Summary of National and Global Environmental Issues

Summary of National and Global
Environmental Issues (ICH 876)
OMOKPARIOLA, DANIEL OMEODISEMI
2018546002F

OMOKPARIOLA, DANIEL OMEODISEMI 2018546002F
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Global Environmental Concerns
The environment is a complex combination of physical, chemical, and biotic factors (as
Biosphere (living things) Atmosphere, Lithosphere (soil), and Hydrosphere) that are
continuously interacting with each other for an ecological balancing and ultimately determine
its form and survival (M-W Dictionary, 2012). It is also a surrounding where all the external
factors influencing the life and activities of people, plants, and animals (Encarta Dictionary,
2009).
Sudden and dramatic natural changes tothe environment have occurred, and continue to occur,
which have the potential to upset the whole balance of the Earth's ecosystem. Significant
environmental changes that have occurred during Earth's history leading to environmental
issues and concerns which are:
 Increase in global population has risen dramatically during the last century.
 The rise of industrial activities and its rapid expansion has been a major source of
pollution causing an imbalance of our environment.
 Increased energy demand (renewable and non-renewable)
 Increased Demand for genetically modified organisms for food
 Atmosphere Impact (Industrial Air Emissions, Ozone Layer Depletion, Acid Rain,
Greenhouse Effect, Global Warming, Climate Change)
 Lithosphere and Biosphere Impact (Loss of Biodiversity (Flora and Fauna),
Desertification and Drought, Industrial water emissions, Agro-allied, Hazardous waste
from other anthropogenic sources).
 Hydrosphere Impact (Loss of aquatic Biodiversity (Flora and Fauna), Hazardous waste
from other anthropogenic sources).

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ATMOSPHERE IMPACT
A. Greenhouse effect:
Greenhouse involves conversion of solar radiation into heat in a process involving selective
transmission of short wave solar radiation by the atmosphere, where it is absorption by the earth's
surface. As the sunlight heats the Earth’s surface, it radiates part of this energy back toward space as
infrared radiation is absorbed by water vapour, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, and
partly reradiated back to the surface by atmospheric gases thereby producing increased temperature
of the earth surface. The heated atmosphere in turn radiates infrared radiation back toward the
Earth's surface.
A number of scientists have predicted that human-related activities increases atmospheric carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases could lead to an increase in the global average temperature of
1.4 to 5.8 °C (2.5 to 10.4 °F) by the end of the 21st century. A number of processes influence
greenhouse gas concentrations. Some, such as tectonic activities, operate at timescales of millions of
years, whereas others, such as vegetation, soil, wetland, and ocean sources and sinks, operate at
timescales of hundreds to thousands of years. Human activities—especially fossil-fuel combustion
since the Industrial Revolution—are responsible for steady increases in atmospheric concentrations
of various greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxides and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
B. Global Climate Change (Climate Change and Global Warming) :
Without the heating caused by the greenhouse effect, the Earth's
average surface temperature would be only about −18°C (O°F).
Although the greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon,
it is possible thattheeffect causedby emission ofgreenhousegasesinto
the atmosphere as the result of human activity. From the beginning of
the Industrial Revolution through the end of the 20th century, the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increased 30 percent and
the amount of methane more than doubled.
Climate is the conditions of the atmosphere at a particular location over a long period; it is the long-
term summation of the atmospheric elements (and their variations) over short time periods,
constitute weather. These elements are solar radiation, temperature, humidity, precipitation (type,
frequency, and amount), atmospheric pressure, and wind (speed and direction). Fortunately,
climatic change also leavesa variety ofsignatures in the natural world. Climate influences the growth
of trees and corals, the abundance and geographic distribution of plant and animal species, the
chemistry of oceans and lakes, the accumulation of ice in cold regions, and the erosion and
deposition of materials on Earth's surface.

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Due to greenhouses effects, increase in industrialization, Solar variability, Volcanic activity, Tectonic
activity, Orbital (Milankovich) variations (Seasons, Ocean pattern), Human activities (urbanization,
population and energy demand), it has massively influenced Climate and Global warming of the
atmosphere. The excessive impact of greenhouse effect lead to global warming which alter the
Earth's climates, thereby produce new climatic patterns and extremes of drought and rainfall, and
possibly disrupt food production in certain regions. The Concentrations of greenhouse gases have
varied substantially during Earth's history, and these variations have driven substantial climate
changes at a wide range of timescales.
Global Warming or Climate Change, measurable increases in the average temperature of Earth’s
atmosphere, oceans, and landmasses. Ongoing climatic changes are monitored by networks of
sensors in space, on the land surface, and both on and below the surface of the world's oceans.
Scientists believe Earth is currently facing a period of rapid warming brought on by rising levels of
heat-trapping gases, known as greenhouse gases, in the atmosphere.
C. Acid Rain
Acid rain also called acid precipitation or acid deposition. Acid rain is produced from the anthropogenic
emission of sulphur and nitrogen from combustion of fossil fuels in presence of oxygen to form sulphur-
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx; the combination of NO and NO2), combine with water vapour in
the atmosphere and forms weak solutions of nitric and sulphuric acids which leads to precipitation and
deposition.
In acid-sensitive landscapes, acid deposition can reduce the pH of surface waters (5.2) and lower
biodiversity. It weakens trees and increases their susceptibility to damage from other stressors, such as
drought, extreme cold, and pests. In acid-sensitive areas, acid rain also depletes soil of important plant
nutrients and buffers, such as calcium and magnesium, and can release aluminium, bound to soil particles
and rock, in its toxic dissolved form. Acid rain contributes to the corrosion of surfaces exposed to air
pollution and is responsible for the deterioration of limestone and marble buildings and monuments. The
simplest reactions are:
SO2
+ H2
O → H2
SO4
 H+
+ HSO4
 2H + SO4
2-
NO2
+ H2
O → HNO3
 H+
+ NO3

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D. Ozone Depletion
Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen, which is formed by Sun (UV) radiation on oxygen atom at the
stratosphere. The ozone layer of the atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing harmful
ultraviolet radiation such as UV-B from the Sun.
Natural and Human activities has greatly lead to ozone depletion in the stratosphere. Nitrogen
oxides (NOx), Halons (CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, ) and volatile organic gases emitted by automobiles
and industrial sources combine toform new compounds that causes greenhouse effect toclimate
change that deplete the ozone layer forming ozone hole. Depletion of this layer by ODS will lead
tohigher UV-Blevels, which in turn will cause increased skin cancers and cataracts and potential
damage to some marine organisms, plants, and plastics.
The following are reactions that take place during ozone depletion process:
𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑂 → 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑂2; 𝑂° + 𝑁𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑂° + 𝑁𝑂°
𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑂° → 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑂2
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒: 𝑂3
𝑈𝑉
→ 𝑂° + 𝑂2; 𝑂° + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 𝑂2 → 𝐻𝑂° + 𝐻𝑂°
𝐻𝑂° + 𝑂3 → 𝐻° 𝑂2 + 𝑂2; 𝐻° 𝑂2
𝑈𝑉
→ 𝐻𝑂° + 𝑂°
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝐶𝑙3 𝐹𝐶
𝑈𝑉
→ 𝐶𝑙2 𝐹𝐶° + 𝐶𝑙°; 𝐶𝑙° + 𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑙𝑂 + 𝑂2;
𝐶𝑙2 𝐹𝐶° + 𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑙2 𝐹𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2;−𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): a number that referstothe amount of ozone depletion caused
by a substance. The ODP is the ratio of the impact on ozone of a chemical compared to the
impact of a similar ODS usually range from 0.1 – 10.
E. Conventions and Protocols that protects Atmosphere
 Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer – 1985
 Montreal Protocol on Substance that deplete the Ozone Layer – 1987
 Helsinki Declaration on Protection of Ozone Layer – 1989
 Amendments (London – 1990; Copenhagen – 1992; Montreal – 1997; Beijing – 1999)
 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) – 1992
 Kyoto Protocol – 1997
 UNFCCC, Paris Agreement – 2015
Short wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation are damaging to
the cell structure of living organisms. Fortunately, the ozone
layer absorbs almost all of the short-wavelength ultraviolet
radiation and much of the long-wavelength ultraviolet
radiation given off by the Sun.

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Sources of Atmospheric Impact
 Industrial gas emissions, Automobile emissions, Petroleum and Solid Mining activities,
Agro-allied activities, Fossil fuels combustions (Petroleum, Coal and Natural gas),
Deforestation and Bush burning, Urbanization.
Effect of Atmospheric Impact
i. Formation of Photochemical smog leading to reduce visibility
ii. Environmental health effect
iii. Rising sea level (excessive flooding, severity of storm)
iv. Increased temperature
v. Loss of biodiversity (habitat and species extinction)
vi. Change in precipitation pattern
vii. Distortion of the ecosystem
viii. Melting of polar icecaps
ix. Thermal expansion of waterbodies (ocean, sea)
x. Change in climatic conditions
Control of Atmospheric Impact
i. Stringent Laws, Fines and Penalties to reduce the various emissions that affect the
atmosphere adversely
ii. Control of Vehicular emissions through enforcing theuse of CaCl2 totrap CO2 in combustion
chambers
iii. Reduction in deforestation and bush burning; and enforce the Practice of Afforestation
iv. Carbon capture (Planting trees and injecting high pressurized CO2 intodepleted oil wells to
force crude off the seabed or ground)
v. Use of Renewable Energy sources (Tidal, Hydro-powered, Solar, Wind turbines)
vi. Enforce the 3R’s Reduce, Reduce and Recycle for Industrial Processes, waste and by-
products
vii. Use of Heat Exchangers in Industrial or anthropogenic activities to trap waste heat and
convert for another industrial activities.

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LITHOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE AND BIOSPHERE IMPACT
A. Biodiversity
Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is the sum of all the different species of animals, plants, and
microbial organisms living on Earth and the variety of habitats in which they live. Scientists estimate
that upwards of 10 million—and some suggest more than 100 million—different species inhabit the
Earth. Each species is adapted to its unique niche in the environment, from the peaks of mountains
to the depths of deep-sea hydrothermal vents, and from polar ice caps to tropical rain forests.
Humans the world over use at least 40,000 species of plants and animals on a daily basis. Many
people around the world still depend on wild species for some or all of their food, shelter, and
clothing. All of our domesticated plants and animals came from wild-living ancestral species. There
is ecological biodiversity, which is the intricate network of different species present in local
ecosystems and the dynamic interplay between them and evolutionary biodiversity is the genetic
connections that unite and differentiate species.
B. Global Crisis
i. Land Degradation: is a multi-complex issue that affect the Lithosphere, which include:
 Deforestation: is the indiscriminate cutting or over-harvesting of trees for various activities.
Due to industrialization, agricultural and urbanization, new issues has being created like erosion
(water and wind), flooding, also increase in global warming.
 Desertification: refers to the formation and expansion of degraded soil, not to the advancing
movement of the current deserts. Desertification occurs in cropland (both irrigated and non-
irrigated), pasture, and woodlands. Loss of soil, deterioration of soil, and loss of natural vegetation
all lead to desertification. Drought, a period of unusually dry weather, can cause loss of vegetation,
which in turn leads to desertification. Poor land management and increasing population are factors
that promote increased irrigation, improper cultivation or over-cultivation, and increased numbers
of livestock.
ii. Marine Degradation: Oceans contain most of the water of the planet. Yet even with the
phenomenal volume of water, it get polluted by various anthropogenic activities, which may be
dispersed via transboundary movement of components causing bioaccumulation on floras and
faunas, eutrophication of waterbodies, increase in temperature and its aesthetic natural balance. In
addition, mining of resources, tourism, overfishing marine species, overdevelopment of shorelines
and degradation of coastal ecosystems cause massive damage to marine biodiversity.
iii. Overpopulation/Urbanization:hasled to situation in which the number of individuals
of a given species exceeds the number that its environment can sustain. Possible consequences are
environmental deterioration, impaired quality of life, and a population crash (sudden reduction in
numbers caused by high mortality and failure to produce viable offspring).

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iv. Exploitation of natural resources: mining and exploitation of natural resources has
being made by the need to solve every day human needs. Most minerals are beneath the lithosphere
and hydrosphere, which are excavated, processed but in turn lead to production of useful but
relatively toxic materials that affect the environments in term of land and marine degradation.
Overfishing, Pouching, and excessive farming activities has also impacted on scarce resources to
meet demand for food thereby altering the biodiversity
v. Hazardous Waste: are solid, liquid, or gas wastes that are considered hazardous if they
are ignitable, corrosive, reactive, or toxic. Mixtures, residues, or materials containing hazardous
wastes that can cause death, illness, or injury to people or destruction of the environment if
improperly treated, stored, transported, or discarded. The sources include Industrial waste
(Electronic products, Telecoms, electrical, petroleum spills, pharmaceuticals, solid mining,
automobile other heavy and minor industries); Agricultural waste (Fertilizers, Pesticides);
Household waste (toxic paints, batteries and asbestos, flammable solvents, caustic cleaners, drugs)
and Medical waste (Surgery waste, swaps, pharmaceuticals dispensaries, radioactive waste, chemical
waste). These wastes are toxic to soil, surface water and cause adverse effect to the ecological
biodiversity.
vi. Nuclear Issues: Nuclear Plant has being used and still being used in production of energy
due to increasing demand thereby causing nuclear wastes that remain radioactive for thousands of
years, beyond the span of any human institution. The technology for packaging the wastes so they
pose no current hazard is relatively straightforward. The difficulty lies both in being adequately
confident that future generations are well protected and in making the political decision on how and
where to proceed with waste storage. Permanent but potentially retrievable storage in deep stable
geologic formations seems the best solution.
vii. Genetic Modification (GMOs): Genetically modified organisms are organisms whose
genome is engineered in the laboratory in order tofavour the expression of desired physiological
traits or the production of desired biological products in conventional livestock production, crop
farming, and evenpet breeding. It is long been thepractice tobreedselect individuals of a species
in order to produce offspring that have desirable traits. GMOs produced through genetic
technologies have become a part of everyday life, entering into society through agriculture,
medicine, research, and environmental management. However, while GMOs have benefited
human society in many ways, some disadvantages exist in terms of biodiversity arguments;
therefore, the production of GMOs remains a highly controversial topic in many parts of the
world.

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viii. Loss of Biodiversity: The Earth is losing approximately 27,000 species per year. This
estimate shows that the rate of disappearance of ecosystems, especially tropical forests and grasslands,
and our knowledge of the species that live in such systems. By measuring the rate of loss of tropical rain
forests, for example, by analysing satellite photographs of continents from different periods that show
rates and amounts of habitat destruction—and from these measurements calculate the approximate
number of species being lost each year.
This extraordinary rate of extinction has occurred only five times before in the history of complex life on
Earth. Mass extinctions of the geological past by catastrophic physical disasters, such as climate changes
or meteorite impacts, volcanic and geothermal impact, which destroyed and disrupted ecosystems
around the globe.
Today’s extinction mainly caused by ecosystem disturbance—but this time the destroying force is not the
physicalenvironment,butratherhumankind.ThehumantransformationoftheEarth'ssurfacethreatens
to be every bit as destructive compared to past cataclysmic physical disasters.
C. HUMAN IMPACT TO BIODIVERSITY
The underlying cause of biodiversity loss is the explosion in human population, more than 6 billion, but
expected to double again by the year 2050. The human population already consumes nearly half of all
the food, crops, medicines, and other useful items produced by the Earth’s organisms, and more than 1
billion people on Earth lack adequate supplies of fresh water. The single greatest threat to global
biodiversity is the human destruction of natural habitats. Since the invention of agriculture about 10,000
years ago, the human population has increased from approximately 5 million to over 6 billion people.
During that time, but especially in the past several centuries, humans have radically transformed the face
of planet Earth. The conversion of forests, grasslands, and wetlands for agricultural purposes, coupled
with the multiplication and growth of urban centres and the building of dams and canals, highways, and
railways, has altered ecosystems to the point that extinction of species is ongoing leading to excessive
impact on the ecosystem and there by cause flooding, greenhouse effect and climate change.
In addition, overexploitation of the world's natural resources, such as fisheries and forests, has greatly
outstripped the rate at which these systems can recover. As human populations have grown, people have
spread out to the four corners of the Earth. In the process, whether on purpose or by accident, they have
introduced non-native species that have created ecological nightmares, disrupting local ecosystems and,
in many cases, directly driving native species extinct.
Also, Technological innovation has changed the biodiversity of the ecosystem due to mining activities,
Biotechnological,Pharmaceutical,Electronic, Petroleum,andotheranthropogenicindustrieshasaltered
the natural order to solve ever increasing needs of humanin terms of food, medicine, energy and other
needs and in turn pollute the environment to be inhabitable for other species. Hazardous and toxic
products, wastes are packaged and transferred to other places of the earth by industrial emissions, and
released into water body thereby causing imbalance in the ecosystem.

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D. Preserving Biodiversity
Preserving biodiversity also takes place atthe molecular level in the conservation of genetic diversity.
All around the world, efforts are currently going on to collect and preserve endangered organisms’
DNA, the molecule that contains their genes. These collections, or gene banks, may consist of frozen
samples of blood or tissue, or in some cases, they may consist of live organisms. Biologists use gene
banks to broaden the gene pool of a species, increasing the likelihood that it will adapt to meet the
environmental challenges that confront it. Many zoos, aquariums, and botanical gardens work
together to carefully maintain the genetic diversity in captive populations of endangered animals
and plants. These gene banks are also anessential resource to replenish the genetic diversity of crops,
enabling plant breeders and bioengineers to strengthen their stocks against disease and changing
climate conditions.
E. Conventions And Protocol That Protect The Lithosphere, Hydrosphere And
Biosphere
Several conventions and protocols laws made to reduce the impact on biodiversity, hazardous
waste, transboundary pollutant etc. to mitigate and reduce the impact on the ecosystem have
been proposed and, to some extent, adopted. They include:
Biodiversity:
 New York Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES) – 1975.
 Bonn Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of wild animal – 1979
 Rio Convention on Biological Diversity – 1992
 Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological
(Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction 1972, as amended 1993
 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety – 2000
 RamsarConventiononWetlandsofInternationalImportanceespecially asWaterfowlHabitat. – 2000
Chemical Managements:
 Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Procedure Certain Hazardous Chemicals and
Pesticides in International Trade – 1998
 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutant – 2001
 Minamata Convention on Mercury – 2013
Hazardous waste Management:
 Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary movement of Hazardous waste and their
disposal – 1989
 Basel Protocol on Liabilities and Compensation – 1993

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Land Conservation:
 United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD) – 1977
 Paris Convention on Combating Desertification (UNCCD) – 1994
Marine Conservation:
 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) – 1966
 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 and 1978 Protocol
(Ratification and Enforcement) Act, 2007
 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1976
as amended 1979, 1981
 United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) – 1982
 United Convention on High Sea – 1958
Nuclear Waste Management:
 Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and under Water – 1963
 Treaty on the Non Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons – 1968
 Convention on Nuclear Safety – 1994
Petroleum Waste Management:
 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil – 1954, as amended
in 1962 and 1969
 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (Ratification and
Enforcement) Act, 2006
 International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for
Oil Pollution Damage 1971 as Amended Act, 2006
 Protocol concerning Cooperation in combating Pollution in cases of Emergency – 1981
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The need for sustainable development and management of resources for future generation
should be of concern to everyone as it affects us by:
 International and Legislatorial collaborations;
 Awareness and Sensitization Programmes;
 Waste Management (3R’s: Reduce, Reuse and Recycle);
 Practice Green Chemistry in all activities
 Practice of United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs) recommendations

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REFERENCE
Baskin, Yvonne. (1997). The Work of Nature: How the Diversity of Life Sustains Us. Island.
Exploration of why we need biological diversity.
Becher, Anne. (1998). Biodiversity: A Reference Handbook. ABC-Clio. Overview of issues in
biodiversity, for general readers.
Bertness, M. D., Gaines, S. D., and Hay, M. E. (2001). Marine Community Ecology (eds.).
Conservation. (2014). Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference
Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.
Eldredge, Niles. (1998). Life in the Balance: Humanity and the Biodiversity Crisis. Princeton
University Press.
Environment (2014). Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference
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Hill, M. K. (2004). Understanding Environmental Pollution Second Edition. Cambridge
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Kaushik, A. and Kaushik C.P. (2004). Perspectives in Environmental Studies. New Age
International (P) Ltd., Publishers. ISBN (13): 978-81-224-2345-7
Levin, S.A. (1999). Fragile Dominion: Complexity and the Commons. Perseus.
Monica G.T, (2010). Disturbance and Landscape Dynamics in a Changing World. Ecology,
91(10):2833–49.
Novacek, M.J., (2001). The Biodiversity Crisis: Losing What Counts. New Press.
Pepper, I.L., Gerba, C.P., Brusseau, M.L. (2006). Environmental & Pollution Science. Second
Edition. Academic Press Publications. Elsevier. ISBN 10: 0-12-551503-0
Tudge, Colin. (2000). The Variety of Life: A Survey and a Celebration of all the Creatures that
Have Ever Lived. Oxford University Press.
W.P. Sousa, “Natural Disturbance and the Dynamics of Marine Benthic Communities,”
World Conservation Monitoring Centre, comp. (1992). Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth's
Living Resources. Ed. Brian Goombridge. Chapman & Hall.

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