This document discusses systematics and the evolution of bird species. It explains that systematists study evolutionary relationships by comparing fossils, specimens, behavior and DNA to reconstruct the history of life. Species evolve through phyletic evolution, speciation and extinction. Speciation, the formation of new species, has resulted in around 100,000 bird species throughout evolution, though only 10,000 exist today. Speciation occurs as populations become geographically isolated and genetically diverge. Classification of birds has progressed from early efforts based on habitat to modern phylogenies using anatomical characters and DNA to determine evolutionary relationships and common ancestry.
Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change.
The fossil record provides evidence for evolution.
Selective breeding of domesticated animals shows that artificial selection can cause evolution.
Evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation explains similarities in structure when there are differences in function.
Populations of a species can gradually diverge into separate species by evolution.
Continuous variation across the geographical range of related populations matches the concept of gradual divergence.
Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change.
The fossil record provides evidence for evolution.
Selective breeding of domesticated animals shows that artificial selection can cause evolution.
Evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation explains similarities in structure when there are differences in function.
Populations of a species can gradually diverge into separate species by evolution.
Continuous variation across the geographical range of related populations matches the concept of gradual divergence.
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3. Systematics
The challenge of reconstructing the history of
life belongs to a field of scholarly endeavor
called systematics
Systematics are scientists who evaluate
evolutionary relationships among organisms
through comparisons of fossils, preserved
specimens, behavior, and increasingly the
genetic code of life itself, DNA
4. Species and Speciation
The diversity of life is a result of three
evolutionary processes
o Phyletic Evolution:
The gradual change of a single lineage
o Speciation:
The splitting of one phyletic lineage into two
or more
o Extinction:
The termination of a lineage
5. Species
Species are the fundamental units of
biological classification
Species are groups of interbreeding natural
populations that are reproductively isolated
from other such groups
Birds species have characteristics sizes,
shapes, songs, colors, ecological niches, and
geographical ranges
6. Speciation
Speciation is the formation of new and distinct
species in course of evolution
The evolutionary legacy of the earliest birds
includes roughly 100,000 species of which only 1
in 10 is now with us
Behind this legacy lies the process of speciation:
The multiplication of species through the division of
one species into two or more as a result of genetic
divergence of isolated population
7. Geographical separation of populations
reduces the exchange of genes, thereby
allowing independent divergence and enable
speciation
Most species of birds evolve as geographical
isolates
Reproductive isolation may sometimes play a
role
8. Birds populations become geographically
isolated in two principal ways
o Pioneering individual birds may colonize an
oceanic island and thus are separated from
their main population
o Fragmentation of habitats can also isolate the
bird populations
Remnant populations
9. Classification and phylogeny
Classification is the arrangement of organisms
in taxonomic groups in accordance with the
observed similarities
Ornithologiae by Francis and John, published
in 1676 was the first formal classification of
birds
Nearly a century later, Linnaeus used this
elementary classification as the model for
subsequent classifications
10. These early efforts, however, classified birds
according to superficial adaptations to
aquatic versus terrestrial habitats rather than
according to evolutionary relationship
Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by
natural selection transformed the basis of
systematics into one based on common
ancestries
11. Taxonomic characters
Reconstruction of the evolutionary history of birds
requires the analysis of specific traits, called as
characters
In common ancestry these characters are called as
shared characters
Conservative characters – that do not easily
change in the course of ecological adaptation
These are of greatest value because they retain
clues to ancestors
A constant challenge to accurate reconstruction is
the possibility of convergence between unrelated
species
12. Thomas H. Huxley helped to
lay the foundation of
modern systematics in birds
with his study of the
arrangement of the bones
of the avian bony palate
Skeletal partition between
the nasal cavities and the
mouth
Succeeding generations of
the ornithologists added
new characters to the
taxonomic tool kit
13. Form of the nostrils
Structure of the leg muscles
Tendons of the feet
Arrangement of toes
Morphology of vocal apparatus
Behavior
Vocalization
Protein yielded clues
Plumage patterns
14. Unique characters
Unique characters define related groups of species
with common ancestors
Song Birds
Order Passeriformes have several unique characters
i.e.
Preen gland with a unique nipple
Unique sperms
Specialized perching foot with a large hallux
Uniquely arranged deep tendons
Simplified foot muscles
15. These features indicate that members of the order
Passeriformes evolved from a common ancestor i.e.
they are monophyletic
16. Cladistics
Categorized in groups (clades) based on
hypothesis of most recent common ancestry
Cladistics analysis enables ornithologists to
separate primitive characters from common
derived characters and to sort them rigorously
across taxa
Phylogenetic studies require homologous
characters which can be traced to the same
feature in the immediate common ancestor of
both organisms
Exist in both their original and their changed
states
17. Flipper like wings of penguins evolved from the
wings of their petrel ancestors
o Wings of petrels represent ancestral/primitive
character state
o Flipper like wings of penguins represent
advanced/derived state
18. If two species have a character state in common,
we can hypothesize that they have a common
ancestor with the same character state
Example:
o The flipper like wings common to all penguin
species correspond to their common ancestry
(Hypothetical ancestor)
o We assume that the cladogram with the fewest
evolutionary changes is the most likely or most
plausible phylogeny