Iirs overview -Remote sensing and GIS application in Water Resources ManagementTushar Dholakia
Remote sensing and GIS application in Water Resources Management- By S.P. Aggarval spa@iirs.gov.in Indian Institute of Remote sensing ISRO, Department of space, Dehradun
1.1 Climate change and impacts on hydrological extremes (P.Willems)Stevie Swenne
Presentation of Patrick Willems (KU Leuven) on 'Climate change and impacts on hydrological extremes' during the conference 'Environmental challenges & Climate change opportunities' organised by Flanders Environment Agency (VMM)
Iirs overview -Remote sensing and GIS application in Water Resources ManagementTushar Dholakia
Remote sensing and GIS application in Water Resources Management- By S.P. Aggarval spa@iirs.gov.in Indian Institute of Remote sensing ISRO, Department of space, Dehradun
1.1 Climate change and impacts on hydrological extremes (P.Willems)Stevie Swenne
Presentation of Patrick Willems (KU Leuven) on 'Climate change and impacts on hydrological extremes' during the conference 'Environmental challenges & Climate change opportunities' organised by Flanders Environment Agency (VMM)
Land Use and Land Cover change monitoring of Surajpur Wetland, Uttar Pradesh:...Arnab Saha
Abstract:
Wetlands are extremely important areas throughout the world for wildlife protection, recreation, sediment control and flood prevention. Wetlands are important bird’s habitats and birds use them for feeding, roosting, nesting and rearing their young. In Surajpur Wetland are mainly used for agriculture, fisheries, reclamation for harboring and irrigation purposes. In this paper an attempt is made to study the changes in land use and land cover in Surajpur wetland area over 11 years’ period (2003-2014). LULC is an important component in understanding the interactions of the human activities with the environment and thus it is necessary to be able to simulate changes. The land cover mapping of study area was attempted using remotely sensed images of Landsat and Google Earth imagery. The study area was classified into five categories on the basis of field study, geographical conditions, and remote sensing data. LULC changes have been detected by image processing method in EDRAS imagine 2014 and ArcGIS 10.3. The eleven years’ time period of 2003-2014 shows the major type of land use change. Vegetation area that occupied about around 60 per cent of the Surajpur wetland area in 2003 has decreased to 34.25 percent in 2014. Wetland is increased 8.17 percent and Urban area, Fallow land and Water body also have experienced change. Finally, through the work it is recommended that the wetlands need detail mapping through the use of advance remote sensing techniques like microwave and LIDAR for restoration and management of wetland.
Keywords: LULC, ArcGIS, Surajpur, ERDAS, Remote Sensing
Floods can be hugely destructive, but they also offer opportunities for farmers and fisherfolk. If their frequency and extent can be measured, then we will be better able to mitigate costs and maximise benefits. Digital geospatial flood inundation mapping is a powerful new approach for flood response that shows floodwater extent and depth on the land surface. IWMI research will evaluate this new technology and develop a prototype flood inundation map for South Asia. Also discussed is a project to flood map and model in a spate irrigation system in Sudan.
identification of ground water potential zones using gis and remote sensingtp jayamohan
the identification of ground water potential zones using gis and remote sensing.The study is conducted in the Muvattupuzha block.The various parameters used are geology,geomorphology,rainfall,soil type,etc.
Climate Change Impact Assessment on Hydrological Regime of Kali Gandaki BasinHI-AWARE
The presentation focuses on the findings of the impact of climate change on the hydrological regime and water balance components of the Kali Gandaki basin in Nepal. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) has been used to predict future projections.
Remote sensing (RS) and geographical information systems (GIS) are revolutionising irrigation management. They represent a relatively cheap and rapid method of acquiring up-to-date information over a large geographical area. and are the only practical way to obtain data from inaccessible regions. At small scales, regional phenomena which are invisible from the ground can be clearly visible. Presented at the 1st World Irrigation Forum, 2013, Mardin, Turkey.
It is a presentation made on the actual work done on site for the selection of construction site for the dam,it can be used as well for other site suitability.
APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS TECHNOLOGIES IN FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENTrsmahabir
Flooding is the most common of all major disasters that regularly affect populations and results in extensive damage to property, infrastructure, natural resources, and even to loss of life. To ensure better outcomes, planning and execution of flood management projects must utilize knowledge on a wide range of factors, most of which are of a spatial nature. Advances in geospatial technologies, specifically remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), have enabled the acquisition and analysis of data about the Earth's surface for flood mitigation projects in a faster, more efficient and more accurate manner.
Remote sensing and GIS have emerged as powerful tools to deal with various aspects of flood management in prevention, preparedness and relief management of flood disaster. GIS facilitates integration of spatial and non-spatial data such as rainfall and stream flows, river cross sections and profiles, and river basin characteristics, as well as other information such as historical flood maps, infrastructures, land use, and social and economic data. Such data sets are critical for the in-depth analysis and management of floods.
Remote sensing technologies have great potential in overcoming the information void in the Caribbean region. The observation, mapping, and representation of Earth’s surface have provided effective and timely information for monitoring floods and their effect. The potential of new air- and space-borne imaging technologies for improving hazard evaluation and risk reduction is continually being explored. They are relatively inexpensive and have the ability to provide information on several parameters that are crucial to flood mapping and monitoring.
LAND USE /LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION AND CHANGE DETECTION USING GEOGRAPHICAL I...IAEME Publication
Land use and land cover change has become a central component in current strategies for managing natural resources and monitoring environmental changes. Geographical information system and image processing techniques used for the analysis of land use/land cover and change detection of Sukhana Basin of Aurangabad District, Maharashtra state. The tools used ArcGIS10.1 and ERDAS IMAGINE9.1, landsat images of 1996, 2003and 2014. From land use / land cover change detection it is found that during 1996-2014, water bodies cover have loss of 4 Sq. Km. Barren land have 146 Sq.Km. loss and forest area with 96 Sq.Km. loss. It is found that urbanization area has gain of 51 Sq.Km. and agricultural land cover also have gain of 195 Sq.Km.
In the context of remote sensing, change detection refers to the process of identifying differences in the state of land features by observing them at different times. This process can be accomplished either manually (i.e., by hand) or with the aid of remote sensing software. Manual interpretation of change from satellite images or aerial photos involves an observer or analyst defining areas of interest and comparing them between images from two dates. This may be accomplished either on-screen (such as in a GIS) or on paper. When analyzing aerial photographs, a stereoscope which allows for two spatially-overlapping photos to be displayed in 3D, can aid photo interpretation. Manual image interpretation works well when assessing change between discrete classes (forest openings, land use and land cover maps) or when changes are large (e.g., heavy mechanized maneuver damage, engineering training impacts). Manual image interpretation is also an option when trying to determine change using images or photos from different sources (comparing historic aerial photographs to current satellite imagery).
Automated methods of remote sensing change detection usually are of two forms: post-classification change detection and image differencing using band ratios. In post-classification change detection, the images from each time period are classified using the same classification scheme into a number of discrete categories like land cover types. The two (or more) classifications are compared and the area that is classified the same or different is tallied. With image differencing, a band ratio such as NDVI is constructed from each input image, and the difference is taken between the band ratios of different times. In the case of differencing NDVI images, positive output values may indicate an increase in vegetation, negative values a decrease in vegetation, and values near zero no change. With either post-classification or image differencing change detection, it is necessary to specify a threshold below which differences between the two images is considered to be non-significant. The specification of thresholds is critical to the results of change detection analysis and usually must be found through an iterative process.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
Climate change consideration in hydro‐power development in the nepal himalaya...Jagat K. Bhusal
Presented at a workshop on "Developing regional collaboration in river basin management in response to climate change” Thursday 19 – Friday 20 December, 2013 Thimphu, Bhutan
Land Use and Land Cover change monitoring of Surajpur Wetland, Uttar Pradesh:...Arnab Saha
Abstract:
Wetlands are extremely important areas throughout the world for wildlife protection, recreation, sediment control and flood prevention. Wetlands are important bird’s habitats and birds use them for feeding, roosting, nesting and rearing their young. In Surajpur Wetland are mainly used for agriculture, fisheries, reclamation for harboring and irrigation purposes. In this paper an attempt is made to study the changes in land use and land cover in Surajpur wetland area over 11 years’ period (2003-2014). LULC is an important component in understanding the interactions of the human activities with the environment and thus it is necessary to be able to simulate changes. The land cover mapping of study area was attempted using remotely sensed images of Landsat and Google Earth imagery. The study area was classified into five categories on the basis of field study, geographical conditions, and remote sensing data. LULC changes have been detected by image processing method in EDRAS imagine 2014 and ArcGIS 10.3. The eleven years’ time period of 2003-2014 shows the major type of land use change. Vegetation area that occupied about around 60 per cent of the Surajpur wetland area in 2003 has decreased to 34.25 percent in 2014. Wetland is increased 8.17 percent and Urban area, Fallow land and Water body also have experienced change. Finally, through the work it is recommended that the wetlands need detail mapping through the use of advance remote sensing techniques like microwave and LIDAR for restoration and management of wetland.
Keywords: LULC, ArcGIS, Surajpur, ERDAS, Remote Sensing
Floods can be hugely destructive, but they also offer opportunities for farmers and fisherfolk. If their frequency and extent can be measured, then we will be better able to mitigate costs and maximise benefits. Digital geospatial flood inundation mapping is a powerful new approach for flood response that shows floodwater extent and depth on the land surface. IWMI research will evaluate this new technology and develop a prototype flood inundation map for South Asia. Also discussed is a project to flood map and model in a spate irrigation system in Sudan.
identification of ground water potential zones using gis and remote sensingtp jayamohan
the identification of ground water potential zones using gis and remote sensing.The study is conducted in the Muvattupuzha block.The various parameters used are geology,geomorphology,rainfall,soil type,etc.
Climate Change Impact Assessment on Hydrological Regime of Kali Gandaki BasinHI-AWARE
The presentation focuses on the findings of the impact of climate change on the hydrological regime and water balance components of the Kali Gandaki basin in Nepal. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) has been used to predict future projections.
Remote sensing (RS) and geographical information systems (GIS) are revolutionising irrigation management. They represent a relatively cheap and rapid method of acquiring up-to-date information over a large geographical area. and are the only practical way to obtain data from inaccessible regions. At small scales, regional phenomena which are invisible from the ground can be clearly visible. Presented at the 1st World Irrigation Forum, 2013, Mardin, Turkey.
It is a presentation made on the actual work done on site for the selection of construction site for the dam,it can be used as well for other site suitability.
APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS TECHNOLOGIES IN FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENTrsmahabir
Flooding is the most common of all major disasters that regularly affect populations and results in extensive damage to property, infrastructure, natural resources, and even to loss of life. To ensure better outcomes, planning and execution of flood management projects must utilize knowledge on a wide range of factors, most of which are of a spatial nature. Advances in geospatial technologies, specifically remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), have enabled the acquisition and analysis of data about the Earth's surface for flood mitigation projects in a faster, more efficient and more accurate manner.
Remote sensing and GIS have emerged as powerful tools to deal with various aspects of flood management in prevention, preparedness and relief management of flood disaster. GIS facilitates integration of spatial and non-spatial data such as rainfall and stream flows, river cross sections and profiles, and river basin characteristics, as well as other information such as historical flood maps, infrastructures, land use, and social and economic data. Such data sets are critical for the in-depth analysis and management of floods.
Remote sensing technologies have great potential in overcoming the information void in the Caribbean region. The observation, mapping, and representation of Earth’s surface have provided effective and timely information for monitoring floods and their effect. The potential of new air- and space-borne imaging technologies for improving hazard evaluation and risk reduction is continually being explored. They are relatively inexpensive and have the ability to provide information on several parameters that are crucial to flood mapping and monitoring.
LAND USE /LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION AND CHANGE DETECTION USING GEOGRAPHICAL I...IAEME Publication
Land use and land cover change has become a central component in current strategies for managing natural resources and monitoring environmental changes. Geographical information system and image processing techniques used for the analysis of land use/land cover and change detection of Sukhana Basin of Aurangabad District, Maharashtra state. The tools used ArcGIS10.1 and ERDAS IMAGINE9.1, landsat images of 1996, 2003and 2014. From land use / land cover change detection it is found that during 1996-2014, water bodies cover have loss of 4 Sq. Km. Barren land have 146 Sq.Km. loss and forest area with 96 Sq.Km. loss. It is found that urbanization area has gain of 51 Sq.Km. and agricultural land cover also have gain of 195 Sq.Km.
In the context of remote sensing, change detection refers to the process of identifying differences in the state of land features by observing them at different times. This process can be accomplished either manually (i.e., by hand) or with the aid of remote sensing software. Manual interpretation of change from satellite images or aerial photos involves an observer or analyst defining areas of interest and comparing them between images from two dates. This may be accomplished either on-screen (such as in a GIS) or on paper. When analyzing aerial photographs, a stereoscope which allows for two spatially-overlapping photos to be displayed in 3D, can aid photo interpretation. Manual image interpretation works well when assessing change between discrete classes (forest openings, land use and land cover maps) or when changes are large (e.g., heavy mechanized maneuver damage, engineering training impacts). Manual image interpretation is also an option when trying to determine change using images or photos from different sources (comparing historic aerial photographs to current satellite imagery).
Automated methods of remote sensing change detection usually are of two forms: post-classification change detection and image differencing using band ratios. In post-classification change detection, the images from each time period are classified using the same classification scheme into a number of discrete categories like land cover types. The two (or more) classifications are compared and the area that is classified the same or different is tallied. With image differencing, a band ratio such as NDVI is constructed from each input image, and the difference is taken between the band ratios of different times. In the case of differencing NDVI images, positive output values may indicate an increase in vegetation, negative values a decrease in vegetation, and values near zero no change. With either post-classification or image differencing change detection, it is necessary to specify a threshold below which differences between the two images is considered to be non-significant. The specification of thresholds is critical to the results of change detection analysis and usually must be found through an iterative process.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
Climate change consideration in hydro‐power development in the nepal himalaya...Jagat K. Bhusal
Presented at a workshop on "Developing regional collaboration in river basin management in response to climate change” Thursday 19 – Friday 20 December, 2013 Thimphu, Bhutan
Impact of Future Climate Change on water availability in Kupang CityWillem Sidharno
Observed climate change could affect water availability in the future. Changes also
occurred Kupang city in recent decades, an increase in the magnitude of the damage caused
by drought due to climate change. In an attempt to explore the effects of drought can be
aggravated by climate change. in this paper, the author will be analyze impact of changes in
the water balance in Kupang city. To achieve that, the author will use the procedure consists
of two procedures: Temperature and precipitation are modeled under two typical emission
A1FI and B1 scenarios evaluated in this study for future projections in Kupang, discharge
simulations using rainfall Mock generated daily rainfall and water balance monthly Data
analysis WEAP (water Evaluation and Planning System) based simulation Mock. Due to the
significant uncertainty involved in forecasting future water consumption and water yield, the
author will use the three scenarios assumed water consumption and water three outcome
scenarios. Three scenarios of water consumption, ie, "Low", "Medium" and "High" in
accordance with the expected number of water consumption. Disposal obtained from mock
simulations during the simulation period. Finally, the water balance analysis conducted by
WEAP based on a combination of the three scenarios of water consumption. With this
procedure, it is possible to explore different scenarios of water consumption and water
results and the results of this study can be used to establish the proper planning to minimize
the impact of drought on water availability to support water requirement due to climate
change in Kupang city.
Investigation of cause of climate change. Review of all the evidence from NASA, NSIDC, NOAA and UK Meteorological Office. Calculation of latent heat associated with water vapour emissions from irrigation.
An optimized snowmelt lysimeter system for monitoring melt rates and collecti...NOMADPOWER
The contribution of snow meltwater to catchment streamflow can be quantified through hydrograph separation analyses for which stable water isotopes (18 O, 2 H) are used as environmental tracers. For this, the spatial and temporal variability of the isotopic composition of meltwater needs to be captured by the sampling method. This study compares an optimized snowmelt lysimeter system and an unheated precipitation collector with focus on their ability to capture snowmelt rates and the isotopic composition of snowmelt.
New Explore Careers and College Majors 2024.pdfDr. Mary Askew
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The career system works on all devices!
For more Information, go to https://bit.ly/3SW5w8W
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Just a game Assignment 3
1. What has made Louis Vuitton's business model successful in the Japanese luxury market?
2. What are the opportunities and challenges for Louis Vuitton in Japan?
3. What are the specifics of the Japanese fashion luxury market?
4. How did Louis Vuitton enter into the Japanese market originally? What were the other entry strategies it adopted later to strengthen its presence?
5. Will Louis Vuitton have any new challenges arise due to the global financial crisis? How does it overcome the new challenges?Assignment 3
1. What has made Louis Vuitton's business model successful in the Japanese luxury market?
2. What are the opportunities and challenges for Louis Vuitton in Japan?
3. What are the specifics of the Japanese fashion luxury market?
4. How did Louis Vuitton enter into the Japanese market originally? What were the other entry strategies it adopted later to strengthen its presence?
5. Will Louis Vuitton have any new challenges arise due to the global financial crisis? How does it overcome the new challenges?Assignment 3
1. What has made Louis Vuitton's business model successful in the Japanese luxury market?
2. What are the opportunities and challenges for Louis Vuitton in Japan?
3. What are the specifics of the Japanese fashion luxury market?
4. How did Louis Vuitton enter into the Japanese market originally? What were the other entry strategies it adopted later to strengthen its presence?
5. Will Louis Vuitton have any new challenges arise due to the global financial crisis? How does it overcome the new challenges?
1. IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON SNOWMELT
RUNOFF
by
Kailash Patel
(16WM60R07)
School of Water Resources
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
1
2. INTRODUCTION
2
The Himalayas have the largest concentration of glaciers
out side the polar region and thus it is also known as
Third Pole of the earth.
The cryosphere (consisting of snow, ice and frozen
ground) on land stores about 75% of the world’s
freshwater.
The Himalayan range alone has a total area of 35,110
sq.km. of glaciers and ice cover with total ice reserves of
3735 cu.km which is equivalent to 3250 cu.km fresh
water (Qin, 2002 and IPCC, 2008) and it provides the 86
million cubic meter of water annually (Rao et al., 2007).
The Himalayas, the water tower of the world is the
source of nine giant river systems of Asia are the water
lifeline for 500 million inhabitants of the region.
3. 3
While in Nepal, there are 3,252 glaciers that cover 5,323 sq.km
in area with estimated ice reserve of 481 cu.km and the Koshi
River Basin alone comprises 779 glaciers with an area of
1,409.84 sq.km and has an estimated ice reserve of 152.06
cu.km (Mool et al., 2001).
The contribution of snow and glacial melt to the major rivers
in the region ranges from less than 5% to more than 45% of
the average flow (Jianchu et al., 2008).
It has been estimated that some 225 billion cu.km of surface
water flows through Nepalese territory annually, which
amounts to about 118,200 m3/sq.km. This is about four times
the world average.
4. 4
The available surface runoff flows through more than 6,000 rivers
and rivulets, totaling about 45,000 km in length, having hydropower
potential of 83000 MW (Rao, 1996) and eventually drains to the
Ganges River in India through several river systems.
Although about 14% of the catchments area of the Ganges lies in
Nepal, the contribution of Nepalese rivers to the Ganges is about
41% to the total runoff, and 71% of its lean season flow (Alfred,
1992).
However, the runoff pattern has been significantly affected due to
the melt of the Himalayan ice and glaciers, the main sources of
Nepalese river systems, as a result of climate change i.e. change in
global temperature.
5. 5
The estimated linear trend in global surface temperature from
1906 to 2005 is a warming of 0.74°C with a more rapid
warming trend over the past 50 years (IPCC, 2008). The
average surface temperature of the earth has increased
between 0.3ºC and 0.6ºC over the past hundred years and the
increase in global temperature is predicted to continue rising
during the 21st century.
On the Indian subcontinent, temperatures are predicted to
increase between 3.5 and 5.5ºC by 2100 (IPCC, 2001a) and an
even greater increase is predicted for the Tibetan Plateau
(Lal, 2002) and while in Nepal, the temperature rise is 0.6°C
per decade (Seko et al., 1999).
6. Objectives of the study
6
TO ASSESS IMPACT OF THE CLIMATE CHANGE ON
SNOWMELT RUNOFF IN TAMAKOSHI BASIN IN NEPAL.
7. Review of literature
7
Author Year Remarks
Rao et al. 1999 Climate change is a major concern in the Himalayas
because of potential impacts on economy, ecology,
and environment of the Himalayas and areas
downstream.
Mula et al. 2000 Rapid degradation of these glaciers is likely to
seriously threaten water availability in the
region, particularly during lean flow seasons when
melt water contribution is crucial to sustain the
river flow which supports human activities and
ecosystem services in these areas and downstream.
8. 8
Dyugerve and
Meier,
2003 Many Himalayan glaciers are retreating
faster than the world average and thinning
by 0.3~1 m/year .
Hasnain et al., 2004 The Rate of retreat for the Gongotri Glacier is
23 m/year which was more than three times
than the during the preceding 200 years.
Kadaota et al., 1997 Most glaciers studied in Nepal are undergoing
rapid de-glaciations with the reported rate of
glacial retreat ranges from several meters to 20
m/year
9. 9
McCarthy et
al.,
2001 In the recent decades the ratio of solid
and liquid precipitation is decreasing due
to global warming .
hiratsuka, 2003 The increased liquid precipitation badly
affects on the water storage capacity of
mountains in two ways. Firstly, it will create a
direct runoff and possible flooding and
secondly it will accelerate the process of
ice/snow melting.
IPCC 2007 Thus changing climatic parameters have
doubled the adverse effects on the water
resources of the Nepalese Himalayas- firstly,
warmer temperature accelerates the glacier
retreat and secondly, the liquid precipitation
further accelerates the retreating of glacier.
11. 11
The study area is the Tamakoshi basin in Nepal.
It is situated at about 90 km North East of Kathmandu.
It is thelocated at headwater side of the Tamakoshi River.
This river has annual runoff of 60.95m3/s, which is about 3.7% of the
runoff of the Koshi River.
There are 404 glacier lakes, area of each of them more than 1,600 sq.m,
amounting to total lake area of about 7.92sq.km
Most GLOF events risk in the Tamakoshi river basin may be of magnitude
more serious and devastating than that of meteorological floods. Owing to
large differences in the relief, the basin is characterized by diversified
climatic patterns.
As the snowline is at about an elevation of about 4500m amsl, the
precipitation occurs mostly as snow fall above that elevation.
12. 12
This basin alone receives the total precipitation of 2000mm in
summer (from June to September). This is about 80% of annual
precipitation and most of precipitation occurs in the form of snow.
13. Data used in this study:
13
Data used in this study are three type :
1. topographic
2. hydro – metrological
3. satellite images
14. METHODOLOGY
14
Models :
Prediction of melting of snow and ice in a
glacierized basin is very important to estimate basin
discharge.
In the Himalayan region, the main source of water is
glacier melt water which is closely related to summer
mass balance and snowmelt runoff form galcierized
basins.
For simulating snowmelt runoff, there exist
numerous methodologies. These vary from the
simple system model i.e. index methods to more
physical based detailed energy balance approaches.
15. 2. Model Structure (SRM)
15
The model used in this study is positive degree-day index and used the SRM
model (Martinec et al., 2008) for snowmelt estimation and runoff simulation.
In this model, the study basin is divided into number of elevation zones at rate of
500 m interval.
The zonal area A, hypocentric elevation and snow covered area ASCA are
calculated for each zone.
Based on the elevation of base station/s (where temperature and precipitation
are measured), hypocentric elevation of each zone and regional temperature
lapse rate, the temperature and precipitation are distributed at each elevation
zone.
The form of precipitation is determined by considering the Critical Temperature
TCR for snowfall and the air temperature at each hypocentric elevation for each
zone.
16. 16
The snowmelt (MS in cm) is computed in each zone
with the input of snow cover area, temperature and
degree-day factor in each zone by temperature index
method :-
Where;
a = degree-day factor (cm °/C/day),
T = daily average, (°C)
Tb = base temperature (°C)
17. Assessment of the Model Accuracy
17
SRM uses two well-established accuracy criteria, namely, the
coefficient of determination, R2, and the volume difference, Dv.
(Martinec and Rango 1998). The coefficient of determination is
computed as follows:
Where
Qi is the measured daily discharge.
Qi ' is the computed daily discharge.
Q is the average measured discharge of the given year
n = the number of daily discharge values.
18. Result and discussion :
18
1. Simulation
The Study basin has the total area of 1759 sq.km with
altitude variation from 1964 to 7307 and gradient of 9.5%.
The area of zones above the 4500 m elevation is 78% of
total area with the average annual temperature less than
00C and above 5000 m is 58% and -2.50 0C respectively
(see Table 5.1).
Similarly the average annual snow coverage are 40.1% in
2003 and 41.8 % in 2002 with peak coverage of 58.9 % &
64.3 % and least coverage of 22.6 % & 25.5 % respectively
23. 23
3. Impact of Climate Change :
After the simulation has been done in the year 2003, this year is
taken as the base year to investigate the impact of climate change
(rising temperature) in the snow melt runoff.
In climate change simulation in SRM, only the temperature is
changed from the ΔT 1, 2 and 3 0C, because there is no definite
trend of change in precipitation as described else where.
The impact of climate change (i.e. temperature) is increasing
trend in stream flow with increased snow melt contribution
approximately at rate of 3% in annual and 8% in winter flow per
one degree centigrade temperature rise.
24. 24
The main factor of such increase in snowmelt contribution is
melting of snow and glacier in the basins.
As shown in the Table 5.1 and explained in the simulation
section, there is 58% area of the total watershed above 5000m
amsl elevation where annual average temperature is less than
equal to -2.5°C and the snow coverage is more than 46%
average in year.
As a result, though the temperature is raised up to 3oC, there will
be enhanced melting in the melting period while balanced snow
deposition in the accumulation period in the winter.
That’s why the result of impact of climate change is as
anticipative.
27. Conclusion
27
The result shows that The Positive Degree Day or Temperature Index
method coupled in Snowmelt Runoff Model, SRM can be well applied in
rugged and remote Himalayan basin like Upper Tamakoshi basin with
limited data.
Required data are only the daily discharge, daily precipitation, daily
temperature and daily snow coverage (obtained from remote sensing i.e.
satellite image, aerial photos etc). The study area is glacierized basin
with more than 40% annual snow coverage.
The contribution of snowmelt in stream flow is found as 17.5% in winter,
13% in summer and 13% in annual flow in the average from 2002 to
2003.
28. 28
The study demonstrates that the impact of climate
change (i.e. temperature) to stream flow is significant,
which is in increasing trend resulting from snow melt
contribution.
Due to the snow melt contribution, stream flow
increases approximately at rate of 8% in winter, 3% in
summer and 3% in annual flow per one degree
centigrade temperature rise.
29. Output of this study
29
The outputs of this study are important guidance for water
resources managers to make and implement appropriate
strategy for water resources management and hydropower
development.
It is also useful tool for adoptive planning i.e. more and
efficient use of winter flow and mitigative and preventive
measure for high flood and GLOF.