The document discusses the concept of multilingualism, which involves the use of multiple languages by individuals or communities, particularly in the context of globalization and migration. It addresses topics such as language contact, conflict, maintenance, and the implications of language shift, loss, and death. Additionally, it outlines the processes of reversing language shift and the distinctions between language revival and revitalization.

1. Mashrur Shahid Hossain
ELT 035 ● Sociolinguistics
Department of English ● Jahangirnagar University
October 2015

2.  Multilingualism refers to the use of more than two languages, either
by an individual speaker or by a speech community.
 Multilingual speech community is a common phenomenon in the
contemporary world due to the proliferation of globalization and the
Internet

3.  Migration
• Transcultural migration
— Involuntary
— Voluntary
• Demographic migration
— Involuntary
— Voluntary
 Imperial conquest
 Colonization
 Postcolonial condition
• Forced federation
• Voluntary federation

4.  Language contact
A situation where two or more languages are brought into
contact (by virtue of bilingualism)
 Language conflict
A situation where two or more languages compete for status
 Three effects of language conflict/contact
• Language shift, death, and maintenance
• Pidgin and creoles
• Diglossia

5.  Language shift
Changes in the degree of functional use from one language to
another
 Factors
• Economic
• Social
• Political
• Demographic


6.  Language danger
A situation where a language, often because of the dominance of
another language, is on the verge of extinction
 Language loss
A process by which speakers of a language slowly stop using it,
resulting in its dying out.
• Endangered language is a language that is no loner being passed
on to children as a native language, but is spoken by a contracting
and aging group of adults.
 Language death is a situation where the last speaker of a
language dies. E.g. Manx and Cornish.


7.  Language maintenance
A situation where speakers continue to use a language even
when there is a new language available
 Language loyalty
The ability (or the lack of it) of speakers of a language to stand up
to the pressure of more powerful ones
 Language rights
• Rights of the language: e.g. initiative by state or linguists to
maintain a ‘minority’ language
• Rights of the speakers of ‘minority’ language: e.g. career
• Rights of the speakers to maintain a language: e.g. by teaching it
to their children


8.  Reversing language shift
The process of revitalizing or reviving a ‘dead’ language
 Two types
• Private and small
• Public and political
 Language revival
When an extinct or dead language is revived; e.g. Cornish
 Language revitalization
When the vitality, or natural transgenerational transmission, of a
language is restored; e.g. Hebrew


9. 1. Language contact and language conflict. Effects of language
contact.
2. Language shift. Factors that effectuate language shift.
3. Causes and effects of language danger, language loss, and
language death. Endangered language.
4. Language maintenance. Two methods/modes of language
maintenance: language loyalty and language rights.
5. Reversing language shift. Two processes of reversing language
shift. Difference between language revival and language
revitalization.

10.  Describe this chart. In the chart, (i) there are 6 major columns,
each numbered numerically (e.g. 1 and 2); (ii) ‘Hu’ stands for
Hungary and ‘G’ for German. (From Holmes 56)

11.  Describe this table. In the chart, (i) there are 6 major columns,
each numbered numerically (e.g. 1 and 2), and (ii) ‘Hu’ stands for
Hungary and ‘G’ for German (from Holmes 56).
 A sample response (from Holmes 56):
“The patterns of language use for any individual in Oberwart in the
1970s depended on their social networks. Who did they interact
with? The table shows that interactions between older people and
‘peasants’ (those working in jobs associated with the land) tended
still to be in Hungarian. These are in the top left-hand side of the
table. Towards the right and bottom of the table are interactions
between younger people and those working in jobs associated
with the new industries or in professional jobs. Here German
predominates. The pattern in the table suggests that German will
gradually completely displace Hungarian in Oberwart, unless
something unexpected happens.”

12.  What would you predict as the effect of intermarriage on
language maintenance and shift? If, in England, an English-
speaking woman marries a Gujerati-speaking man, for instance,
which language will they use to their children? (From Holmes 62)
 A sample response:
“When marriage partners use different languages, the majority
group language almost always displaces the minority language.
Most often in such families, parents use the majority language to
their children. When the minority language is the mother’s
language it may survive longer, but in the end shift to the
majority language seems inevitable. In the present case, the
probability is strong that the parents will use English (the majority
language in England) to their children.” (from Holmes 73).

13.  PART A
One narrative answer out of at least two options. [10x1=10]
 PART B
One practical job out of at least two options. [5x1=5]