Taxonomy 101

Albuquerque, NM 87110
www.accessinn.com
www.dataharmony.com
505-998-0800
Marjorie M.K. Hlava
President and Chief Scientist
Access Innovations, Inc.

Taxonomy 101

Overview of the
Presentation

 Why build a taxonomy?
 What is a taxonomy?
 What are the standards?
 Where are taxonomies used?
 What are the parts of a taxonomy?
 How do you build one?
 How do you implement one?
 Review

Why build a taxonomy?
 Leverage your data
 Search, precision, and recall
 Websites
 Discoverability and findability
 Data mashups
 Data trends and visualization
 Repackaging and repurposing data
 Author and entity disambiguation

Heart of the Big Data
production process

From the
production side
to the website
display carry the
taxonomy
descriptors for
use in precision
search

What is a Taxonomy?
ANSI/NISO Z39.19-2005

controlled

“A collection of controlled vocabulary terms
organized into a Yes!

hierarchical structure.”
Missing:
equivalence, homographic, and associative relationships
and notes
Copyright © 2009 - Access Innovations, Inc.

A taxonomy is a
knowledge organization system

 Uncontrolled list Not complex

 Name authority file
 Synonym set/ring
 Controlled vocabulary
 Taxonomy
 Thesaurus
 Ontology
 Semantic network Highly complex


A Thesaurus is a
Knowledge Organization System
 Controlled vocabulary KOS
 Focus on conceptual classes, not specifics
 Hierarchy – implicit if not displayed
 Parent-child relationships
 Various display formats may be available
 Network of relationships between terms guides
user to find information Long
 Cousins, friends, aliases
 Scope notes, term history established
 More elaborate and informative standards

Thesaurus defined –
ANSI/NISO Z39.19-2005
“A controlled vocabulary arranged in a known order
and structured so that the various
[equivalence, homographic, hierarchical, and
associative] relationships among terms are displayed
clearly and identified by standardized relationship
indicators. Relationship indicators should be employed
reciprocally.
“Its purpose is to promote consistency in the indexing of
content objects, especially for postcoordinated
information storage and retrieval systems, and to
facilitate browsing and searching by linking entry
terms with terms. Thesauri may also facilitate the
retrieval of content objects in free text searching.”

Structure of
controlled vocabularies

Lists Synonyms Taxonomy Thesaurus Ontology

INCREASING COMPLEXITY and CONTROL

Ambiguity Ambiguity Ambiguity
Synonym Synonym Synonym
Hierarchy Hierarchy Hierarchy
Relationships Additional kinds of
relationships


Taxonomy? Thesaurus?

 Often used interchangeably
 Thesaurus is a taxonomy with extras
 Related Terms
 Non-preferred Terms (USE/Used for)
 Scope Notes
 more
 Use the word your audience understands
 Avoid confusion with Roget’s Thesaurus


Where can I get
taxonomy standards?

 www.niso.org
 Z39.19 (2010) Controlled Vocabularies
 www.ISO.ce
 ISO 25964 parts 1 and 2
 www.bsi.uk.co
 www.w3c.org

Web Ontology Language
OWL

 W3C Recommendation 10 February 2004
 http://www.w3.org/TR/2004/Rec-owl-guide-20040210/

 http://www.w3.org/TR/2004/Rec-owl-ref-20040210/

 http://www.w3.org/TR/2004/Rec-webont-req-20040210/

 Continuing updates


Taxonomy Thesaurus
view Term Record
view


Where are taxonomies used?

• In “indexing” or categorizing, as subject metadata
• In search
• In content management systems
• In SharePoint
• In mashups
• In social networking sites
• In author tagging
• In filtering data – e.g., spam filters and RSS feeds
• In web crawlers

Why the excitement?

 Makes information findable!
 Cut search time by 50% - The Weather Channel
 Organizes web sites
 Provides better online help
 Customer support 30x more costly than web self-service
(Forrester Research "Tier Zero Customer Support" 1999)

Taxonomies in business
“The High Cost of Not Finding Information”
 Time wasted searching
 Confusion about same information by different name
 Similar/overlapping activities, products, uses
(Susan Feldman, KMWorld, March 2004)

With a unified taxonomy and consistent indexing:
 Better searching or browsing to locate information
 More efficient content management
 Focused content collection through web spidering
 Personalized content delivery


Good Search
must have…metadata

Inverted
Searchable Index File
Index

Taxonomy
Hierarchical Display Thesaurus


Metadata

 The fields
 The elements
 Class codes
 Title
 Author
 Plaintiff
 Product
 subject / topic
 Meta Name Keywords in HTML


Basic taxonomy
/ thesaurus features

• Hierarchy structure
– Broader Terms = more general concepts
– Narrower Terms = more specific concepts
• Related Terms = conceptual cousins
• Term equivalents = synonyms
• Classification options
• Scope notes
• Other elements as needed

What are the parts? The term
record
= subject term, heading, node,
category, descriptor, class

 Main Term (MT)
 Top Term (TT) TAXONOMY
 Broader Terms (BT)
 Narrower Terms (NT) ONTOLOGY
 Related Terms (RT) THESAURUS
 See also (SA)
 Non-Preferred Term (NP)
 Used for (UF), See (S)
 Scope Note (SN)
 History (H)


How do you build one?

 From scratch?
 Adoption of existing
 Term registries
 Taxonomy Warehouse
 Other resources
 Combination

Define subject field
 Review representative collection of content
 Determine:
 Core areas
 Peripheral topics Sociology

Psychology
Education
Law
 Scope can be modified later

Before you go on: Build or
buy?

• Survey existing thesaurus/taxonomy
resources for your domain
• Test for
– Scope
– Depth
• Make-or-break terms
– Cost

Don’t reinvent the wheel!

Build a taxonomy – simple
steps

• Get paper and pencil
– Sharpen pencil
• Define subject field
• Collect terms
• Organize terms
• Fill in gaps
• Flesh out and interrelate terms
You’re done!

Your taxonomy /
thesaurus end product
• Reflects
– scope of your concern
– degree of precision you need
• Facilitates
– data storage and retrieval by vocabulary control
– discovery of ideas
• Promotes learning
– preferred terminology
– relationships among concepts
– organized guide to your field

How do you choose terms?

 Importance in the subject area
 Use in the literature, by the organization
or community
 Necessary degree of specificity or detail
 Relationship with other controlled
vocabularies


Vocabulary control – why?
“Eliminating ambiguity and compensating for
synonymy through vocabulary control
assures that each term has only one
meaning and that only one term can be
used to represent a given concept or
entity. … Ambiguity occurs in natural
language when a word or phrase (a
homograph or polyseme) has more than
one meaning. ” (ANSI/NISO Z39.19-2005)

One term / one concept
 “Terms in a thesaurus should represent
simple or unitary concepts…”
(ISO standard)
 “Each term included in a controlled
vocabulary should represent a single
concept (or unit of thought). A single concept
is frequently expressed by a single-word
term but in many cases a multiword term is
required to represent the concept.”
(ANSI/NISO Z39.19-2005)

Vocabulary control – how?

 Use unambiguous terms, clear to the user
group
 Distinguish between terms that appear
similar
 Use Scope Notes when necessary
 Use terms as elements that can be
coordinated in a flexible manner
 Create compound terms if necessary

A “term” synonym ring
Term

Descriptor Node

Category Subject heading


So what’s a concept?

• “A unit of thought, formed by mentally
combining some or all of the
characteristics of a concrete or
abstract, real or imaginary object.
Concepts exist in the mind as abstract
entities independent of terms used to
express them.”
• Three main categories
– Abstract concepts
– Concrete entities
– Proper nouns

Concrete entities as terms

• Things and their physical parts
– primates
• head
– buildings
• floors
• Materials
– cement
– wood
– lead

Abstract concepts as terms

• Actions and events
– evolution, skating, management, ceremonies
• Abstract entities
– law, theory
• Properties of things, materials, and
actions
– strength, efficiency
• Disciplines and sciences
– physics, meteorology, mathematics
• Units of measurement
– pounds, kilograms, miles, meters, nanoseconds

Proper nouns as terms

 Individual entities – “classes of one” –
expressed as proper nouns
 San Francisco, Lake Michigan

Thesaurus standards exclude proper names,
persons, and trade names  authority files.
Taxonomies include them as final nodes.


Collect terms

 Your documents and databases
 Departmental terminology
 Text books and their indexes
 Book tables of contents and indexes
 Journal quarterly indexes
 Encyclopedias
 Lexicons, glossaries on the topic
 Web resources
 Users and experts
 Search logs

Gather terms from search
logs
“Beyond the Spider: The Accidental
Thesaurus”
(Richard Wiggins in Information Today, Oct 2002)

Top ~100 search terms from search logs
Match to web site with appropriate answer
Basis for favorites or best bets, presented at the top of
results list.
(AKA behavior-based taxonomy)

Not a thesaurus or taxonomy,
but still a useful source of terms.

Organize terms – roughly
 Sort terms into several major categories –
logical groups of similar concepts as Top
Terms
 Identify core areas and peripheral topics
 10 – 20 to start
 Consider moving proper names to authority files
 Result: loose collection of terms under
several main headings
 Rough and tentative – see how it fits as you go
 Initial gap analysis
 Add / modify / delete as needed

Usefulness of a term –
the “duh” factor

• Some terms are so basic for a domain that
they have little or no value
– “Sports” in Sports Illustrated
– “Technology” in Technology Review
– “Golf” in Golf Magazine
– “Information science” and “Information technology”
• How useful will the term be for indexing?
– Does the term apply to everything in the domain?
– Does the term distinguish important concepts?
– If term is needed, specify limited use conditions in
Scope Note


Hierarchy structures –
variations on a theme

• Not pre-determined
– Subcategorize wines first by type, variety, region,
then cost? Or first by cost and then type?
• Varies by user group and needs
– May have multiple views of same content
– Standard alpha view or customized notation
• Affects information architecture, i.e., how
web site functions


How do terms relate?

 Hierarchical relationships
-- Parents and their children TAXONOMY

 Equivalence relationships
THESAURUS
-- Aliases
 Associative relationships
-- Cousins


Hierarchical relationships

 Broader Term represents the class,
whole, or genus
 Narrower Term is a member, part, or
species
 Generic relationship
 Whole-part relationship
 Instance relationship
 BTs/NTs have a reciprocal relationship
 Hyponym - Hypernym

Broader to Narrower Terms
Politics

Elections
Presidential elections
Gubernatorial elections
Mayoral elections


Hierarchy – Generic
(genus-species) relationship

 Inheritance or inclusion – what’s true of
the parent (BT) is true for all children
(NTs)
 Applies to
entities, actions, properties, agents – not
just biological taxonomies
Value Thinking Heat treatment
Cultural value Contemplation Annealing
Economic value Divergent thinking Decarburization
Moral value Lateral thinking Hardening
Social value Reasoning
Copyright © 2009 - Access Innovations, Inc. Tempering

Generic relationship test – 1

• Both terms in same fundamental category
• “All-and-some” test
Rodents
SOME ALL
Squirrels

Pests
SOME NOT ALL
Squirrels
Consider concepts of marketing and advertising

Generic relationship test – 2

Rodents
Squirrels Pests

 ALL squirrels are rodents
x NOT ALL squirrels are pests
x NOT ALL pests are rodents

Hierarchy –
Whole-part relationship

• Also known as meronymy or partonymy
• Four types allowed in thesaurus standards
– Body systems and organs
• Ear  Middle ear
– Geographical locations
• Bernalillo County  Albuquerque
– Fields of study
• Geology  Physical geology
– Hierarchical social structures
• Ontario  Manitoulin District

Hierarchy –
Instance relationship

 General category (common noun) as BT,
with individual example (proper noun) as
NT
Seas French cathedrals
Baltic Sea Chartres Cathedral
Caspian Sea Rheims Cathedral
Mediterranean Sea Rouen Cathedral

Essentially identical to “final node” in taxonomies

Polyhierarchical relationship

• Term can logically fit under more than one
Broader Term – can have Multiple Broader
Terms (MBT)
• Part of ISO standards, new to ANSI/NISO
Spoons Forks
Sporks Sporks
Nurses Health administrators
Nurse administrators Nurse administrators
Finance Careers
Accounting Accounting

Equivalence relationship

• Preferred Term
– Thesaurus term and valid for indexing
– Thesaurus notation: USE

• Non-Preferred Term
– Not valid for indexing
– An alias or imposter
– Entry point, directs user to Preferred Term
– Thesaurus notation: UF or NPT
Spiders Plant pathology
UF Arachnids USE Phytopathology


Equivalence – when to use
 Synonyms, slang, quasi-synonyms
 Scientific and trade names
 Ibubrofen UF Motrin™
 Lexical variants
 Fiber optics UF Fibre optics
 Mouse UF Mice
 Upward posting of narrow concepts not specified
in taxonomy or thesaurus
 Social class UF Elite, Middle class, Working class

Get equivalent terms from search logs, brainstorming…

Associative relationship

 Related Terms (RTs) – cousins
 “…terms related conceptually but not
hierarchically, and are not part of an equivalence
set” (i.e. not synonyms)
 Both terms are valid thesaurus terms for
indexing, and have reciprocal relationship
 Expands user’s awareness, reflects thesaurus
coverage of unanticipated areas
 Standards describe specific types (see Appendix)


Sibling rivalry and facets
 Format and sense of sibling Narrower Terms
should be consistent
 If siblings don’t coexist well, separate them
 Subdivide large groups of terms into facets,
mutually exclusive subcategories
 Growing demand with faceted navigation
 Facet examples
 Properties, Materials, Agents, Actions, Influence
 Objects, Styles and periods, Color, Shape
(Art & Architecture Thesaurus)
Copyright © 2009- Access Innovations, Inc.

Scope Notes (SN)

 Indicate meaning of the term in the context of
this thesaurus, for this audience
 Stress – Metal, Psychological, Physiological
 Indicate any restriction in meaning
 Indicate range of topics covered
 Provide direction for indexers; for terms often
confused, may suggest an alternative term
 Use only as needed – not for every term
 Establish and stick with consistent format
 Be concise

Talk about terms

• Term format
• Grammatical issues
• Singular and plural forms
• Spelling
• Abbreviations and acronyms
• Capitalization
• Other punctuation
• Consistency

Term format

• KISS – Keep it short and simple
– 1-2-3 words
• Effect on search
• Factoring, Postcoordination (coming)
• Grammatical issues
– Nouns and noun phrases
– Verbish things
– Adjectives
– Adverbs
– Initial articles

Most terms are nouns

 Nouns or simple noun phrases
 Adj + Noun – Art history (ANSI/NISO standard)
 Noun + Prep + Noun – History of art (ISO standard)
 Exceptions – Burden of proof, Coats of arms,
Prisoners of war, Birds of prey, etc.


Compound and Factored Terms

 “Terms in a thesaurus should represent
simple or unitary concepts…” (ISO standard)
 “Compound terms should be factored
(split) into simple elements…” (ANSI/NISO
standard)

Nice in theory…
often unworkable

**Compound terms
are precoordinated**

 Elements are put together to specify a concept at
the indexing stage
 Can’t change the parts

Water pollution
Library science
Television influence on preschoolers
Chicken dinner with turnips and rutabagas –
no substitutions of menu items!


Precoordination positives

 User expectations – Rapid transit
 Occurs commonly in data, splitting would be odd
 Reflects a single concept for the audience
 Better accuracy – captures specific
concepts precisely
 Fewer false drops
 Term information is retained
(Related Terms, NonPreferred Terms, Scope Notes, etc.)

Precoordination negatives

 Poorer total recall
 Term proliferation
 Combinations and permutations increase
thesaurus size
 Higher cost
 Limited flexibility in expressing new
concepts


Postcoordination
pros and cons

 Higher recall
 Lower cost
 Greater flexibility – enables expression of new
concepts through novel combinations
 Lower accuracy, some false drops
 Library science NOT = Library + Science
 Art museums NOT = Art + Museums
 Postcoordination is implicit in most searches


About “and”

 Avoid “and” in terms – not a single concept

Instead of: Children and television

Factor and postcoordinate

USE Media influence + Television + Children
And is not in the standard
In real life—need for granularity may dictate your choice


So far you’ve got
• Hierarchy
• Complete term records
– Broader and Narrower Terms
• Polyhierarchies when needed
– Preferred/Non-Preferred Terms
(equivalence relationships)
– Related Terms (associative relationships)
– Scope Notes
– Correct term format
– Compound terms when needed

Notation

• Symbols (numerals, letters, hyphens, colons, etc.)
– 1: Apples
• 1.1: Granny Smith
• 1.2: Winesap
• Adjunct to verbal expression of term
• May represent another kind of ordering of sibling
terms (non-alphabetic)
– Chronological, positional, numeric sequence, or other
logical sequence for user group
– Same terms presented differently for different user groups,
different purposes
• Secondary to verbal concept organization

Review, edit, test, edit,
use, edit, and maintain, i.e. edit

 Review  Edit and maintain
 Users  Add term
 Expert reviewers  Change existing term
 Test  Change term status
 Index 500+ documents  Delete term
(more for variable writing  Add term relationship
style; fewer for strict  Delete term relationship
style)  Add/modify Scope Note
 Monitor search log  Change overall structure

Consider automated / assisted indexing software

When do you add more
terms?

 On demand
 When usage changes
 Stewardess – flight attendant
 As the field evolves
 8 changes to 64 colors
 In Use
 Don’t freeze waiting for perfection


Methodology and Workflow

Enrich Content
Build and maintain
via
Thesaurus
Data Harmony
(Software and Services) Enhanced
M.A.I.
Documents:
Source Material
Tagged XML
Choose the
Vocabularies Terms Subjects
Documents People
Content Places
Full Text Style and Articles Etc.
HTML, PDF, Spelling Proceedings
Data Feeds,

Search logs
Web Pages

etc. Conference
Craft
Hierarchical Abstracts
Etc.
Additional
Structure
Databases:

Non-hierarchical Authors
Relationships: Experts
Synonyms Etc.
Related Terms

Refine the Evaluate and Manage Thesaurus
Rulebase

How do I implement a
taxonomy?

 In search
 In a web site
 In indexing
 In other ways

Taxonomy and System Integrations

Document Search
repository SEARCH Presentation
Full CMS Perfect Search Layer
text, HTML, P Lucene, MarkLogi
Documentum c Website
DF, data feeds
SharePoint SQL etc.
Oracle
MarkLogic

Metadata Client
Inline
Extractor Taxonomy
Tagging
M.A.I. Rule
Base Thesaurus
Master

Parts of Search

 Search software
 Inverted Index
 Search algorithms
 Presentation layer
 Search box
 Autocompletion
 Related and narrower terms
 Hierarchical display

Outline of Presentation

1 Define key terminology
Creating
2 Thesaurus tools
an
 Features
Inverted  Functions
File 3 Costs
Index  Thesaurus construction
 Thesaurus tools
4 Why & when?

Simple Inverted File Index

& key
1 of
2 outline
3 presentation
4 terminology
construction thesaurus
costs tools
define when
features
why
functions


Complex Inverted File Index
Example 1
key - L2, P2, H
& - Stop of - Stop
1 - Stop outline - L1, P1, T
2 - Stop presentation - L1, P3, T
3 - Stop terminology - L2, P3, H
4 - Stop thesaurus - (1) - L3, P1, H
construction - L7, P2, SH (2) - L7, P1, SH
costs - L6, P1, H (3) - L8, P1, SH
define - L2, P1, H tools - (1) - L3, P2, H
features - L4, P1, SH (2) - L8, P2, SH
functions - L5, P1, SH when - L9, P3, H
why - L9, P1, H

The Portal View -
MediaSleuth

 Use all options for search
 Traditional Search
 Taxonomy
 Rule Base

NavTree View

MAIQuery

Taxonomy Thesaurus
view Term Record
view

Search Presentation Layer

Automatic completion
And type ahead
from Thesaurus


Related

Narrower


The Hierarchical view of the thesaurus is
also a browse able view of the content.

The numbers include the number of hits
1. For the term
2. For the branch

Web Taxonomies –
Changing faces

 ….and how the information is delivered
 From current site
 To new version
 Depends on TAXONOMY
 Personalization
 Feeding ads
 Consistent information

Use the taxonomy here

HTML Headers
META NAME KEYWORD

Improve Search: www.mediasleuth.com

Autocompletion Using the
Taxonomy

Guide the
User

Navigate
the full
Taxonomy “Indispensable for anyone trying to identify
“Tree” instructional media for teaching.” – CHOICE
Magazine

Link to Society Resources

CME
Upcoming
Other Activity on
Conference
Journal Topic A
on Topic A
Articles on
Topic A
Job Posting
Journal for Expert
Article on on Topic A
Topic A

Grant Available Podcast Interview
for Researchers with Researcher
Working on Working on Topic A
Topic A

CONFIDENTIAL

Author
Submission
Module

The author pastes
the data to the
document
template,
attaching images,
graphs, as
necessary:

Authors at a place
MASHUP locations to a
GPS grid of an area

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Thesaurus Resources
• American Society for Information Science and Technology
– www.asis.org/
• ANSI/NISO Standard Z39.19-1993
– www.niso.com
• Australian Society of Indexers
– www.aussi.org/
• Data Harmony
– www.dataharmony.com
 International Society for Knowledge Organization
 http://www.iskouk.org/index.htm
 Networked Knowledge Organization Systems
 http://nkos.slis.kent.edu/
• SLA Taxonomy Division
– SLA Taxonomy and Metadata (wiki.sla.org/display/SLATAX/Home)
• Taxonomy Community of Practice

Readings –
Thesaurus Construction
 Thesaurus Construction and Use a Practical Manual. Fourth
edition has taxonomy information
http://www.alibris.com/search//search/search.cfm?wauth=Aitchi
son%2C%20Jean%20Gilchrist%2C Aitchison, Jean -
Gilchrist, Alan - Bawden, David
 NISO Z39.19 (2005) standard NOT the 2003
 http://www.asindexing.org/site/thesbuild.shtml American Society
for Indexers - a good practical approach
 Books about the process also include the ones listed here
http://www.asindexing.org/site/bibliog.shtml
 There is also a series of white papers and other information on
the web site at www.dataharmony.com
 SLA Taxonomy Division


Review

 Why build a taxonomy?
 What is a taxonomy?
 What are the standards?
 Where are taxonomies used?
 What are the parts of a taxonomy?
 How do you build one?
 How do you implement one?

Talks upcoming

 “Data Visualization” workshop at
Computers in Libraries – April 11
 SLA Taxonomy Division workshop “How
to build a taxonomy” June 8
 Session “How to Apply Your Taxonomy to
Your Content” Monday June 10

Thank you!
Marjorie M.K. Hlava*
President and Chief Scientist
Access Innovations, Inc.
mhlava@accessinn.com
505-998-0800
* Our team of 37 has built over 200 taxonomies and implemented more than
600 for enterprises, governments and not for profits. We built tools to do
the work as well and are glad to share them with you for your projects

Taxonomy 101

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