This document contains a candidate's declaration signed by four students certifying that the work presented in their report titled "MICRO CONTROLLER BASED SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM USING STEPPER MOTOR" was completed by them under supervision. It also includes certificates signed by two professors confirming the students completed the project work. The document provides an acknowledgement thanking those who assisted and supported the project work.
This project aims to develop dual axis solar tracker with IOT monitoring system using Arduino. Generally, solar energy is the technology to get useful energy from sunlight. Solar energy has been used in many traditional technologies over the centuries and has been widely used in the absence of other energy supplies. Its usefulness is widespread when awareness of the cost of the environment and the supply is limited by other energy sources such as fuel. The solar tracking system is the most effective technology to improve the efficiency of solar panels by tracking and following the sun's movement. With the help of this system, solar panels can improve the way of sunlight detection so that more electricity can be collected as solar panels can maintain a sunny position. Thus the project discusses the development of two-axis solar-tracking developers using Arduino Uno as main controller the system. For develops this project, four light-dependent resistors (LDRs) have been used for sunlight detection and a maximum light intensity. Two servo motors have been used to rotate the solar panel according to the sun's light source detected by the LDR. Next a WIFI ESP8266 device is used as an intermediary between device and IOT monitoring system. The IOT monitoring system is a website that functions to store data. The efficiency of this system has been tested and compared with a single axial solar tracker. As a result, the two-axis solar tracking system generates more power, voltage and current.
Power output from a small solar panel can be affected by its power consumption when it consumes power from the solar panel. There has been a lack of proper research and experiment in the use of small solar panel with tracking systems. Its significance was detailed in this paper where the voltage output are compared with those which were externally powered. The solar trackers and a microcontroller have been designed and fabricated for this research. Due to the use of the tracking system (single axis and dual axis), the power consumption varies from one to another and its effect on the voltage output. Several experiments have been conducted and it was concluded that small solar panels are not efficient enough to utilize with tracking capabilities due to an increase in power consumption. The externally powered system was found to generate 18% more output compared to a selfsustaining system and that the increase in average power consumptions compared to a fixed panel were 31.7% and 82.5% for single-axis and dualaxis tracker respectively. A concrete evidence was made that utilizing solar tracking capabilities for low power rated solar panel is unfeasible.
This project aims to develop dual axis solar tracker with IOT monitoring system using Arduino. Generally, solar energy is the technology to get useful energy from sunlight. Solar energy has been used in many traditional technologies over the centuries and has been widely used in the absence of other energy supplies. Its usefulness is widespread when awareness of the cost of the environment and the supply is limited by other energy sources such as fuel. The solar tracking system is the most effective technology to improve the efficiency of solar panels by tracking and following the sun's movement. With the help of this system, solar panels can improve the way of sunlight detection so that more electricity can be collected as solar panels can maintain a sunny position. Thus the project discusses the development of two-axis solar-tracking developers using Arduino Uno as main controller the system. For develops this project, four light-dependent resistors (LDRs) have been used for sunlight detection and a maximum light intensity. Two servo motors have been used to rotate the solar panel according to the sun's light source detected by the LDR. Next a WIFI ESP8266 device is used as an intermediary between device and IOT monitoring system. The IOT monitoring system is a website that functions to store data. The efficiency of this system has been tested and compared with a single axial solar tracker. As a result, the two-axis solar tracking system generates more power, voltage and current.
Power output from a small solar panel can be affected by its power consumption when it consumes power from the solar panel. There has been a lack of proper research and experiment in the use of small solar panel with tracking systems. Its significance was detailed in this paper where the voltage output are compared with those which were externally powered. The solar trackers and a microcontroller have been designed and fabricated for this research. Due to the use of the tracking system (single axis and dual axis), the power consumption varies from one to another and its effect on the voltage output. Several experiments have been conducted and it was concluded that small solar panels are not efficient enough to utilize with tracking capabilities due to an increase in power consumption. The externally powered system was found to generate 18% more output compared to a selfsustaining system and that the increase in average power consumptions compared to a fixed panel were 31.7% and 82.5% for single-axis and dualaxis tracker respectively. A concrete evidence was made that utilizing solar tracking capabilities for low power rated solar panel is unfeasible.
Design of Dual Axis Solar Tracker System Based on Fuzzy Inference Systems ijscai
Electric power is a basic need in today’s life. Due to the extensive usage of power, there is a need to look
for an alternate clean energy source. Recently many researchers have focused on the solar energy as a
reliable alternative power source. Photovoltaic panels are used to collect sun radiation and convert it into
electrical energy. Most of the photovoltaic panels are deployed in a fixed position, they are inefficient as
they are fixed only at a specific angle. The efficiency of photovoltaic systems can be considerably increased
with an ability to change the panels angel according to the sun position. The main goal of such systems is
to make the sun radiation perpendicular to the photovoltaic panels as much as possible all the day times.
This paper presents a dual axis design for a fuzzy inference approach-based solar tracking system. The
system is modeled using Mamdani fuzzy logic model and the different combinations of ANFIS modeling.
Models are compared in terms of the correlation between the actual testing data output and their
corresponding forecasted output. The Mean Absolute Percent Error and Mean Percentage Error are used
to measure the models error size. In order to measure the effectiveness of the proposed models, we
compare the output power produced by a fixed photovoltaic panels with the output which would be
produced if the dual-axis panels are used. Results show that dual-axis solar tracker system will produce
22% more power than a fixed panels system.
KEYWORDS
Fuzzy, Membership function, Universe of discourse, PV, ANFIS, DC motor, FLC.
1. INTRODUCTION
Fuzzy logic can be viewed as an extension of classical logical
Solar energy is rapidly gaining notoriety as an important means of expanding renewable energy
resources. As such, it is vital that those in engineering fields understand the technologies associated
with this area. Our project will include the design and construction of a microcontroller-based solar
panel tracking system. Solar tracking allows more energy to be produced because the solar array is
able to remain aligned to the sun. This system builds upon topics learned in this course. A working
system will ultimately be demonstrated to validate the design. Problems and possible improvements
will also be presented .Sustainable energy systems are necessary for the economic growth and a
healthy environment. To overcome the issues about lack of energy sources the use of renewable
energy resources needs to be enhanced manifold. The main purpose of this paper is to present a
control system which will cause better alignment of Photo voltaic (PV) array with sun light and to
harvest solar power. The proposed system changes its direction in two axis to trace the coordinate of
sunlight by detecting change in light intensity through light sensors. Hardware testing of the proposed
system is done for checking the system ability to track and follow the sunlight in an efficient way.
Dual axis solar tracking system superiority over single axis solar tracking and fixed PV system is also
presented.
This project deals with the CAD design and construction of an automatic Solar Tracking system for Sun Tracking and Sun Following based upon the sun vector and the sun's position at any given time and the position of the sun for any GPS location on the earth. It drives hybrid solar Stirling technology for thermal and electricity generation and finds application in smart microgrid development for power and energy distribution an dispatch in off-grid and grid-tied applications. Automatic sun tracker positioner and control system for a motorized parabolic dish solar reflector and mechatronic solar tracking control system project describes the development and CAD design in a dual-axis sun tracker application for a stand-alone off-grid 3 kW solar electrical self-tracking concentrating solar power system. This autonomous power stand-alone solar tracking application and parabolic collector harness sunlight in a dish Stirling system or concentrated photovoltaic system by implementing a dynamic mechatronic platform and digital electronic control system for an autonomous concentrating solar power for CSP and CPV. The same sun tracker can also be used in solar PV photovoltaic where the solar panels follow the sun throughout the day.
Design and Construction of Automatic Dual-Axis Solar Tracking System Using Li...Mahfuza Mansura
Solar energy is most promising green energy resource.. This project was done to increase the power produced by solar PV Cells by developing a advance dual-axis solar tracking system.
solar position tracking system with the help of LDR and micro controller AT-MEGA 16. Motor driver IC- L293D and LCD (16*2) with the help of DC geared motor (24 volt ).
Making model of dual axis solar tracking with Maximum Power Point Trackingijsrd.com
Now a days solar harvesting is more popular. As the popularity become higher the material quality and solar tracking methods are more improved. There are several factors affecting the solar system. Major influence on solar cell, intensity of source radiation and storage techniques The materials used in solar cell manufacturing limit the efficiency of solar cell. This makes it particularly difficult to make considerable improvements in the performance of the cell, and hence restricts the efficiency of the overall collection process. Therefore, the most attainable maximum power point tracking method of improving the performance of solar power collection is to increase the mean intensity of radiation received from the source used. The purposed of tracking system controls elevation and orientation angles of solar panels such that the panels always maintain perpendicular to the sunlight. The measured variables of our automatic system were compared with those of a fixed angle PV system. As a result of the experiment, the voltage generated by the proposed tracking system has an overall of about 28.11% more than the fixed angle PV system. There are three major approaches for maximizing power extraction in medium and large scale systems. They are sun tracking, maximum power point (MPP) tracking or both.
Solar tracking system, Full Report Submitted in B.Tech, Electrical & Electronics Engineering Final Year @ College of Engineering Roorkee-247667, Uttarakhand, INDIA.
Design of Dual Axis Solar Tracker System Based on Fuzzy Inference Systems ijscai
Electric power is a basic need in today’s life. Due to the extensive usage of power, there is a need to look
for an alternate clean energy source. Recently many researchers have focused on the solar energy as a
reliable alternative power source. Photovoltaic panels are used to collect sun radiation and convert it into
electrical energy. Most of the photovoltaic panels are deployed in a fixed position, they are inefficient as
they are fixed only at a specific angle. The efficiency of photovoltaic systems can be considerably increased
with an ability to change the panels angel according to the sun position. The main goal of such systems is
to make the sun radiation perpendicular to the photovoltaic panels as much as possible all the day times.
This paper presents a dual axis design for a fuzzy inference approach-based solar tracking system. The
system is modeled using Mamdani fuzzy logic model and the different combinations of ANFIS modeling.
Models are compared in terms of the correlation between the actual testing data output and their
corresponding forecasted output. The Mean Absolute Percent Error and Mean Percentage Error are used
to measure the models error size. In order to measure the effectiveness of the proposed models, we
compare the output power produced by a fixed photovoltaic panels with the output which would be
produced if the dual-axis panels are used. Results show that dual-axis solar tracker system will produce
22% more power than a fixed panels system.
KEYWORDS
Fuzzy, Membership function, Universe of discourse, PV, ANFIS, DC motor, FLC.
1. INTRODUCTION
Fuzzy logic can be viewed as an extension of classical logical
Solar energy is rapidly gaining notoriety as an important means of expanding renewable energy
resources. As such, it is vital that those in engineering fields understand the technologies associated
with this area. Our project will include the design and construction of a microcontroller-based solar
panel tracking system. Solar tracking allows more energy to be produced because the solar array is
able to remain aligned to the sun. This system builds upon topics learned in this course. A working
system will ultimately be demonstrated to validate the design. Problems and possible improvements
will also be presented .Sustainable energy systems are necessary for the economic growth and a
healthy environment. To overcome the issues about lack of energy sources the use of renewable
energy resources needs to be enhanced manifold. The main purpose of this paper is to present a
control system which will cause better alignment of Photo voltaic (PV) array with sun light and to
harvest solar power. The proposed system changes its direction in two axis to trace the coordinate of
sunlight by detecting change in light intensity through light sensors. Hardware testing of the proposed
system is done for checking the system ability to track and follow the sunlight in an efficient way.
Dual axis solar tracking system superiority over single axis solar tracking and fixed PV system is also
presented.
This project deals with the CAD design and construction of an automatic Solar Tracking system for Sun Tracking and Sun Following based upon the sun vector and the sun's position at any given time and the position of the sun for any GPS location on the earth. It drives hybrid solar Stirling technology for thermal and electricity generation and finds application in smart microgrid development for power and energy distribution an dispatch in off-grid and grid-tied applications. Automatic sun tracker positioner and control system for a motorized parabolic dish solar reflector and mechatronic solar tracking control system project describes the development and CAD design in a dual-axis sun tracker application for a stand-alone off-grid 3 kW solar electrical self-tracking concentrating solar power system. This autonomous power stand-alone solar tracking application and parabolic collector harness sunlight in a dish Stirling system or concentrated photovoltaic system by implementing a dynamic mechatronic platform and digital electronic control system for an autonomous concentrating solar power for CSP and CPV. The same sun tracker can also be used in solar PV photovoltaic where the solar panels follow the sun throughout the day.
Design and Construction of Automatic Dual-Axis Solar Tracking System Using Li...Mahfuza Mansura
Solar energy is most promising green energy resource.. This project was done to increase the power produced by solar PV Cells by developing a advance dual-axis solar tracking system.
solar position tracking system with the help of LDR and micro controller AT-MEGA 16. Motor driver IC- L293D and LCD (16*2) with the help of DC geared motor (24 volt ).
Making model of dual axis solar tracking with Maximum Power Point Trackingijsrd.com
Now a days solar harvesting is more popular. As the popularity become higher the material quality and solar tracking methods are more improved. There are several factors affecting the solar system. Major influence on solar cell, intensity of source radiation and storage techniques The materials used in solar cell manufacturing limit the efficiency of solar cell. This makes it particularly difficult to make considerable improvements in the performance of the cell, and hence restricts the efficiency of the overall collection process. Therefore, the most attainable maximum power point tracking method of improving the performance of solar power collection is to increase the mean intensity of radiation received from the source used. The purposed of tracking system controls elevation and orientation angles of solar panels such that the panels always maintain perpendicular to the sunlight. The measured variables of our automatic system were compared with those of a fixed angle PV system. As a result of the experiment, the voltage generated by the proposed tracking system has an overall of about 28.11% more than the fixed angle PV system. There are three major approaches for maximizing power extraction in medium and large scale systems. They are sun tracking, maximum power point (MPP) tracking or both.
Solar tracking system, Full Report Submitted in B.Tech, Electrical & Electronics Engineering Final Year @ College of Engineering Roorkee-247667, Uttarakhand, INDIA.
Project details - I have made a project Dual Axis Solar Tracker using Arduino to align the solar panel towards the higher density of Sun light. I have used a ATMEGA168 controller IC for programming, and two servo motor for movement of solar panel. It was now also available on EngineersGarage with the link- http://www.engineersgarage.com/contribution/how-to-make-a-solar-tracker. Check this out.
Trackers direct solar panels or modules towards sun. These devices change their orientation throughout the day to follow the sun's path to maximize energy capture.In photovoltaic systems, trackers help minimize the angle of incidence (the angle that a ray of light makes with a line perpendicular to the surface) between the incoming light and the panel, which increases the amount of energy the installation produces. Concentrated solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar thermal have optics that directly accepts sunlight, so solar trackers must be angled correctly to collect energy
This article aims to present: 1) the differences between national economic planning in system of market economy and national planning in economy system planned by State; 2) the national economic planning in a mixed capitalist economy state and private system; 3) the outline of a rational and democratic governance of economic system of a country; and, 4) how to manage the chaos in the dynamics of the capitalist system.
Value of Solar Tariff Methodology: Proposed ApproachJohn Farrell
A presentation on the proposed approach to a value of solar energy methodology for Minnesota utilities. Presented by the Minnesota Department of Commerce and prepared by Clean Power Research, Oct. 1, 2013.
Solar Energy Assessment for Community Energy PlanningLeonardo ENERGY
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Course on Regulation and Sustainable Energy in Developing Countries - Session 4Leonardo ENERGY
The session 4 gives an in-depth view on the concrete implementation of feed-in tariff laws, with the presentation of case studies of successful and less effective feed-in tariff laws and also an overview of on-going implementation of feed-in tariff laws, presenting notably the examples of Germany, Spain, France, the UK, Malaysia, Kenya, Mauritius, Ecuador, Ontario (Canada), Vermont (US), etc.
A detailed explanation of the scheme of Tidal power production is given.Two live examples along with types of schemes,scenario in the world are elucidated.
FirstGreen Consulting is a company working in the area of renewable energy, energy efficiency and climate change
The team has extensive experience in handling the Renewable, and energy efficiency projects
FirstGreen is providing energy sector consultancy in the sustainable energy, with expertise ranging from carbon advisory to technical consulting, to project implementation and project management.
Pay back period and cost base analysis of solar PV LanternMalik Sameeullah
Financial analysis tool is used to find out the financial feasibility of solar Photo voltaic Lantern. Topic used simple financial tool with self explanatory formula and explain financial analysis of SPV lantern. It is easy to understand the financial analysis specially for beginner.
This paper proposes the design and development of Arduino based solar charge controller with sun tracking using PWM technique. This PWM technique is employed using ATmega328P on Arduino board. The Arduino is used to charge a 12V battery using 10W solar panel. The main feature of this charge controller is to control the load. During day time when load is not connected the battery gets charged from solar panel. When battery reaches peak value of 14.7V charging current & further charging is interrupted by Arduino. An inbuilt analogue to digital converter is used to determine voltage of battery, solar panel and current drawn by the load. A solar tracking system is also implemented such that panel is always kept at right angle to incident radiation.
Project Report submitted By Munesh Kumar Singh, Aditya Vikram Singh, Anitya Kumar Shukla and Devendra Kumar for the award of B.Tech in Electrical and Electronics Engineering at Kanpur Institute of Technology, Kanpur in 2012.
Variable Power Supply with Digital Control with seven segments display is one of the applications of electronics to increase the facilities of life. It is facilitates the operation of voltage regulators around the electronics lab. It provides a system that is simple to understand and also to operate, a system that would be cheaper and affordable.
Today large number of new technologies depends on electrical supply system, so complexity of
wires is very high. In this project, as requirement of wireless electrical power system, project
team present an analysis the concept of cable less transmission i.e. Power without the usage of
any kind of the electrical conductor or wires. Transmission or distribution of 50 or 60 Hz
electrical energy from the generation point to the consumers end without any physical wire has
yet to mature as a familiar and viable technology.
Our team chose to project the feasibility of wireless power transmission through
inductive coupling. This consists of using a transmission and receiving coils as the coupling
antennas. Although the coils do not have to be solenoid they must be in the form of closed loops
to both transmit and receive power. To transmit power an alternating current must be passed
through a closed loop coil. The alternating current will create a time varying magnetic field. The
flux generated by the time varying magnetic field will then induce a voltage on a receiving coil
closed loop system. This seemingly simple system outlines the major principle that our research
investigated. The primary benefits to using inductive coupling are the simplicity of the
transmission and receiving antennas, additionally for small power transmission this is a much
safer means of conveyance. To demonstrate the success of our the teams we created a receiving
circuit to maximize the amount of received power and light an LED at a distance up to two feet.
We were able to create both transmission and receiving circuits capable of transmitting the
necessary power to light an LED in a pulsed mode. On average with transmitting one watt of
power the receiving circuit was able to receive 100 micro-watts of power. While the efficiency of
the system is extremely low, approximately 0.01% with some improvements we feel certain the
efficiency could be greatly improved. Furthermore, as the transmission distance is decreased the
efficiency of any system using inductive coupling improves exponentially.
Transcript: Selling digital books in 2024: Insights from industry leaders - T...BookNet Canada
The publishing industry has been selling digital audiobooks and ebooks for over a decade and has found its groove. What’s changed? What has stayed the same? Where do we go from here? Join a group of leading sales peers from across the industry for a conversation about the lessons learned since the popularization of digital books, best practices, digital book supply chain management, and more.
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Solar tracking system - content
1. i
info4eee | Information For Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Candidate’s Declaration
We hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the report entitled
MICRO CONTROLLER BASED SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM USING
STEPPER MOTOR in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING submitted in the Department of Electrical Engineering, College of
Engineering Roorkee, affiliated to Uttarakhand Technical University, Dehradun (India),
is an authentic record of our own work carried out during session 2012-13, under the
supervision of Mr. Amit Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical
Engineering and Mr. J K Vashishtha , Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical
Engineering of College of Engineering Roorkee, Roorkee (India).
The matter embodied in this project report has not been submitted by us for the
award of any other degree or diploma.
Dated: May , 2013
(Amarjeet Singh Jamwal)
60060108014
(Chetan Mehta)
60060108015
(Bablu Kumar)
09060108028
(Ankit Agarwal)
09060108011
2. ii
info4eee | Information For Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Certificate
This is to certify that the project work “MICROCONTROLLER BASED SOLAR
TRACKING SYSTEM USING STEPPER MOTOR” is a bonafide record of work
done by Amarjeet Singh Jamwal, Ankit Agarwal, Bablu Kumar, Chetan Mehta
under our guidance in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the B-Tech project as per
the record of Uttarakhand Technical University, Dehradun in academic session of
2012-13 at College Of Engineering Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India -247667.
Mr. Amit Kumar Mr J. K. Vashishtha
(Assistant Professor) (Assistant Professor)
Department of Electrical
Engineering
Department of Electrical
Engineering
Mrs. Anuradha Mr. Akhilendra Yadav
(Project Co-ordinator) (Head of Department)
Department of Electrical
Engineering
Department of Electrical
Engineering
3. iii
info4eee | Information For Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Acknowledgement
We would like to express our profound and sincere gratitude to our project guides,
Mr. Amit Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering and Mr. J
K Vashishtha, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, College of
Engineering Roorkee, for their constant and valuable guidance, inspiration, forbearance
and keen interest during this project work.
We take this opportunity to thank Mrs. Anuradha, Assistant Professor,
Department of Electrical Engineering for providing the departmental facilities for
carrying out this work.
We are also very grateful for the forbearance shown by Mr. Akhilendra Yadav,
Head of Department, Department of Electrical Engineering, for his concern and advice,
during the period of our project.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge the immeasurable contribution of our
parents, without their constant inspiration and comradeship this work would never have
been over. After completion of this project we can confidently say that this experience
has not only enriched us with technical knowledge but also enhanced the maturity of
thoughts and vision.
Name of students
AMARJEET SINGH JAMWAL
CHETAN MEHTA
ANKIT AGARWAL
Dated : May , 2013 BABLU KUMAR
4. iv
info4eee | Information For Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Contents
Candidate’s Declaration
(i)
Certificate
(ii)
Acknowledgement
(iii)
Abstract
(vi)
List of Figures and Tables
(vii)
1. Introduction
1
1.1. Background
2
2. Literature Research
3
2.1. Technology of Solar Panel
3
2.2. Evolution of Sola Tracker
3
3. Project Description
5
3.1. Block Diagram
5
3.2. Schematic Diagram
5
3.3. Printed Circuit Board
6
4. Components Description
11
4.1. Solar Tracker
11
4.2. Methods of Tracker mount
11
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4.3. Methods of drive
11
4.4. Sensors
12
4.5. Motor
13
4.6. Microcontroller
18
4.7. Liquid Crystal Display
25
4.8. Transformer
25
4.9. Bridge Rectifier
27
4.10. Regulator IC
29
4.11. The Capacitor Filter
30
4.12. Light Emitting Diode
35
4.13. Resistor
35
5. Conclusion
39
6. References
40
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Abstract
This Project shows design and realization of automatic solar panel orientation system in
order to achieve high performances. This can be done by keeping the solar panel at 90
degree to The Sun rays. To achieve this we are using a microcontroller, a stepper motor,
five LDRs, and a LCD. The management of the system, depending on the movements,
the presence of sun, and the regular checkup of the system evolution, is ensured by an
electronic unit executed around a microcontroller.
Keywords: solar tracker, stepper motor, RTC, LDR, single axis tracking
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List of Figures
Figure No. Figure Caption Page No.
2.1
Sun’s apparent motion 4
3.1
Block Diagram of Project 5
3.2
Schematic Diagram of Project 5
3.3
Printed circuit board (PCB) 6
3.4
Single sided PCB 7
3.5 Double sided PCB 7
3.6
Multi layered PCB 7
4.1
Light Dependent Resistor 12
4.1
Unipolar Stepper motor operation 15
4.2 different type of photo diodes
13
4.2 Port A Pins Alternate functions
22
4.3
Stepper Motors 14
4.4
Bipolar and Unipolar stepper Motor 15
4.5
Bipolar and Unipolar drivers with MOS transistors 16
4.6
Block diagram of demo application 17
4.7 Operating states for different speed profile parts
17
4.8 State machine for timer interrupt
17
4.9
Pin diagram of ATmega16 20
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4.10
2x16 LCD Display
25
4.11 Transformer
26
4.12 Bridge rectifier
27
4.13 Bridge rectifier in parallel capacitor at the output
28
4.14 MCT7805CT voltage regulator
30
4.15 Full-wave rectifier with a capacitor filter
31
4.16 Half-wave rectifier without filtering
31
4.17 Half-wave rectifier with filtering
32
4.18 Capacitor filter circuit
33
4.19 Capacitor filter circuit
33
4.20 Full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter
34
4.21 LED
35
4.22 From top to bottom: W, W, and 1-W resistors.
36
4.23 Different types of resistors.
37
4.24 Fixed resistors: (a) wire wound type; (b) carbon film type.
37
4.25 Color coding
37