predicting the
next item in a sequence in the form of a (n − 1)
 Widely used in probability, communication
theory, computational linguistics, biological
sequence analysis
Advantage:
 Relatively simple
 Simply increasing n, model can be used to store
more context
Disadvantage:
 Semantic value of the item is not considered
n-gram
Definition:
• n-gram is a contiguous sequence of n items from a
given sequence of text
• The items can be letters, words, syllables or base
pairs according to the application
10

11. Application:
- Taxonomy extraction (predefined terms and entities)
- Entities: People, organizations, locations, times, dates, prices, genes, proteins, diseases,
medicines
- Concept extraction (main idea or a theme)
Advantage:
- Less noisy than n-grams
Disadvantage:
- Does not specify role of items in the main sentence
Shallow NLP Technique
Definition:
- Assign a syntactic label (noun, verb etc.) to a chunk
- Knowledge extraction from text through semantic/syntactic analysis approach
11

12. Sentence - “The driver from Europe crashed the car with the white bumper”
1-gram
the
driver
from
europe
crashed
the
car
with
the
white
bumper
Part of Speech
DT – Determiner
NN - Noun, singular or mass
IN - Preposition or subordinating conjunction
NNP - Proper Noun, singular
VBD - Verb, past tense
DT – Determiner
NN - Noun, singular or mass
IN - Preposition or subordinating conjunction
DT – Determiner
JJ – Adjective
NN - Noun, singular or mass
- Convert to lowercase & PoS tag
Concept Extraction:
- Remove Stop words
- Retain only Noun’s & Verb’s
- Bi-gram with Noun’s & Verb’s retained
Bi-gram PoS
car white NN JJ
crashed car VBD NN
driver europe NN NNP
europe crashed NNP VBD
white bumper JJ NN
3-gram PoS
car white bumper NN JJ NN
crashed car white VBD NN JJ
driver europe crashed NN NNP VBD
europe crashed car NNP VBD NN
- 3-gram with Noun’s & Verb’s retained
Conclusion:
1-gram: Reduced noise, however no clear context
Bi-gram & 3-gram: Increased context, however there
is a information loss
Shallow NLP Technique
12
Stop words
Noun/Verb

13. Definition:
- Extension to the shallow NLP
- Detected relationships are expressed as complex construction to retain the context
- Example relationships: Located in, employed by, part of, married to
Applications:
- Develop features and representations appropriate for complex interpretation tasks
- Fraud detection
- Life science: prediction activities based on complex RNA-Sequence
Deep NLP technique
Example:
The above sentence can be represented using triples (Subject: Predicate [Modifier]: Object)
without loosing the context.
Triples:
driver : crash : car
driver : crash with : bumper
driver : be from : Europe
13

14. Technique General Steps Pros Cons
N-Gram
- Convert to lowercase
- Remove punctuations
- Remove special characters Simple technique Extremely noisy
Shallow NLP
technique
- POS tagging
- Lemmatization i.e., transform to
dictionary base form i.e., "produce" &
"produced" become "produce"
- Stemming i.e., transform to root word
i.e., 1) "computer" & "computers" become
"comput"
2) "product", "produce" & "produced"
become "produc"
- Chunking i.e., identify the phrasal
constituents in a sentence , including
noun/verb phrase etc., and splits the
sentence into chunks of semantically
related words
Less noisy than N-
Grams
Computationally
expensive
solution for
analyzing the
structure of texts.
Does not specify
the internal
structure or the
role of words in
the sentence
Deep NLP
technique
- Generate syntactic relationship
between each pair of words
- Extract subject, predicate, nagation,
objecct and named entity to form triples.
Context of the
sentence is
retained.
Sentence level
analysis is too
structured
Techniques - Summary
14

15. Appendix
15

16. 2A - Explore Corpus through EDA
2B - Convert text to lowercase
2C - Remove
a) Numbers(if required)
b) Punctuations
c) English stop words
d) Own stop words(if
required)
e) Strip whitespace
f) Lemmatization/Stemming
g) Sparse terms
2D - Create document term matrix
Step 3 - Visualization
Corpus
Web
Documents
Step 1 – Data Assemble
Step 2 – Data Processing
Step 4 – Build Model(s)
 Clustering
 Classification
 Sentiment Analysis
FrequencyChartWordCloudCorrelationPlot
R - Text Mining Process Overview
16
DB

17. Package
Name
Category Description
tm Text Mining A framework for text mining applications
topicmodels Topic Modelling Fit topic models with Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) and Comparative Text Mining (CTM)
wordcloud Visualization Plot a cloud comparing the frequencies of words
across documents
lda Topic Modelling Fit topic models with Latent Dirichlet Allocation
wordnet Text Mining Database of English which is commonly used in linguistics and text mining
RTextTools Text Mining Automatic text classification via supervised learning
qdap Sentiment
analysis
Transcript analysis, text mining and natural language processing
tm.plugin.dc Text Mining A plug-in for package tm to support distributed text mining
tm.plugin.mail Text Mining A plug-in for package tm to handle mail
textir Text Mining A suite of tools for inference about text documents and associated sentiment
tau Text Mining Utilities for text analysis
textcat Text Mining N-gram based text categorization
SnowballC Text Mining Word stemmer
twitteR Text Mining Provides an interface to the Twitter web API
ROAuth Text Mining Allows users to authenticate to the server of their choice (like Twitter)
RColorBrewer Visualization The packages provides palettes for drawing nice maps shaded according to a variable
ggplot2 Visualization Graphing package implemented on top of the R statistical package. Inspired by the
Grammar of Graphics seminal work of Leland Wilkinson
R – Required packages for Text Mining
17

18. Example 1 - Obtaining and analyzing tweets
Objective: R code for analyzing tweets relating to #AAA2011 (text mining, topic modelling, network analysis, clustering and
sentiment analysis)
What does the code do?
The code details ten steps in the analysis and visualization of the tweets:
Acquiring the raw Twitter data
Calculating some basic statistics with the raw Twitter data
Calculating some basic retweet statistics
Calculating the ratio of retweets to tweets
Calculating some basic statistics about URLs in tweets
Basic text mining for token frequency and token association analysis (word cloud)
Calculating sentiment scores of tweets, including on subsets containing tokens of interest
Hierarchical clustering of tokens based on multi scale bootstrap resampling
Topic modelling the tweet corpus using latent Dirichlet allocation
Network analysis of tweeters based on retweets
Code Source: Code was taken from following link and tweaked/added additional bits where required to ensure code runs fine
https://github.com/benmarwick/AAA2011-Tweets
How to Run or Test the code? - From the word doc copy the R code in the given sequence highlighted in yellow color and paste
on your R console.
18

19. RTextTools – Example for supervised Learning for Text Classification using Ensemble
RTextTools is a free, open source R machine learning package for automatic text classification.
The package includes nine algorithms for ensemble classification (svm, slda, boosting, bagging, random
forests, glmnet, decision trees, neural networks, and maximum entropy), comprehensive analytics, and
thorough documentation.
Users may use n-fold cross validation to calculate the accuracy of each algorithm on their dataset and
determine which algorithms to use in their ensemble.
(Using a four-ensemble agreement approach, Collingwood and Wilkerson (2012) found that when four of their
algorithms agree on the label of a textual document, the machine label matches the human label over 90% of
the time. The rate is just 45% when only two algorithms agree on the text label.)
Code Source: The codes is readily available for download and usage from the following link
https://github.com/timjurka/RTextTools . The code can be implemented without modification for testing,
however it’s set up such that changes can be incorporated easily based on our requirement.
Additional Reading: http://www.rtexttools.com/about-the-project.html
19
Example 2 - RTextTools

20. Penn Treebank - https://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2003/ling001/penn_treebank_pos.html
Stanford info lab - Finding Similar Items: http://infolab.stanford.edu/~ullman/mmds/ch3.pdf
TRIPLET EXTRACTION FROM SENTENCES: URL - http://ailab.ijs.si/delia_rusu/Papers/is_2007.pdf
Shallow and Deep NLP Processing for ontology learning, a Quick Overview:
http://azouaq.athabascau.ca/publications/Conferences,%20Workshops,%20Books/%5BBC2%5D_K
DW_2010.pdf
References
20