This document provides guidance on scientific writing. It discusses what constitutes scientific writing, who reads scientific papers, and factors that shape writing style. It offers tips for making writing more effective and precise. The main points are that writing science papers is challenging and requires following the format of the intended publication and paying attention to both the science and writing style. Readers should write as if explaining their work to someone familiar with the field but not already knowing the specific study.

1. Scientific Writing
Institute of Botany, CAS
Xingguo Han, Ph.D
November 12, 2007

2. Outline
q What is scientific writing?
q Who reads your writing?
q What factors shape the style?
q How can I make my writing more effective?
q How I can make my writing more precise?

3. What is scientific writing?
q Research paper Research note
q Scientific article Review article
q Conference paper Meeting poster
q Thesis or dissertation Book chapter
q Annual report Newsletter
q Project proposal Magazine article

4. Why?
Scientific writing is the culmination or end product of
scientific research. Scientists pose questions and then
perform experiments to answer their questions. The
results that come from experimentation must finally
be presented to the rest of the scientific community in
the form of a published paper in a primary journal
before the research is considered finished.

5. Main Point
Writing an effective scientific paper is not easy. A
good rule of thumb is to write as if your paper will
be read by a person who knows about the field in
general but does not already know what you did.
Before you write a scientific paper it is a good idea
to read some scientific papers in the format of the
paper you will use. In addition to the science, pay
attention to the writing style and format.

6. Example (1)
q An evaluation of the program by us will
encourage increase in efficiency in the
servicing of clients.
q We will evaluate the program so that we can
serve our clients more efficiently.

7. Example (2)
q The design of the experiment, in terms of the
establishment of a clear control and the practicability of
timing the reactions precisely, although compensations
were included to address these factors, was not
successful.
q The design of the experiment was not entirely
successful, because the failure to establish a clear
control and time reactions precisely, although
compensation were included to address these factors.

8. A step-by-step procedure (1)
The Preliminaries
2. Choose a topic
3. Begin preliminary reading
4. Restrict the subject
5. Develop a preliminary thesis statement

9. A step-by-step procedure (2)
Gathering Data
3. Compile the working bibliography
4. Prepare the bibliography on cards
5. Working in libraries or office

10. A step-by-step procedure (3)
Taking Notes
2. Develop a preliminary outline
3. Prepare to write:Consider your real and imagined
readers
4. Write the rough draft
5. Check your documentation carefully
6. Revise and rewrite
7. Check the format of the text, citations…
8. Proofread

11. The layout of a Scientific Paper
(IMRAD)
Introduction
2. Presents clearly the background and scope of a
problem
3. Review pertinent literature
4. Presents the investigation method
5. Lists principal findings
6. Summarizes main conclusions

12. Additional Tips
1. Move from general to specific
2. Engage your reader
3. Make clear the links
4. Be selective
5. Ask your instructor

13. Additional Tips
This study investigates the relationship between
tree density and fruit size.
The purpose of this study is to determine the effect
of enzyme concentration on the reaction rate of ....

14. Additional Tips
The hypothesis is the explanation you are proposing
for certain observations. It is a tentative answer to the
question you have posed above. It should be
accompanied by a prediction of results expected
under certain conditions if the hypothesis is correct.
If competition lowers reproductive output, then fruit
size should be smaller when tree density increases.

15. Materials and Methods
– Describes exactly materials, quantity, and sources
– Makes possible repetition of experiment
– Describes clearly the experimental design
– Uses past tense
– Gives references for methods used
– States the statistical analysis

16. Additional Tips
1. Provide enough detail for replication
2. Order
3. Use past tense
4. Quantity
5. Don’t mix results with procedures

17. Additional Tips
1. Provide enough detail for replication
2. Order
3. Use past tense
4. Quantity
5. Don’t mix results with procedures

18. Results
q B ig p ic ture o n re s ults
q Imp a rtia l p re s e nta tio n
q Re p re s e nta tive d a ta
q Us e s ta b le s a nd fig ure s

19. Results
q 1. Explain why each procedure was done, i.e., what variable were you measuring and why? Example:
Difficult to understand: First, I removed the frog muscle and then I poured Ringer’s solution on it.
Next, I attached it to the kymograph.
Improved: I removed the frog muscle and poured Ringer’s solution on it to prevent it from drying out. I then
attached the muscle to the kymograph in order to determine the minimum voltage required for contraction.
q 2. Experimental procedures and results are narrated in the past tense (what you did, what you found, etc.) whereas
conclusions from your results are given in the present tense.
q 3. Mathematical equations and statistical tests are considered mathematical methods and should be described in this
section along with the actual experimental work.
q 4. Use active rather than passive voice when possible. Always use the singular "I" rather than the plural "we" when
you are the only author of the paper. Throughout the paper, avoid contractions, e.g. did not vs. didn’t.
q 5. If any of your methods is fully described in a previous publication (yours or someone else’s), you can cite that
instead of describing the procedure again.

20. Right and Wrong
q NO: Dissolved oxygen results are shown in Table 1.
q YES: Table 1 shows that dissolved oxygen
concentrations ranged from 14 ppm to 9 ppm.
q NO: Figure 1 shows the relationship between water
depth and dissolved oxygen concentration.
q YES: As shown in Figure 1, dissolved oxygen
concentration decreases with depth.

21. Right and Wrong
q NO: The geologic cross section shows the makeup of the
subsurface.
q YES: The geologic cross section illustrates that the
subsurface consists of sand and gravel with some clay
lenses.
q NO: The geologic cross-section shows that groundwater
can travel quickly through the subsurface. (discussion).

22. Additional Tips
1. Order: from most to least important, from
simple to complex, organ by organ
2. Use past tense
3. Don’t simply repeat table data
4. Don’t interpret results
5. Avoid extra words

23. Discussion
1. Principles, patterns, relationships, generalizations
2. Exceptions and unsettled points
3. Results compared with previous work
4. Implications, applications, beneficiaries
5. Clear conclusions
6. Evidence summarized for each conclusion
7. Possible future research arising, if any

24. Additional Tips
1. Move from specific to general
2. Don’t bury or ignore the major issue
3. Make explanations complete
• Don’t overgeneralize
• Don’t ignore deviations in your data
• Avoid speculation that can not be tested in the
foreseeable future

25. Examples
•NO: The groundwater is getting cleaner.
YES: On February 12, 1990 the monitoring well contained
23,000 ppb of dissolved hydrocarbons; while on September
16, 1996 the same well contained only 87 ppb. This indicates
the groundwater is getting cleaner.
•NO: The lake is not in danger of becoming acidified.
YES: An alkalinity of 140 ppm helps to prevent the lake from
becoming acidified.

26. Titles
1. Categorize titles
4. Identify mistakes in titles

27. Titles
q The title should contain three elements:
q 1. the name of the organism studied;
q 2. the particular aspect or system studied;
q 3. the variable(s) manipulated.

28. Types of Titles
1. Indicative
2. Informative
3. Question type
4. Main/subtitle type

29. In d ic ative
•Effects of differential irrigation on
maize growth and yield on a clay soil
•Effect of Injected Sea Anemone toxin
on Symbiotic Fish Species

30. Informative
q Differential
irrigation decreases maize growth
and yield on a clay soil
q Enhanced reproduction of strawberry plants
under low light conditions

31. Q u e s tio n Typ e
Does differential irrigation affect maize growth
and yield on a clay soil?
Will reproduction of strawberry plants be
enhanced under low light conditions

32. Main /S u b title Typ e
Differential irrigation: effects on maize growth and
yield on a clay soil

33. N o te s
1. Never too long or too short
3. Avoid using waste words: A study of, investigations
of, Observations on
5. Avoid using many abbreviations

34. Ke y Wo rd s
1. Generally not appeared in the title
3. Do not fabricate key words
5. Order: follow the instruction of the
journal

35. Ab s trac t
1. Ind ic a tive
2. Info rma tive

36. This is a brief synopsis of the paper so that the reader can get the point
and decide whether to read the entire paper. Abstracts are typically
included along with titles in bibliographic sources such as the ones
you use in on-line searches. In about 100 or 200 words, an abstract
summarizes the purpose of the study or question investigated, the
method used, the major results, and the conclusions drawn from the
study. It is good practice to write the abstract last, even though it
appears at the beginning.

37. Introduction
q Opening statement
q Example of examples
q Literature review (exhaustive historical review)
q Citations
q Criticizing previous work
q Ending the introduction

38. The Method Section
q Lead the reader through the procedure
q Name all groups, variables and operations
q Reliability and validity of data
q Data deletions
q References

39. Results Section
q Setting the stage
q Statistical analysis
q Remind reader of the the hypothesis
q Remind reader of the operations performed
q Speak to the audience in numbers
q Smooth transition
q Figures and tables

40. The Discussion Section
q Beginning by telling us what you have learned
q Comparison with findings of others
q Do not dwell compulsively on every flaw
q Questions undressed
q End with a bang, not a whimper

41. References
q Citation style (following the guide of the journal)
q Relevance
q Accurate
q Availability
q Balance (geographical, academic schools)

42. Remember
q Alphabetize literature citations by first author's last name.
q Within a journal citation, give authors, year date, title of paper,
title of journal, volume and pages. Do not use quotation marks
around title of paper. Capitalize first word of title and any proper
nouns. Do not underline or italicize title of journal.
q Within a book citation, give authors, year date, title of book,
publisher, city. Capitalize first word of book title and any proper
nouns. Do not underline or italicize book title.

43. For example
q Greene, E., L. J. Orsak, and D. W. Whitman. 1987.
A tephritid fly mimics the territorial displays of its
jumping spider predators. Science 236:310 312.
q Merritt, J. F. 1987. Guide to the mammals of
Pennsylvania. University of Pittsburgh Press,
Pittsburgh.

44. Acknowledgments
q Give credits to others (field work, lab analysis,
comments on manuscripts, language editing)
q Source of grants
q Other helps

45. Notes
q • Interest, inform, and persuade the reader
q • Write for your reader and write clearly
q • Eliminate unnecessary redundancy
q • Avoid digressions
q • Don't over explain and avoid overstatement
q • Avoid unnecessary qualifiers
q • Use consistent tenses
q • Use the precise word
q • Simpler words are preferred over complex words and use concrete words and examples
q • Simpler sentences are preferred over more complicated sentences
q • Use the active voice (except generally in methods)
q • Make sure the subject and verb agree
q • Use affirmative rather than negative constructions
q • Avoid use of the indefinite "this"
q • Use transitions
q • Cite sources as well as findings
q • Proofread your paper carefully; spell check does not catch everything; "there" is spelled
q correctly but not if you meant "their"

46. Acknowledgments
q Give credits to others (field work, lab analysis,
comments on manuscripts, language editing)
q Source of grants
q Other helps

47. Acknowledgments
q Give credits to others (field work, lab analysis,
comments on manuscripts, language editing)
q Source of grants
q Other helps

48. Acknowledgments
q Give credits to others (field work, lab analysis,
comments on manuscripts, language editing)
q Source of grants
q Other helps

49. Acknowledgments
q Give credits to others (field work, lab analysis,
comments on manuscripts, language editing)
q Source of grants
q Other helps

50. More to tell ……
q Logic flow
q Context
q Accuracy
q Concise and clear (clarity)
q Tense
q Complete
q Honesty

51. How can we improve our writing?
q Read more papers.
q Learn basic English grammar, vocabulary,
sentence- making.
q Collocations
q Associations
q Synonyms
q Classifications

52. Get some good dictionaries
q Advanced Learner’s English Chinese Dictionary
(Oxford, Sixth Edition)
q 孙谷陆编，英汉大字典（第二版）
q 牛津英语搭配字典（英汉双解版）
q 朗文英语联想活用词典（第二版）
q 英汉联想搭配词典 ( 商务印书馆 )

53. Get some good dictionaries
q Webster’s New Dictionary of Synonyms
q 英语搭配大辞典 ( 外语教学版 , 市川繁荣治郎
)
q 当代英语搭配大词典 ( 高教出版社 )
q 朗文英语联想活用词典（第二版）
q 英汉联想搭配词典 ( 商务印书馆 )
q 英语词汇逻辑记忆法 ( 黎学智 )
q 英语同义词词典 ( 商务 )

54. What is English Collocations?
q Mr. Wang wrote a book. The book was about a
story happened in the 1930’s in China. This story
portrayed a family of five brothers who were
struggling to resist the invasions of Japanese
army. After I quickly read the book that had Mr.
Wang’s name in it, I started to like the book very
much. I would like to recommend it to you.

55. Write
q 副词 +Write ： Clearly, neatly, busily, beautifully,
well, badly, extensively, anonymously, briskly,
entertainingly, despairingly, gracefully, distinctly,
expressly, forcibly
q Write+ 介词： Down, on, away, back, about, for, of,
on, upon
q 动词 +write” Commission somebody to, inspire
somebody to, prompt somebody to

56. Book
q 形容词 +Book: Latest, new, recent, forthcoming,
hardback, paperback, printed, rare, second-hand,
delightful, excellent, fascinating, remarkable,
useful, influential, memorandum, voluminous
q 动词 +Book: Be engrossed in, be immersed in,
inscribe, dedicate, translate, edit, bind, censor,
borrow, take out, renew
q Book+ 动词： Appear, come out, be out, go out
q Book+ 介词： About, on, for, from, of

57. Story
q 形容词 +Story: True, plausible, false, made-up, apocryphal ( 假的 ), cock-and-bull,
official, wild, convincing, compelling, delightful, dramatic, exciting, amazing,
fascinating, exciting, fantastic, good, great, interesting, intriguing, nice, wonderful,
bizarre, colorful, crazy, extraordinary, incredible, outrageous, remarkable, strange,
inspiring, amusing, entertaining, epic, elaborate, complex, straightforward, awful,
horrific, horrifying, nasty, shocking, depressing, poignant, coherent…
q 动词 +Story: Read, write, relate, rate, recount, embellish ( 装饰 ), embroider ( 润饰 ),
believe, stick to, swap…
q Story+ 动词 : Abound, circulate, get about, go around, be entitled with, revolve around
sth.
q Story+ 词组 : So the story goes, the story goes that, the story of my life, a version of a
story

58. Happen
q 副词 +Happen: Actually, really, just, spontaneously, overnight,
often, frequently, easily, sometimes
q 动词 +Happen: Going to, be bound to, be likely, tend to, make sth.
To, want sth. To, let sth. To
q 介词 : To
Portray
q 副词 +Portray: Accurately, faithfully, clearly, dramatically,
graphically, vividly,
q 动词 +Portray: Attempt to, try to
q 介词： As

59. Army
q 形容词 +Army: Great, huge, large, mighty, powerful,
small, professional, conscript, disciplined, modern,
allied, opposing, invading, occupying, victorious,
retreating, invading, defeated…
q 动词 +Army: Have, go into, join, leave, bi in command
of, lead, amass, build up, raise, recruit, equip, mobilize,
deploy, crush, decimate, rout…
q Story+ 动词 : Gather, flee, pulling back, retreat,
withdraw, clash, camp, go into action, invade…

60. Read
q 副词 +Read: Aloud, silently, carefully, avidly, voraciously,
q 动词 +Read: Be able to, learn to, teach sb how to
q Read+ 介词 : About, from, of, through, to
q Story+ 词组 : Read and write
Start
q 副词 +Start: Suddenly, immediately, just, out, off
q 介词： By, from, on, with
q 词组： Get started, Let’s start
Recommend
q 副词 +Recommend: Highly, thoroughly, certainly, definitely, heartily, personally
q 介词： For, to
q 词组： Sth has a lot to recommend, sth has much to recommend

61. A forthcoming book…
q A fascinating book written by Mr. Wang will be coming
out soon. This epic book vividly portrays the life of a
penniless family with five brothers to go into the army to
combat with the fully armed inhuman Japanese invaders,
taking place in the 1930’s in the northern China plains.
After I skimmed through the sample copy in which Mr.
Wang inscribed his name, I was immediately engrossed
in it. This book should be a highly recommended must
read for all Chinese people who want to recall that
bloody war between the brave Shandong people and the
brutal Japanese aggressors.

62. What is association?
包办 : Be the whole show, monopolize everything;
惩办 : Punish, chastise
承办 : Undertake, handle
筹办 : Make preparations
创办 : Set up, establish
催办 : Press for implementation
大办 : Go in for sth. in a big way
代办 : Act on sb.’s behalf, agent, charge d’affaires
公办 : State-run, state-owned

63. q 公事公办 : Do official business according to
official principles
q 好办 : Easily arranged
q 举办 : Host, hold
q 申办 : Bid for
q 严办 : Punish with severity
q 置办 : Purchase
q 酌办 : Proceed at one’s discretion

64. 联想
q Birthwort: 马兜铃 Butterwort: 捕虫堇
q Feverwort: 泽兰 ) Figwort: 玄参
q Hornwort: 角苔 Liverwort: 地钱
q Lungwort: 疗肺草 ) Masterwort: 星
q Milkwort: 远志 Moneywort: 珍珠草
q Motherwort: 益母草 Mugwort: 艾蒿
q Quilwort: 水芹 Ribwort: 长叶车前
q Sealwort : 添姑草 Soapwort: 皂草
q Spleenwort: 疗脾草 Woundwort: 水苏

65. 同义词
q Horror, Terror, Fear, Dread, Fright, Alarm, Dismay,
Consternation, Panic, Trepidation, Aversion, Antipathy,
Repugnance, Abhorrence, Repellency, Repulsion, Distasteful,
Recoil, Flinching, Blenching, Loathing, Hatred, abomination,
detestation, Dislike, Disfavor, Hostility, Antagonism
q Admiration, Enjoyment, Esteem, Regard, Respect, Liking, Relish,
Affection, Attachment, Savor, Tang, Flavor, Taste, Smack,
Predilection, Partiality, Prepossession,

66. 分类 ( 行为 , 态度 , 气概 , 气量 )
q 行为 (Behavior, action) 作为 (Deed, conduct, accomplishment)
q 行动 (Action, act) 举措 (Move, behave, measures)
q 举止 (Bearing, manner) 表现 (Display, manifest, express)
q 言行 (Words and deeds) 暴行 (Atrocities, cruelties, brutality)
q 罪行 (Crime, guilt, offence) 态度 (Attitude)
q 神态 (Manner, expression) 姿态 (Pose, posture)
q 作风 (Style, style of work) 派头 (Manner, style)
q 风格 (Mode, style) 格调 (Moral quality)
q 气概 (Lofty quality) 威风 (Might, power and prestige)
q 气势 (Momentum) 锐气 (Dashing spirit, drive)
q 正气 (Righteousness) 气量 (Forbearance, broad-
minded)
q 心胸 (Tolerance) 气度 (Laudably tolerant spirit: 气度不凡
)

67. 分类
q Amaranthine ( 紫红的 ) Beetfaced ( 鲜红的 )
q Bloody ( 血红的 ) Cardinal ( 深红 )
q Carmine ( 洋红 ) Cherry ( 樱桃红 )
q Cochineal ( 胭脂红 ) Crimson ( 绯红 )
q Florid ( 鲜红 ) Fuchsia ( 紫红 )
q Garmet ( 暗红 ) Incarmadine ( 淡红的 )
q Moroon ( 枣红 ) Mauve ( 紫红 )
q Murrey ( 紫红 ) Peach ( 桃红 )
q Pink ( 粉红 ) Reddish ( 微红 )
q Ruby ( 红宝石红 ) Rufescent ( 带红色的 )
q Saffron ( 藏红 ) Salmon ( 橙红 )
q Sanguine ( 血红 ) Scarlet ( 猩红 )
q Vermeil ( 朱红 ) Vermillion ( 橘红 )
q Vinaceous ( 葡萄红 ) Vine ( 深红 )

68. 逻辑记忆 (Logical memory)
q -ibble: Dibble ( 点播器 ), Kibble ( 粗磨 ), Nibble ( 啃 ),
Quibble ( 托辞 ), Cribble ( 筛子 ), Fribble ( 逐渐消散 )
q -iddle: Diddle ( 闲荡 ), taradiddle ( 谎话 ), fiddle ( 小提
琴 ), kiddle ( 拦河栅 ), middle ( 中间的 ), piddle ( 懒
惰 ), riddle ( 谜语 ), griddle ( 大眼筛 ), tiddle ( 微不足
道的 )
q -iggle: Giggle ( 咯咯地笑 ), higgle ( 争论 ), jiggle ( 轻轻
摇晃 ), niggle ( 琐碎的 ), sniggle ( 钓鳗鱼 ), wiggle ( 摇
动 ), wriggle ( 蠕动 )

69. 习惯用语 ( 习语 ) (Idioms)
q It’s chucking it down: It is raining heavily.
q Charity begins at home: 近水楼台先得月 .
q He’s got no money to speak of. 他没钱了 .
q His complaints have a familiar ring. 他的抱怨听
上去耳熟 .
q I recognize his face but I can’t put a name to it.
( 面熟 , 但记不得他的名字 )

70. 记忆外来词 ( 法 , 意 , 西 , 德 )
q Cameo: 硬石 , 贝壳上的浮雕
q Campanile: 钟楼
q Canto: 长诗或书中 的一篇
q Cupola: 圆顶房子
q Intaglio: 雕刻
q Mezzanine: 戏院里的包厢
q Patina: 铜器上的绿锈
q Portico: 门廊
q Stucco: 灰泥
q Terra cotta: 赤土制成的陶器

71. 专业词
q Order:
q Succession:
q Chalk:
q Grass root:
q Radical:
q Reduce:
q Corpus:

72. Thank you!