1. Semantics is the systematic of meaning and linguistics semantics is the study of how languages
organize and express meaning. Semantic is a scientific study to develop and establish the
meaning of a word in reference to a specific context. Even every single word of language has its
own meaning. Semantics only concerned with literal meaning as opposed to non-literal,
semantics is the study of meaning. There are three disciplines of semantics: psychology,
philosophy and linguistics. Their interests and approaches are different. Psychologists are
interested in how humans learn, how they retain means related to memory, Philosophers talk
about facts while Linguists want to understand how language works and function. Semantics talk
about the relationship between signifier and signified and this relation is arbitrary (goes on
changing).Vocabulary and grammar are very important in order to understand the meaning of a
word. Phonology is the knowledge of how speech sounds are organized in a particular language.
These units are called phonemes. This sound system is very important in understanding the
meaning of a word. Syntax is the knowledge of the classes of words and of how members of
these classes go together to form phrases and sentences and morphology which is the knowledge
of word formation also come under semantics. It is impossible to explore semantics without
dealing with syntax because two are closely interrelated. There are ten aspects of any speaker’s
semantics knowledge. (Anomaly,Paraphrasres,Synonyms,Contradiction,Antonyms,Semantic
feature, Ambiguity, Adjacency pair, Entailment and Presupposition).
In semantics, our area of interest is Lexical Relations. It includes two approaches;
1. Semantic field theory.
2. Truth conditional semantics.
Semantic field theory includes Lexical fields which has lexical sets, part whole relationship and
paradigms. It further has two types 1.part whole relationships. Second-minute-hour day is a part
whole relationship that is also hierarchical and 2.sequential or cyclical.)
Kinship is universal since all humans are related to other humans through blood
ties(consanguineal relations)and through marriage(affinities) but kinship system differ from
society to society. There are four primitives features of kinship are:
(1) Parent
(2) Offspring
(3) Sibling
(4) spouse
Componential analysis is determination of distinctive feature of the members of the set from
one another. While truth conditional semantics includes Hyponym is a word, which can be
substituted for any specific word. Its sub fields are entailment, super ordinates, co-
hyponyms, tautology, contradiction and collective noun. Synonyms are the words that have
same sense in a given context. Antonyms are two words that make opposite statement about
the same subject.
Binary and non–binary antonyms. In binary there middle ground only two possible grounds
are there e.g. either on or off. Binary antonyms are also called hemispheric antonyms and some
semanticists use the term Complementary antonyms in place of binary antonyms. While non-

2. binary there is a middle ground i.e they are gradable. In place of non-binary antonyms Contrary
antonyms or polar antonyms are used by semanticists.
Converse antonyms where there is only a subject and no other referring expression. Common
converse pairs include kinship and social role and directional opposites. There are a few pairs of
converse 3 argument predicate: give to/receive from; sell to /buy from; lend to/borrow from.
Symmetry and Reciprocity, a special kind of converseness is the use of e single term in
symmetrical relationship and next comes expressions of quantity deals with quantifiers like all,
no, some, many and few.
Introduction to the Text:
We have selected novel Lord of the Flies written by William Golding. Published in 1954,Lord of
the Flies was Golding’s first novel. It is about a group of British boys stuck on an uninhabited
island who try to govern themselves, with disastrous results.
Summary of the selected chapters (1and 2):
Chapter 1: The Sound of the Shell
A plane evacuating British boys has been shot down in the Pacific. The boys have been ejected
safely from the plane and have landed on a remote island. With no adult supervision, they
attempt to establish order and a plan for survival. They elect a chief (Ralph) and he selects Jack
Merridew, a militant choir bully, to rule over the choir, who become hunters. We also meet
Piggy in chapter 1. Piggy is fat, suffers from asthma, and has no social skills. He immediately
becomes the target of the other boys who make fun of him.
Piggy finds a conch shell and shows Ralph how to blow it. The sound of the shell calls the boys
together for assemblies and to discuss important matters. At each assembly, the boy holding the
conch is the only one allowed to speak. At the assembly, Jack, Simon, and Ralph decide to
explore the island. They confirm their suspicions that they are on an island. Towards the end of
chapter 1, the three explorers find a trapped pig. The pig gets away.
Chapter 2: Fire on the Mountain
The three boys return from their exploration and call an assembly. One of the littleuns mentions
a snake thing, a beastie, which sends fear throughout the group. They debate its existence and
determine the littluns were having nightmares. Ralph decides they need to make a fire on the
mountain as a rescue signal. They use Piggy's glasses to light the fire. The fire rages out of
control. One of the littleuns dies in the conflagration (a fancy word for large fire). Piggy and Jack
argue.
Application:
"The words in a semantic field share a common semantic property. It is the organization of the
related words and expressions in to a system, which shows their relationship with one another.

3. Most often, fields are defined by subject matter, such as body parts, landforms, diseases, colors,
foods, or kinship relations etc.
(a)“The boy with fair hair lowered himself down the last few feet of rock and began to pick his
way toward the lagoon. Though he had taken off his school sweater and trailed it now from one
hand, his grey shirt stuck to him and his hair was plastered to his forehead. All round him the
long scar smashed into the jungle was a bath of heat. He was clambering heavily among the
creepers and broken trunks when a bird, a vision of red and yellow, flashed upwards with a
witch-like cry; and this cry was echoed by another.”
“The fair boy stopped and jerked his stockings with an automatic gesture that made the jungle
seem for a moment like the Home Counties.”
“He jumped down from the terrace. The sand was thick over his black shoes and the heat hit him.
He became conscious of the weight of clothes, kicked his shoes off fiercely and ripped off each
stocking with its elastic garter in a single movement. Then he leapt back on the terrace, pulled
off his shirt, and stood there among the skull-like coconuts with green shadows from the palms
and the forest sliding over his skin. He undid the snake-clasp of his belt, lugged off his shorts and
pants, and stood there naked, looking at the dazzling beach and the water.”
Sweater, shirt and stockings, belt, shorts and pants belong to one group.
As these all things have a common characteristic, that these all are part of “Dress”.
(b)”The fat boy waited to be asked his name in turn but this proffer of acquaintance was not
made; the fair boy called Ralph smiled vaguely, stood up, and began to make his way once more
toward the lagoon. The fat boy hung steadily at his shoulder”.
“Ralph shook his head and increased his speed. Then he tripped over a branch and came down
with a crash.
The fair boy allowed his feet to come down and sat on the steamy earth”.
“He wiped his glasses and adjusted them on his button nose. The frame had made a deep, pink
"V" on the bridge. He looked critically at Ralph's golden body and then down at his own clothes.
He laid a hand on the end of a zipper that extended down his chest”.
"My auntie--"
Piggy clasped his hands in apprehension.
Piggy took off his shoes and socks, ranged them carefully on the ledge, and tested the water with
one toe.

4. Ralph paddled backwards down the slope, immersed his mouth and blew a jet of water into the
air. Then he lifted his chin and spoke.
"I could swim when I was five. Daddy taught me. He's a commander in the Navy. When he gets
leave he'll come and rescue us. What's your father?"
Ralph looked through him. Here at last was the imagined but never fully realized place leaping
into real life. Ralph's lips parted in a delighted smile and Piggy, taking this smile to himself as a
mark of recognition, laughed with pleasure.
Inside the floating cloak he was tall, thin, and bony; and his hair was red beneath the black cap.
His face was crumpled and freckled, and ugly without silliness. Out of this face stared two light
blue eyes, frustrated now, and turning, or ready to turn, to anger.
"Isn't there a man here?"
Ralph cleared his throat.
"Well then”.
All at once he found he could talk fluently and explain what he had to say. He passed a hand
through his fair hair and spoke.
Piggy had settled himself in a space between two rocks, and sat with the conch on his knees.
Head, nose, chest, toe, hand, mouth, chin, lips, face, knees, hair and eyes are part of a set of
“body parts”.
This set presents part-whole relationship. Set is incomplete, if one part is excluded.
(c)Ralph paddled backwards down the slope, immersed his mouth and blew a jet of water into
the air. Then he lifted his chin and spoke.
"If it really is an island--"
The shore was fledged with palm trees. These stood or leaned or reclined against the light and
their green feathers were a hundred feet up in the air. The ground beneath them was a bank
covered with coarse grass, torn everywhere by the upheavals of fallen trees, scattered with
decaying coconuts and palm saplings.
"I climbed a rock, " said Ralph slowly, "and I think this is an island.
Ralph said nothing. Here was a coral island. Protected from the sun, ignoring Piggy's ill-omened
talk, he dreamed pleasantly.

5. "This is an island. At least I think it's an island. That's a reef out in the sea. Perhaps there aren't
any grownups anywhere.
Ralph shaded his eyes and followed the jagged outline of the crags up toward the mountain.
They were in the beginnings of the thick forest, plunking with weary feet on a track, when they
heard the noises--squeaking--and the hard strike of hoofs on a path. As they pushed forward the
squeaking increased till it became a frenzy.
Water, air, grass, trees, rocks, sun, island and sea belong to a set of “nature”.
The boy with fair hair lowered himself down the last few feet of rock and began to pick his way
toward the lagoon. Though he had taken off his school sweater and trailed it now from one hand,
his grey shirt stuck to him and his hair was plastered to his forehead. All round him the long scar
smashed into the jungle was a bath of heat. He was clambering heavily among the creepers and
broken trunks when a bird, a vision of red and yellow, flashed upwards with a witch-like cry; and
this cry was echoed by another.
Ralph took the shell from Piggy and a little water ran down his arm. In color the shell was deep
cream, touched here and there with fading pink. Between the point, worn away into a little hole,
and the pink lips of the mouth, lay eighteen inches of shell with a slight spiral twist and covered
with a delicate, embossed pattern. Ralph shook sand out of the deep tube.
We used his specs, " said Simon, smearing a black cheek with his forearm. "He helped that way.
"
And we'll be responsible for keeping a lookout too. If we see a ship out there"--they followed the
direction of his bony arm with their eyes--"we'll put green branches on. Then there'll be more
smoke. "
They gazed intently at the dense blue of the horizon, as if a little silhouette might appear there at
any moment.
The sun in the west was a drop of burning gold that slid nearer and nearer the sill of the world.
Justification:
Red, yellow,deep cream, pink, black, blue have the common semantic feature that these all are
“colors”.
"--mooed like a cow, " he said. "He had some white stones too, an' a bird cage with a green
parrot. He didn't blow the white stones, Jack broke in.
"All the same you need an army--for hunting. Hunting pigs--"
"Yes. There are pigs on the island. "of course, an' he said--"

6. A tree exploded in the fire like a bomb. Tall swathes of creepers rose for a moment into view,
agonized, and went down again. The little boys screamed at them.
"Snakes! Snakes! Look at the snakes!"
Cow, pig and snake are animals, so they form a set of “Animal”.
A child had appeared among the palms, about a hundred yards along the beach. He was a boy of
perhaps six years, sturdy and fair, his clothes torn, his face covered with a sticky mess of fruit.
His trousers had been lowered for an obvious purpose and had only been pulled back half-way.
He jumped off the palm terrace into the sand and his trousers fell about his ankles; he stepped out
of them and trotted to the platform. Piggy helped him up. Meanwhile Ralph continued to blow
till voices shouted in the forest. The small boy squatted in front of Ralph, looking up brightly and
vertically. As he received the reassurance of something purposeful being done he began to look
satisfied, and his only clean digit, a pink thumb, slid into his mouth.
He was old enough, twelve years and a few months, to have lost the prominent tummy of
childhood and not yet old enough for adolescence to have made him akward. You could see now
that he might make a boxer, as for as width and heaviness of shoulders went, but there was a
mildness about his mouth and eyes that proclaimed no devil.
Age of the two boys is told here. One is six years old and other one is twelve years old.
[Human] is the semantic feature shared by all the members of set.
So they are [+male],[-female],[+child][-adult].
Kinship:
Kinship is a universal since all humans are related to other humans through blood ties and
through marriage, but kinship differs from society to society.
All kinship system can be described with four primitive features: [parent],[offspring],[sibling]
and [spouse].
He wiped his glasses and adjusted them on his button nose. The frame had made a deep, pink
"V" on the bridge. He looked critically at Ralph's golden body and then down at his own clothes.
He laid a hand on the end of a zipper that extended down his chest.
"My auntie--"
"My dad's dead, " he said quickly, "and my mum--"
Auntie = Parent’s F sibling; parent’s sibling’s F spouse

7. Dad = M parent
Mum = F parent
Hyponyms:
(a) Hyponyms, co-hyponyms, superordinate and collective noun:
1.“He became conscious of the weight of his clothes, kicked his shoes off and ripped off each
stocking with its elastic garter in a single movement. Then he leapt back on the terrace, pulled
off his shirt, and stood there among the skull like coconut with green shadows from the palms
and the forest sliding over his skin. He undid the snake clasp of his belt, lugged off his shorts and
pants and stood there naked”.
In this example clothes is superordinate and shirt, belt, shorts and pants are hyponyms of clothes
while shirt,belt,shorts and pants are co-hyponyms of each other. Word clothes is also a collective
noun.
2.“Their bodies ,from throat to ankle, were hidden by black cloaks which bore a long silver cross
on the left breast and each neck was finished hambone frill”.
In this example bodies is a superordinate of the terms throat, of with a
ankle, breast and neck. While neck, ankle,throat and breast are hyponyms of bodies and co-
hyponyms of each other.
(b) Entailment or Tautology:
“Stillness descended on them. Ralph, looking with more understanding at Piggy, saw that he was
hurt and crushed. He hovered between the two courses of apology or further insult”.
Hurt and crushed are the example of tautology.
Synonyms:
(a) “I was the only boy in our school what had asthma”, said the fat boy with a touch of pride.
“And I have been wearing specs since I was three.”
He took off his glasses and held them out to Ralph, blinking and smiling and then started to wipe
them against his grubby wind breaker.
In this example specs and glasses are instances of synonymy and synonymous with each other.
(b) “The ground beneath them was a bank covered with coarse grass, torn everywhere by the
upheavals of fallen trees, scattered with decaying coconuts and palm saplings.
The fat boy lowered himself over the terrace end sat down carefully using the edge as a seat”.
Bank and edge are synonyms.
(c) “Piggy grinned reluctantly, pleased despite himself ate even this much recognition”.
“The air was bright. Ralph, faced by the task of translating all this into an explanation, stood on
his head and fell over. When they had done laughing, Simon stroked Ralph arm shyly; and they
had to laugh again”.

8. Reluctantly and shyly are examples of synonymy and synonymous with each other.
Antonyms
(a)Sentences that differ in polarity, are mutually contradictory. If one is true , the other must be
false.
“I don’t care what they call me,” he said confidentially, “so long as they don’t call me what they
used to call me at school.” Ralph was faintly interested.
“What was that?” The fat boy glanced over his shoulder, then leaned toward Ralph.
He whispered. “They used to call me Piggy.”
Finding:
In the above paragraph, sentences, “ they call me” , “ they don’t call me” present mutual
contradiction of a sentence. One statement is true and other is denial of it.
(b)Antonyms are opposite in meaning. Two sentences that have the same subjects and have
predicates which are antonyms are also mutually contradictory. There are antonyms that may be
verbs.
“He became conscious of the weight of clothes, kicked his shoes off fiercely and ripped off each
stocking with its elastic garter in a single movement. Then he leapt back on the terrace, put off
his shirt, and stood there among the skull-like coconuts with green shadows from the palms and
the forest sliding over his skin (chap 1)……………… He trotted through the sand, enduring the
sun’s enmity, crossed the platform and found his scattered clothes. To put on a grey shirt once
more was strangely pleasing. Then he climbed the edge of the platform and sat in the green shade
on a convenient trunk. (chap1)
In the above paragraph put off his shirt and put on his shirt are predicates , which are mutually
contradictory verbs.
Antonyms may be nouns.
(c)There are antonyms pairs of adjectives .
“There ain’t nothing we can do. We ought to be more careful. I’m scared–” Jack dragged his
eyes away from the fire. “You’re always scared. Yah –Fatty!” “I got the conch,” said Piggy
bleakly. He turned to Ralph. “I got the conch, ain’t I Ralph?”
In the above paragraph fatty and thin are pairs of adjectives.
(d)There are measure adjectives because they can be combine with expression of measurement.
In each pair of measure adjective one is marked and other is unmarked member. The unmarked
member is also the global member of the opposition.
“He was old enough, twelve years and a few months, to have lost the prominent tummy of
childhood and not yet old enough for adolescence to have made him awkward. You could see
now that he might make a boxer, as far as width and heaviness of shoulders went, but there was a
mildness about his mouth and eyes that proclaimed no devil”.
Old is global unmarked adjective because it is used with units of time to express age .when we
say he was old enough , we are not saying that the boy is old.
Binary and non-binary antonyms
Non-binary antonyms are opposite ends of scale that include various intermediate terms .Non-
binary antonyms are called polar antonyms :like the north and the south pole ,they at opposite
ends with territory between them .

9. (a)Adjectives that are non binary can easily be modified.
“He stood now, warped out of the perpendicular by the fierce light of publicity, and he bored into
the coarse grass with one toe. He was muttering and about to cry. The other little boys,
whispering but serious, pushed him toward Ralph.
“All right,” said Ralph, “come on then.”
The small boy looked round in panic.
“Speak up!”
The small boy held out his hands for the conch and the assembly
shouted with laughter; at once he snatched back his hands and started to
cry.
In the two opposite states between mutter and shout, other states like whisper and cry take part.
(b)Non binary adjectives are also gradable adjectives .
“Inside the floating cloak he was tall, thin, and bony; and his hair was
red beneath the black cap. His face was crumpled and freckled, and ugly
without silliness. Out of this face stared two light blue eyes, frustrated
now, and turning, or ready to turn, to anger. (chap 1)……………..They gazed intently at the
dense blue of the horizon, as if a little silhouette
might appear there at any moment.
The sun in the west was a drop of burning gold that slid nearer and
nearer the sill of the world. All at once they were aware of the evening
as the end of light and warmth”.(chap2).
Blue color has not specific or strict shade .Dense blue and Light blue are different shades of the
blue which can be gradable.
Binary antonyms:
(a)Binary antonyms do not accept modifiers. These are not gradable antonyms.
“Life became a race with the fire and the boys scattered through the
upper forest. To keep a clean flag of flame flying on the mountain was
the immediate end and no one looked further. Even the smallest boys,
unless fruit claimed them, brought little pieces of wood and threw them
in. The air moved a little faster and became a light wind, so that leeward
and windward side were clearly differentiated. On one side the air was
Cool, but on the other the fire thrust out a savage arm of heat that crinkled
Hair on the instant………………… Piggy stood up and pointed to the smoke and flames. A
murmur rose among the boys and died away. Something strange was happening to
Piggy, for he was gasping for breath.
“That little ’un–” gasped Piggy– “him with the mark on his face, I don’t see him. Where is he
now?” .The crowd was as silent as death. “Him that talked about the snakes. He was down there–
”
A tree exploded in the fire like a bomb. Tall swathes of creepers rose
for a moment into view, agonized, and went down again. The little boys
screamed at them.
“Snakes! Snakes! Look at the snakes!”
In the above paragraphs life and death are two opposite states which cannot be modified .Life
cannot be half-life or death cannot be half-death. A person can experience only states of life or
death. Nothing is in between them.

10. Converse antonyms, Symmetry and Reciprocity and Expressions of quantity which are Lexical
Relations have not been found in the selected text.
Conclusion:
Lexical relations play a very important role in the text,it not only provide variety of lexemes in
case of synonyms which make the text marvelous rather provides compare and contrast in case
of antonyms and binary and non-binary antonyms. Text has different sets in it like sets of
humans, colors and body parts etc. Converse antonyms and symmetry was not there in the text.
Over all lexical relations makes the text a great one.