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Smart High Performanc Facades

The document discusses façade systems in low-energy buildings, emphasizing the importance of selecting sustainable and cost-effective façade solutions that balance aesthetics and performance. It distinguishes between opaque and glazed facades, explores their thermal properties, and highlights the role of smart facades that adapt to environmental conditions. The document also covers strategies for energy efficiency and sustainability in facade design, addressing their impact on building performance in hot climates.

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Dec.,2016 Bahrain
Façades Systems Low-Energy Buildings Hot Climate Double Façades Intelligent Building Facades Wind Loads and Façades
Façades Systems With the façade embodying up to 35% of the construction costs as well as being hugely accountable for the buildings' response to climate change, it has never been so important to understand which façade solutions deliver not only a cost effective and sustainable façade, but also one that is aesthetically pleasing and technically performing.
Building Facades • The façade forms the external weatherproof envelope of a building. (vertical building enclosure). • More than any other component; they create the image of the building. The building envelope should be designed to mediate public-private boundaries within the architecture, both inside and out. • In modern buildings, the façade is often attached to the building frame and provides no contribution to structural stability. • Sustainable facades are defined as exterior enclosure that use least possible amount of energy to maintain a comfortable environment, which promotes productivity to certain material which has less negative impact on environment. • Essentially There Are Two Types Of Facades: – Opaque Facades; which are primarily constructed of layers of solid materials, such as masonry, stone, precast concrete panels, metal cladding, insulation, and cold formed steel framing. Opaque facades may also include punched openings or windows. – Glazed Facades; such as curtain walls or storefront facades which primarily consist of transparent or translucent glazing materials and metal framing components.
Opaque Facades Solid wall constructed from monolithic or composite elements, with or without a separate layer to provide climatic protection Warm façades have a thermal insulation layer applied directly to the surface of the building. (MUST be water-resistant) Cold façades are characterized by a cavity, ventilated internally, between the outer layer and the thermal insulation layer.
Factors That Effect Thermal, Visual, And Acoustic Comfort of Façades Environmental Conditions Thermal Comfort Visual Comfort Acoustic Comfort Opaque facades  Material properties of cladding  Amount of insulation  Effective heat resistance properties (R – value) Wall to wall ratio Material selection and properties Glazing  Orientation  Number of glass layers  Layer thickness  Heat transfer coefficient (U- value)  Visual transmittance  Solar heat gain coefficient(SHGC)  Orientation  Window properties, size, location and shape  Glass thickness and color  Visual transmittance  reflectance Number of layers Layer thickness Layer density Framed and supporting structure for glazed facades Thermal properties of the frames Material types
Desired & Smart Properties of Facades Desirable Properties; • Low CO2 emission • Thermal and Moisture Insulation • Storage • Solar Isolation • Natural Light • View • Fresh Air • Sound Insulation • High insulation e.g. vacuum insulation • Self cleaning • Security/Safety/Fire Protection • Aesthetics Smart Facades; • Facade is an interactive inside-outside interface • Sensor system/interact with clothing or skin sensors • Reactive materials and surfaces • Embedded technology can control inputs/outputs (Dynamic envelopes) • Opportunities for nanomaterials
Façade Design Objectives • Energy efficiency • Sustainability • Comfort (thermal, acoustic, visual) • Economy in use • Economy of construction • Safety in construction and maintenance • Safety in use • Durability • Aesthetics LEED addresses some, but not all therefore, its best to use “Holistic Design” to balance improving façade performance in conjunction with building overall performance.   ? ? x x x x x
What is LEED? • Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design • USGBC - United States Green Building Council • http://www.leedbuilding.org • Started in 2000 and has grown and developed since • Voluntary not Statutory. • A Rating system not a Design Guide. • It sets minimum requirements (pre-requisites) and awards credits for designs that exceed the minimum requirements • Depending on the amount of credits awarded, a building will achieve.
Low-Energy Buildings  Minimizing energy used for artificial lighting and mechanical cooling and heating by minimizing the area of the building external skin and optimizing exterior wall insulation.  Façade materials properties and wall assemblies largely determine energy consumption and the heat loss or gain of the building.
Sustainable Design Guideline for Buildings • Orienting and developing geometry and massing of the building to respond to solar position and climate. • Maximize levels of natural ventilation and daylight shading (optimize window sizes) with early sun glare protection. (Horizontal sunscreens / adjustable blinds to block the summer sun) • Using natural ventilation to reduce cooling loads and enhance air quality. (Locate door and window openings on opposite sides of building with larger areas facing up-wind) • Use thermal insulation / wall massing to block sunlight. improve thermal comfort • Use a light-colored concrete for the parking surface and walkways surrounding to reduce the heat island effect. • Glass facades allows occupants views of the city and gives a ‘modern’ architectural look, however, Glass facades are often associated with increased energy consumption, solar heat gain, glare, discomfort of occupants and cost. • FINALLY ; country specific ecological and climate conditions should be considered along with suitable available local materials.
Lighting 14% Space heating 28% Space cooling 10% ventilation 6% Refrigiration 5% Water heating 7% Electronics 3% Computers 2% Equipment 14% Other 11% Energy use breakdown for commercial buildings Buildings’ Energy Consumption Sustainable Facades Reduce Buildings’ Energy Consumption
Fenestration Components • Fenestration components and materials allow natural light to enter into the building, decide the amount of energy consumption and the heat loss or gain of the building. • Thermal Resistance (R-value) - It is an assembly’s or a material’s resistance to heat transfers, and is expressed in h-ft2 or m2-K/W. • Heat Transfer Coefficient (U-value) - It is the inverse of R-value. It measures the heat transmission through a material or a façade assembly, expressed in Btu/hr-ft2- oF or W/m2-oK, and are usually used to define thermal performance of glazed parts of facades assemblies.
EmbodiedEnergyExamplesInFacades Cladding Systems Embodied Energy CMU Brick cladding, continuous insulation and polyethylene membrane 247 Steel cladding, continuous insulation and polyethylene membrane 370 Precast concrete cladding, continuous insulation and polyethylene membrane 291 Cast-in-place concrete Brick cladding, continuous insulation and paint 113 Steel cladding, continuous insulation and paint 236 Stucco cladding, continuous insulation and paint 99 Steel framed (16 in.) Brick cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 96 Steel cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 219 Wood cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 61 Precast concrete cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 141 Cladding Systems Embodied Energy Steel framed (24 in.) Brick cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 91 Steel cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 213 Wood cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 55 Precast concrete cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 135 Curtain wall Vision glazing and frames 148 Opaque glazing 135 Metal spandrel panel 138
ASHRAE’s Energy Standard for Buildings  ASHRAE Energy Standard for buildings provides recommendation for building facades based on building location and climate zone.  ASHRAE’s requirements are categorized based on the basic building function and occupancy,  ASHRAE identifies four types of exterior walls: – Mass walls, generally constructed of masonry or concrete materials. – Metal building walls, consisting of metal members spanning between steel structural members (not including spandrel glass or metal panels in curtain walls) – Steel framed walls, with cavities whose exterior surfaces are separated by steel framing members. – Wood framed and other walls.  ASHRAE requirements for different climate zones: – Minimum allowable thermal resistance (R-value) for different exterior walls. – Maximum allowable heat transfer coefficient (U-value) for the façade assembly (including the thermal bridging effects of framing members) – Maximum allowable solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) for the glazed portions of a façade assembly.
Parameter measured Outcome Effect of the green facade Difference in temperature in front of and behind the facade 1.4°C cooler in summer 3.8°C warmer in winter Absorption of light and heat energy by foliage keeps the cavity temperature lower Facade support system creates a microclimate/unstirred air layer next to the wall even when stems are bare Difference in surface temperature between bare wall and vegetated wall (summer) Average bare wall temperature is 5.5°C higher (Maximum temperature is 15.2°C higher) Full leaf cover provides effective shading and prevents heat gain by the building Difference in relative humidity in front of and behind the facade 7% higher in summer 8% lower in winter Evapotranspiration from leaves causes a local increase in humidity (and cooling) in summer which is not apparent when stems are bare Impact of Green Facade On Building Thermal Performance Green facades are created through the growth of climbing plants up and across the face of a building, from either plants rooted in the ground, or those in containers installed at different levels up the face of a building.
Heat Transfer Coefficients For Glazing (U-value) - Comparison Type of material to be used in the building should have minimum heat transfer coefficient and should have minimum embodied energy in its construction and installation of framing. Façade should have maximum thermal resistance which can prevent building from heating. Glazing Type Centre of Glass Edge of Glass Aluminum Frame Without Thermal Brake Aluminum Frame With Thermal Brake Double Glazing 12 mm Air Space (U value W/m2-oK) 2.73 3.36 4.14 3.26 Double Low-e Glazing with 12mm Argon Fill (U value W/m2-oK) 1.70 2.62 3.26 2.38
Wall Assemblies Curtain Wall Example • Due to strong abrasive winds and hot weather conditions in GCC region using a single glazing is not feasible solution because buildings absorbs an immense amount of heat. • Therefore double skin façade can be an option. • The other option is to use high U- value glass / double-glazed windows. • Double glazing with 6mm air space for the inner façade and double low e- glazing with 12mm argon fill on the exterior façade which require relatively better strength to bear wind load on the building. • By doing this the embodied energy of the building material used can be reasonable.
HOT CLIMATE DOUBLE FAÇADES  Passive solar heat gain in winter.  Reducing thermal losses in winter.  Reducing overall solar heat gain.  Support of natural ventilation (with the stack effect).
Double-Skin Façade The double skin consists of two transparent surfaces separated by a cavity, which is used as an air channel.
Why Double Skin Facades? • Reduction of peak wind pressure • Improvement of energy efficiency of façade by – Passive solar heat gain in winter – Reducing thermal losses in winter – Reducing overall solar heat gain (in summer) – Support of natural ventilation (with the stack effect). The air corridor may or may not form part of the cooling system. • The system can be responsive that opens and closes according to solar path. • The cavity is seen as a great place to locate the shading system as it could be protected from snow, ice and wind. • FINALLY; Architectural infatuation with tectonics and appearance! • NOTE 1; The shading layer must be very durable to withstand exposure to the elements as well as cleaning. • NOTE 2; The combination of high humidity and dust while fresh water is mostly desalinated makes Facade cleaning a major issue.
Early research into double façade types Buffer Façade Twin Face FaçadeExtract-air Façade
Double façades in the Gulf Region Al Bahar Towers, Abu Dhabi Aedas Architects w/Arup Doha Tower, Qatar Ateliers Jean Nouvel Capital Gate, Abu Dhabi, RMJM Architects
O-14, Dubai Its exterior shading element is made from reinforced concrete and acts as an external structural support for the building while being a shading device O-14, Dubai UAE RUR Architecture
Intelligent Building Facades The human skin is a good model how we would like the building skin to behave. It adapts to temperature and humidity, can feel a breeze or the slightest touch, and can repair itself. It is waterproof and yet permeable to moisture.
Smart Window / Facade Colour-Changing System Type Spectral Response Input Energy Interior Result Visual Interior Result Thermal Photo chromic Specular to specular transmission at high UV levels UV radiation Reduction in intensity but still transparent Reduction in transmitted radiation Thermo chromic Specular to specular transmission at high IR levels Heat (high surface temperature) Reduction in intensity but still transparent Reduction in transmitted radiation Thermo thropic Specular to specular transmission at high and low temperatures Heat (high and/or low surface temperature) Reduction in intensity and visibility, becomes diffuse Reduction in transmitted radiation, emitted radiation, and conductivity Electro thropic Specular to specular transmission toward short wavelength region (blue) Voltage or current (control system and electrical supply required) Reduction in intensity Proportional reduction in transmitted radiation Liquid Crystals Specular to diffuse transmission Voltage (control system and electrical supply required) Minimal reduction in intensity, reduction in visibility, becomes diffuse Minimal impact on transmitted radiation Suspended particle Specular to diffuse transmission Current Reduction in intensity and visibility, becomes diffuse Minimal impact on transmitted radiation
Double Glazing
Other Colour-Changing Smart Materials • Mechano chromics -materials react to imposed stresses and/or deformations. • Chemo chromics -materials exposed to specific chemical environments.
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles with a smooth surface may be used as an anti-adhesive coating for windows or spectacle lenses Self Cleaning Facade Features
Mimics human bleeding healing process. Embedded vessels bleed colored epoxy resin into cracks and restore structural integrity. Self Healing Materials
Carbon Nanotubes Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical carbon molecules with novel properties as they exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties, and are efficient conductors of heat.
More Renewables! SMIT (Sustainably Minded Interactive Technology) Solar and wind power micro cells fixed onto facades.
More Greenery!
Future Facades • With the increase in sustainability, fire safety , new materials innovations and technologies the future remains to be seen for façade design and engineering.
Wind Loads and Façades Building Envelopes Design Considerations;  Wind Pressures  Weather Performance  Integration with Building Services  Structural Integrity  Blast proof/ earthquake criteria  Energy Performance  Maintenance/ Cleaning/ Recycling
Flow Around the Building
DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS First Generation1780-1850 • The exterior walls consisted of stone or brick, although sometimes cast iron was added for decorative purposes. • The columns were constructed of cast iron, often unprotected; steel and wrought iron was used for the beams; and the floors were made of wood. Second Generation 1850-1940 • Framed structures, a skeleton of welded- or riveted-steel columns and beams, often encased in concrete, runs through the entire building. • This makes for an extremely strong structure, but not such attractive floor space. The interiors are full of heavy, load-bearing columns and walls. Third Generation 1940-present • Within this generation there are those of steel-framed construction (core construction and tube construction), reinforced concrete construction (shear wall), and steel-framed reinforced concrete construction. • Hybrid systems also evolved during this time. These systems make use more than one type of structural system in a building. HOME INSURANCE BUILDING EMPIRE STATE BUILDING
Buildings Design Loads • The primary structural skeleton of a tall building can be visualized as a vertical cantilever beam with its base fixed in the ground. • The weight of the building is supported by a group of vertical columns , each floor is supported by horizontal steel girders running between vertical columns. • Curtain wall made of steel and concrete attaches to the outside. NO Structural Function. • The structure has to carry the vertical gravity loads (caused by dead and live loads) and the lateral wind and earthquake loads. • Lateral loads tend to snap the building or topple it. The building must therefore have adequate shear and bending resistance and must not lose its vertical load-carrying capability.
Wind Loads • Buildings taller than 10 stories would generally require additional steel for lateral system. • The most basic method for controlling horizontal sway is to simply tighten up the structure to make the entire steel super structure move more as one unit, like a pole, as opposed to a flexible skeleton. • For taller skyscrapers, tighter connections DOES NOT keep these buildings from swaying as there is a greater demand on the girders and columns that make up the rigid-frame system to carry lateral forces. • Thus strong cores or perimeters that run through the center of the building are needed to counter sway. The columns in the windy side stretch apart, and the columns on the other side squeeze together.
Strategies To Mitigate Wind Effect • Wind produces three different types of effects on tall buildings: static, dynamic, and aerodynamic. • Structurally, static effect is independent of time; but dynamic analysis is an attempt to take into account how the system responds to the change through the period of time; • When the building is flexible, the building interacts with wind load and affects its response; that is called aerodynamic effect. Wind tunnel testing are used to predict motion perception and pedestrian level effects. • To reduce the impact of wind on a tall building and mitigate the response of the structure of tall building, there are two main concepts: – Structural; Increasing the building structural stiffness – Architectural; Aerodynamic (Geometric modifications) of the building. • Modifications on cross-sectional shapes, such as slotted, chamfered, rounded corners, and notching on a rectangular building, can have significant effects on both along wind and across wind responses of the building
Examples of Aerodynamic Modifications Slotted & ChamferedTwisting Roundness & RecessionPorosity / Openings Tapering Setback
TALL BUILDING STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS • INTERIOR STRUCTURES – A system is categorized as an interior structure when the major part of the lateral load resisting system is located within the interior of the building. – By clustering steel columns and beams in the core, a stiff backbone that can resist tremendous wind forces is created. The inner core is used as an elevator shaft , and the design allows lots of open space on each floor • EXTERIOR STRUCTURES – If the major part of the lateral load-resisting system is located at the building perimeter, a system is categorized as an exterior structure. – In newer skyscrapers, the columns and beams are moved from the core to the perimeter, creating a hollow, rigid tube as strong as the core design, but weighing much. • NOTE: any interior structure is likely to have some minor components of the lateral load-resisting system at the building perimeter, and any exterior structure may have some minor components within the interior of the building.
Interior & Exterior Structures of Tall Buildings
Interior Framed Structural Systems 1) RIGID FRAME • A rigid frame in structural engineering is the load-resisting skeleton constructed with straight or curved members interconnected by moment resisting connections which resist movements induced at the joints of members. • Its members can take bending moment, shear, and axial loads. • Cab be built as external or at the core of the building. • Can build up to 20 to 25 floors 2) SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE • Concrete or masonry continuous vertical walls may serve both architecturally partitions and structurally to carry gravity and lateral loading. • Very high in plane stiffness and strength make them ideally suited for bracing tall building • Usually built as the core of the building • Can build up to 35 Floors. 3) OUTRIGGER STRUCTURES • The core may be centrally located with outriggers extending on both sides or in some cases it may be located on one side of the building with outriggers extending to the building columns on the other side. • The Outriggers are generally belt trusses (1 or 2 story deep) to distribute tensile and compressive forces to a large number of exterior frame columns. • Can build up to 150 floors
Shangai World Financial Center - Outrigger Structure The Outriggers are effectively act as stiff headers inducing a tension-compression couple in the outer columns.
Interior Framed Structural Systems
Exterior Framed Structural Systems
EXTERIOR STRUCTURES – Tube System • The tube system concept is based on the idea that a building can be designed to resist lateral loads by designing it as a hollow cantilever perpendicular to the ground. • In the simplest form, the perimeter of the exterior consists of closely spaced columns that are tied together with deep spandrel beams through moment connections. • This assembly of columns and beams forms a rigid frame that amounts to a dense and strong structural wall along the exterior of the building. • The variations of tubular systems are; – Bundled Tube system – Tube in tube system – Diagrids – Braced Tubes (Space Truss / Exo-Skeleton) – Super Frame
Different Tubular Systems
Diagrid Systems • With their structural efficiency as a varied version of the tubular systems, diagrid structures have been emerging as a new aesthetic trend for tall buildings. • Most of the structural systems deployed for early tall buildings were steel frames with diagonal bracings of various configurations such as X, K, and chevron. • However, while the structural importance of diagonals was well recognized in resisting lateral forces, the aesthetic potential of them was not appreciated. Hearst Tower , New York
Space Truss • Space truss structures are modified braced tubes with diagonals connecting the exterior to interior. • In a typical braced tube structure, all the diagonals, which connect the chord members – vertical corner columns in general, are located on the plane parallel to the facades. • However, in space trusses, some diagonals penetrate the interior of the building Bank of China, Hong Kong
Exo-Skeleton Structure • In exoskeleton structures, lateral load-resisting systems are placed outside the building lines away from their facades. • Due to the system’s compositional characteristics, it acts as a primary building identifier – one of the major roles of building facades in general cases. Hotel de las Atres
Super Frame Structures • Super frame structures can create ultra high-rise buildings up to 160 floors. • Super frames or Mega frames assume the form of a portal which is provided on the exterior of a building. • The frames resist all wind forces as an exterior tubular structure. The portal frame of the Super frame is composed of vertical legs in each corner of the building which are linked by horizontal elements at about every 12 to 14 floors. • Since the vertical elements are concentrated in the corner areas of the building, maximum efficiency is obtained for resisting wind forces.
Example Petronas Tower • Concrete was used for the construction of the 452 m tower. • The tower has 'tube in tube' structural system. • The structural members are made with high strength concrete which was cast in site. • The perimeter columns are held together with the help of ring beams. • The internal core structure is made of concrete shear walls.
Example BURJ KHALIFA • The tower rises to an unprecedented height of 800 meters and that consists of more than 160 floors. • The structural system is called 'butressed core'. • The lateral loads and gravity loads are shared equally between the interior core and perimeter structural systems linked by the “link beam”. The blue members are the load carrying concrete wall system
FUTURE TALL BUILDINGS • We are entering the era of the “megatall.” These buildings are over 600 meters in height, or double the height of a supertall. • To build higher the base of the building will have to be made wider. The bundled tube system was a great innovation and was able to span great heights during it's time , to attain the height of burj khalifa the bundled tube system will need a bigger base when compared with the buttressed core system.
Loay Ghazaleh, MBA, BSc. Civil Eng. Advisor, Undersecretary Office Ministry of Works, Bahrain loay.ghz@gmail.com , +973-36711547

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Smart High Performanc Facades

  • 1.
  • 2.
    Façades Systems Low-Energy Buildings HotClimate Double Façades Intelligent Building Facades Wind Loads and Façades
  • 3.
    Façades Systems With the façade embodyingup to 35% of the construction costs as well as being hugely accountable for the buildings' response to climate change, it has never been so important to understand which façade solutions deliver not only a cost effective and sustainable façade, but also one that is aesthetically pleasing and technically performing.
  • 4.
    Building Facades • Thefaçade forms the external weatherproof envelope of a building. (vertical building enclosure). • More than any other component; they create the image of the building. The building envelope should be designed to mediate public-private boundaries within the architecture, both inside and out. • In modern buildings, the façade is often attached to the building frame and provides no contribution to structural stability. • Sustainable facades are defined as exterior enclosure that use least possible amount of energy to maintain a comfortable environment, which promotes productivity to certain material which has less negative impact on environment. • Essentially There Are Two Types Of Facades: – Opaque Facades; which are primarily constructed of layers of solid materials, such as masonry, stone, precast concrete panels, metal cladding, insulation, and cold formed steel framing. Opaque facades may also include punched openings or windows. – Glazed Facades; such as curtain walls or storefront facades which primarily consist of transparent or translucent glazing materials and metal framing components.
  • 5.
    Opaque Facades Solid wallconstructed from monolithic or composite elements, with or without a separate layer to provide climatic protection Warm façades have a thermal insulation layer applied directly to the surface of the building. (MUST be water-resistant) Cold façades are characterized by a cavity, ventilated internally, between the outer layer and the thermal insulation layer.
  • 6.
    Factors That EffectThermal, Visual, And Acoustic Comfort of Façades Environmental Conditions Thermal Comfort Visual Comfort Acoustic Comfort Opaque facades  Material properties of cladding  Amount of insulation  Effective heat resistance properties (R – value) Wall to wall ratio Material selection and properties Glazing  Orientation  Number of glass layers  Layer thickness  Heat transfer coefficient (U- value)  Visual transmittance  Solar heat gain coefficient(SHGC)  Orientation  Window properties, size, location and shape  Glass thickness and color  Visual transmittance  reflectance Number of layers Layer thickness Layer density Framed and supporting structure for glazed facades Thermal properties of the frames Material types
  • 7.
    Desired & SmartProperties of Facades Desirable Properties; • Low CO2 emission • Thermal and Moisture Insulation • Storage • Solar Isolation • Natural Light • View • Fresh Air • Sound Insulation • High insulation e.g. vacuum insulation • Self cleaning • Security/Safety/Fire Protection • Aesthetics Smart Facades; • Facade is an interactive inside-outside interface • Sensor system/interact with clothing or skin sensors • Reactive materials and surfaces • Embedded technology can control inputs/outputs (Dynamic envelopes) • Opportunities for nanomaterials
  • 8.
    Façade Design Objectives •Energy efficiency • Sustainability • Comfort (thermal, acoustic, visual) • Economy in use • Economy of construction • Safety in construction and maintenance • Safety in use • Durability • Aesthetics LEED addresses some, but not all therefore, its best to use “Holistic Design” to balance improving façade performance in conjunction with building overall performance.   ? ? x x x x x
  • 9.
    What is LEED? •Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design • USGBC - United States Green Building Council • http://www.leedbuilding.org • Started in 2000 and has grown and developed since • Voluntary not Statutory. • A Rating system not a Design Guide. • It sets minimum requirements (pre-requisites) and awards credits for designs that exceed the minimum requirements • Depending on the amount of credits awarded, a building will achieve.
  • 10.
    Low-Energy Buildings  Minimizing energyused for artificial lighting and mechanical cooling and heating by minimizing the area of the building external skin and optimizing exterior wall insulation.  Façade materials properties and wall assemblies largely determine energy consumption and the heat loss or gain of the building.
  • 11.
    Sustainable Design Guidelinefor Buildings • Orienting and developing geometry and massing of the building to respond to solar position and climate. • Maximize levels of natural ventilation and daylight shading (optimize window sizes) with early sun glare protection. (Horizontal sunscreens / adjustable blinds to block the summer sun) • Using natural ventilation to reduce cooling loads and enhance air quality. (Locate door and window openings on opposite sides of building with larger areas facing up-wind) • Use thermal insulation / wall massing to block sunlight. improve thermal comfort • Use a light-colored concrete for the parking surface and walkways surrounding to reduce the heat island effect. • Glass facades allows occupants views of the city and gives a ‘modern’ architectural look, however, Glass facades are often associated with increased energy consumption, solar heat gain, glare, discomfort of occupants and cost. • FINALLY ; country specific ecological and climate conditions should be considered along with suitable available local materials.
  • 12.
    Lighting 14% Space heating 28% Space cooling 10% ventilation 6% Refrigiration 5% Water heating 7% Electronics 3% Computers 2% Equipment 14% Other 11% Energyuse breakdown for commercial buildings Buildings’ Energy Consumption Sustainable Facades Reduce Buildings’ Energy Consumption
  • 13.
    Fenestration Components • Fenestrationcomponents and materials allow natural light to enter into the building, decide the amount of energy consumption and the heat loss or gain of the building. • Thermal Resistance (R-value) - It is an assembly’s or a material’s resistance to heat transfers, and is expressed in h-ft2 or m2-K/W. • Heat Transfer Coefficient (U-value) - It is the inverse of R-value. It measures the heat transmission through a material or a façade assembly, expressed in Btu/hr-ft2- oF or W/m2-oK, and are usually used to define thermal performance of glazed parts of facades assemblies.
  • 14.
    EmbodiedEnergyExamplesInFacades Cladding SystemsEmbodied Energy CMU Brick cladding, continuous insulation and polyethylene membrane 247 Steel cladding, continuous insulation and polyethylene membrane 370 Precast concrete cladding, continuous insulation and polyethylene membrane 291 Cast-in-place concrete Brick cladding, continuous insulation and paint 113 Steel cladding, continuous insulation and paint 236 Stucco cladding, continuous insulation and paint 99 Steel framed (16 in.) Brick cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 96 Steel cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 219 Wood cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 61 Precast concrete cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 141 Cladding Systems Embodied Energy Steel framed (24 in.) Brick cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 91 Steel cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 213 Wood cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 55 Precast concrete cladding, continuous insulation, cold-formed steel framing, cavity insulation and polyethylene membrane, gypsum board and paint 135 Curtain wall Vision glazing and frames 148 Opaque glazing 135 Metal spandrel panel 138
  • 15.
    ASHRAE’s Energy Standardfor Buildings  ASHRAE Energy Standard for buildings provides recommendation for building facades based on building location and climate zone.  ASHRAE’s requirements are categorized based on the basic building function and occupancy,  ASHRAE identifies four types of exterior walls: – Mass walls, generally constructed of masonry or concrete materials. – Metal building walls, consisting of metal members spanning between steel structural members (not including spandrel glass or metal panels in curtain walls) – Steel framed walls, with cavities whose exterior surfaces are separated by steel framing members. – Wood framed and other walls.  ASHRAE requirements for different climate zones: – Minimum allowable thermal resistance (R-value) for different exterior walls. – Maximum allowable heat transfer coefficient (U-value) for the façade assembly (including the thermal bridging effects of framing members) – Maximum allowable solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) for the glazed portions of a façade assembly.
  • 16.
    Parameter measured Outcome Effect ofthe green facade Difference in temperature in front of and behind the facade 1.4°C cooler in summer 3.8°C warmer in winter Absorption of light and heat energy by foliage keeps the cavity temperature lower Facade support system creates a microclimate/unstirred air layer next to the wall even when stems are bare Difference in surface temperature between bare wall and vegetated wall (summer) Average bare wall temperature is 5.5°C higher (Maximum temperature is 15.2°C higher) Full leaf cover provides effective shading and prevents heat gain by the building Difference in relative humidity in front of and behind the facade 7% higher in summer 8% lower in winter Evapotranspiration from leaves causes a local increase in humidity (and cooling) in summer which is not apparent when stems are bare Impact of Green Facade On Building Thermal Performance Green facades are created through the growth of climbing plants up and across the face of a building, from either plants rooted in the ground, or those in containers installed at different levels up the face of a building.
  • 17.
    Heat Transfer CoefficientsFor Glazing (U-value) - Comparison Type of material to be used in the building should have minimum heat transfer coefficient and should have minimum embodied energy in its construction and installation of framing. Façade should have maximum thermal resistance which can prevent building from heating. Glazing Type Centre of Glass Edge of Glass Aluminum Frame Without Thermal Brake Aluminum Frame With Thermal Brake Double Glazing 12 mm Air Space (U value W/m2-oK) 2.73 3.36 4.14 3.26 Double Low-e Glazing with 12mm Argon Fill (U value W/m2-oK) 1.70 2.62 3.26 2.38
  • 18.
    Wall Assemblies CurtainWall Example • Due to strong abrasive winds and hot weather conditions in GCC region using a single glazing is not feasible solution because buildings absorbs an immense amount of heat. • Therefore double skin façade can be an option. • The other option is to use high U- value glass / double-glazed windows. • Double glazing with 6mm air space for the inner façade and double low e- glazing with 12mm argon fill on the exterior façade which require relatively better strength to bear wind load on the building. • By doing this the embodied energy of the building material used can be reasonable.
  • 19.
    HOT CLIMATE DOUBLE FAÇADES Passive solar heat gain in winter.  Reducing thermal losses in winter.  Reducing overall solar heat gain.  Support of natural ventilation (with the stack effect).
  • 20.
    Double-Skin Façade The doubleskin consists of two transparent surfaces separated by a cavity, which is used as an air channel.
  • 21.
    Why Double SkinFacades? • Reduction of peak wind pressure • Improvement of energy efficiency of façade by – Passive solar heat gain in winter – Reducing thermal losses in winter – Reducing overall solar heat gain (in summer) – Support of natural ventilation (with the stack effect). The air corridor may or may not form part of the cooling system. • The system can be responsive that opens and closes according to solar path. • The cavity is seen as a great place to locate the shading system as it could be protected from snow, ice and wind. • FINALLY; Architectural infatuation with tectonics and appearance! • NOTE 1; The shading layer must be very durable to withstand exposure to the elements as well as cleaning. • NOTE 2; The combination of high humidity and dust while fresh water is mostly desalinated makes Facade cleaning a major issue.
  • 22.
    Early research intodouble façade types Buffer Façade Twin Face FaçadeExtract-air Façade
  • 23.
    Double façades inthe Gulf Region Al Bahar Towers, Abu Dhabi Aedas Architects w/Arup Doha Tower, Qatar Ateliers Jean Nouvel Capital Gate, Abu Dhabi, RMJM Architects
  • 24.
    O-14, Dubai Its exteriorshading element is made from reinforced concrete and acts as an external structural support for the building while being a shading device O-14, Dubai UAE RUR Architecture
  • 25.
    Intelligent Building Facades The humanskin is a good model how we would like the building skin to behave. It adapts to temperature and humidity, can feel a breeze or the slightest touch, and can repair itself. It is waterproof and yet permeable to moisture.
  • 26.
    Smart Window /Facade Colour-Changing System Type Spectral Response Input Energy Interior Result Visual Interior Result Thermal Photo chromic Specular to specular transmission at high UV levels UV radiation Reduction in intensity but still transparent Reduction in transmitted radiation Thermo chromic Specular to specular transmission at high IR levels Heat (high surface temperature) Reduction in intensity but still transparent Reduction in transmitted radiation Thermo thropic Specular to specular transmission at high and low temperatures Heat (high and/or low surface temperature) Reduction in intensity and visibility, becomes diffuse Reduction in transmitted radiation, emitted radiation, and conductivity Electro thropic Specular to specular transmission toward short wavelength region (blue) Voltage or current (control system and electrical supply required) Reduction in intensity Proportional reduction in transmitted radiation Liquid Crystals Specular to diffuse transmission Voltage (control system and electrical supply required) Minimal reduction in intensity, reduction in visibility, becomes diffuse Minimal impact on transmitted radiation Suspended particle Specular to diffuse transmission Current Reduction in intensity and visibility, becomes diffuse Minimal impact on transmitted radiation
  • 27.
  • 28.
    Other Colour-Changing SmartMaterials • Mechano chromics -materials react to imposed stresses and/or deformations. • Chemo chromics -materials exposed to specific chemical environments.
  • 29.
    Titanium dioxide nanoparticleswith a smooth surface may be used as an anti-adhesive coating for windows or spectacle lenses Self Cleaning Facade Features
  • 30.
    Mimics human bleedinghealing process. Embedded vessels bleed colored epoxy resin into cracks and restore structural integrity. Self Healing Materials
  • 31.
    Carbon Nanotubes Carbon nanotubesare cylindrical carbon molecules with novel properties as they exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties, and are efficient conductors of heat.
  • 32.
    More Renewables! SMIT (SustainablyMinded Interactive Technology) Solar and wind power micro cells fixed onto facades.
  • 33.
  • 34.
    Future Facades • Withthe increase in sustainability, fire safety , new materials innovations and technologies the future remains to be seen for façade design and engineering.
  • 35.
    Wind Loads and Façades BuildingEnvelopes Design Considerations;  Wind Pressures  Weather Performance  Integration with Building Services  Structural Integrity  Blast proof/ earthquake criteria  Energy Performance  Maintenance/ Cleaning/ Recycling
  • 36.
  • 37.
    DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURALSYSTEMS First Generation1780-1850 • The exterior walls consisted of stone or brick, although sometimes cast iron was added for decorative purposes. • The columns were constructed of cast iron, often unprotected; steel and wrought iron was used for the beams; and the floors were made of wood. Second Generation 1850-1940 • Framed structures, a skeleton of welded- or riveted-steel columns and beams, often encased in concrete, runs through the entire building. • This makes for an extremely strong structure, but not such attractive floor space. The interiors are full of heavy, load-bearing columns and walls. Third Generation 1940-present • Within this generation there are those of steel-framed construction (core construction and tube construction), reinforced concrete construction (shear wall), and steel-framed reinforced concrete construction. • Hybrid systems also evolved during this time. These systems make use more than one type of structural system in a building. HOME INSURANCE BUILDING EMPIRE STATE BUILDING
  • 38.
    Buildings Design Loads •The primary structural skeleton of a tall building can be visualized as a vertical cantilever beam with its base fixed in the ground. • The weight of the building is supported by a group of vertical columns , each floor is supported by horizontal steel girders running between vertical columns. • Curtain wall made of steel and concrete attaches to the outside. NO Structural Function. • The structure has to carry the vertical gravity loads (caused by dead and live loads) and the lateral wind and earthquake loads. • Lateral loads tend to snap the building or topple it. The building must therefore have adequate shear and bending resistance and must not lose its vertical load-carrying capability.
  • 39.
    Wind Loads • Buildingstaller than 10 stories would generally require additional steel for lateral system. • The most basic method for controlling horizontal sway is to simply tighten up the structure to make the entire steel super structure move more as one unit, like a pole, as opposed to a flexible skeleton. • For taller skyscrapers, tighter connections DOES NOT keep these buildings from swaying as there is a greater demand on the girders and columns that make up the rigid-frame system to carry lateral forces. • Thus strong cores or perimeters that run through the center of the building are needed to counter sway. The columns in the windy side stretch apart, and the columns on the other side squeeze together.
  • 40.
    Strategies To MitigateWind Effect • Wind produces three different types of effects on tall buildings: static, dynamic, and aerodynamic. • Structurally, static effect is independent of time; but dynamic analysis is an attempt to take into account how the system responds to the change through the period of time; • When the building is flexible, the building interacts with wind load and affects its response; that is called aerodynamic effect. Wind tunnel testing are used to predict motion perception and pedestrian level effects. • To reduce the impact of wind on a tall building and mitigate the response of the structure of tall building, there are two main concepts: – Structural; Increasing the building structural stiffness – Architectural; Aerodynamic (Geometric modifications) of the building. • Modifications on cross-sectional shapes, such as slotted, chamfered, rounded corners, and notching on a rectangular building, can have significant effects on both along wind and across wind responses of the building
  • 41.
    Examples of AerodynamicModifications Slotted & ChamferedTwisting Roundness & RecessionPorosity / Openings Tapering Setback
  • 42.
    TALL BUILDING STRUCTURALSYSTEMS • INTERIOR STRUCTURES – A system is categorized as an interior structure when the major part of the lateral load resisting system is located within the interior of the building. – By clustering steel columns and beams in the core, a stiff backbone that can resist tremendous wind forces is created. The inner core is used as an elevator shaft , and the design allows lots of open space on each floor • EXTERIOR STRUCTURES – If the major part of the lateral load-resisting system is located at the building perimeter, a system is categorized as an exterior structure. – In newer skyscrapers, the columns and beams are moved from the core to the perimeter, creating a hollow, rigid tube as strong as the core design, but weighing much. • NOTE: any interior structure is likely to have some minor components of the lateral load-resisting system at the building perimeter, and any exterior structure may have some minor components within the interior of the building.
  • 43.
    Interior & ExteriorStructures of Tall Buildings
  • 44.
    Interior Framed StructuralSystems 1) RIGID FRAME • A rigid frame in structural engineering is the load-resisting skeleton constructed with straight or curved members interconnected by moment resisting connections which resist movements induced at the joints of members. • Its members can take bending moment, shear, and axial loads. • Cab be built as external or at the core of the building. • Can build up to 20 to 25 floors 2) SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE • Concrete or masonry continuous vertical walls may serve both architecturally partitions and structurally to carry gravity and lateral loading. • Very high in plane stiffness and strength make them ideally suited for bracing tall building • Usually built as the core of the building • Can build up to 35 Floors. 3) OUTRIGGER STRUCTURES • The core may be centrally located with outriggers extending on both sides or in some cases it may be located on one side of the building with outriggers extending to the building columns on the other side. • The Outriggers are generally belt trusses (1 or 2 story deep) to distribute tensile and compressive forces to a large number of exterior frame columns. • Can build up to 150 floors
  • 45.
    Shangai World FinancialCenter - Outrigger Structure The Outriggers are effectively act as stiff headers inducing a tension-compression couple in the outer columns.
  • 46.
  • 47.
  • 48.
    EXTERIOR STRUCTURES –Tube System • The tube system concept is based on the idea that a building can be designed to resist lateral loads by designing it as a hollow cantilever perpendicular to the ground. • In the simplest form, the perimeter of the exterior consists of closely spaced columns that are tied together with deep spandrel beams through moment connections. • This assembly of columns and beams forms a rigid frame that amounts to a dense and strong structural wall along the exterior of the building. • The variations of tubular systems are; – Bundled Tube system – Tube in tube system – Diagrids – Braced Tubes (Space Truss / Exo-Skeleton) – Super Frame
  • 49.
  • 50.
    Diagrid Systems • Withtheir structural efficiency as a varied version of the tubular systems, diagrid structures have been emerging as a new aesthetic trend for tall buildings. • Most of the structural systems deployed for early tall buildings were steel frames with diagonal bracings of various configurations such as X, K, and chevron. • However, while the structural importance of diagonals was well recognized in resisting lateral forces, the aesthetic potential of them was not appreciated. Hearst Tower , New York
  • 51.
    Space Truss • Spacetruss structures are modified braced tubes with diagonals connecting the exterior to interior. • In a typical braced tube structure, all the diagonals, which connect the chord members – vertical corner columns in general, are located on the plane parallel to the facades. • However, in space trusses, some diagonals penetrate the interior of the building Bank of China, Hong Kong
  • 52.
    Exo-Skeleton Structure • Inexoskeleton structures, lateral load-resisting systems are placed outside the building lines away from their facades. • Due to the system’s compositional characteristics, it acts as a primary building identifier – one of the major roles of building facades in general cases. Hotel de las Atres
  • 53.
    Super Frame Structures •Super frame structures can create ultra high-rise buildings up to 160 floors. • Super frames or Mega frames assume the form of a portal which is provided on the exterior of a building. • The frames resist all wind forces as an exterior tubular structure. The portal frame of the Super frame is composed of vertical legs in each corner of the building which are linked by horizontal elements at about every 12 to 14 floors. • Since the vertical elements are concentrated in the corner areas of the building, maximum efficiency is obtained for resisting wind forces.
  • 54.
    Example Petronas Tower •Concrete was used for the construction of the 452 m tower. • The tower has 'tube in tube' structural system. • The structural members are made with high strength concrete which was cast in site. • The perimeter columns are held together with the help of ring beams. • The internal core structure is made of concrete shear walls.
  • 55.
    Example BURJ KHALIFA •The tower rises to an unprecedented height of 800 meters and that consists of more than 160 floors. • The structural system is called 'butressed core'. • The lateral loads and gravity loads are shared equally between the interior core and perimeter structural systems linked by the “link beam”. The blue members are the load carrying concrete wall system
  • 57.
    FUTURE TALL BUILDINGS •We are entering the era of the “megatall.” These buildings are over 600 meters in height, or double the height of a supertall. • To build higher the base of the building will have to be made wider. The bundled tube system was a great innovation and was able to span great heights during it's time , to attain the height of burj khalifa the bundled tube system will need a bigger base when compared with the buttressed core system.
  • 58.
    Loay Ghazaleh, MBA,BSc. Civil Eng. Advisor, Undersecretary Office Ministry of Works, Bahrain loay.ghz@gmail.com , +973-36711547