Schmall crim today8e_ppt_ch10

Criminology Today
An Integrated Introduction
CHAPTER
Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Criminal
Victimization
10

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Frank Schmalleger
Hidden Victims
• Dark figure of crime
 Unreported crimes not reflected in
official statistics
 Some information available from self-
report surveys
• Undiscovered crimes
 Crimes not known to victims
 Many committed using technology

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Frank Schmalleger
Victimization by the Numbers
• Sources of official U.S. crime statistics
 National Crime Victimization Survey
(NCVS)
• Collected by Bureau of Justice Statistics
 UCR/NIBRS program
• Run by the FBI
• Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)
• National Criminal Incident-Based
Reporting System (NIBRS)

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Frank Schmalleger
The NCVS
• Main source of information on criminal
victimization
• Self-report data from victims on non-
fatal personal crimes and household
property crimes
• Includes data on reported and
unreported crimes
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
The NCVS
• Data obtained from a nationally
representative sample of ~169,000
persons aged 12+ living in US
households

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Frank Schmalleger
Critique of the NCVS
• Possible overreporting
• Definitions of crimes do not correspond
to federal or state statutes.
• Changes to NCVS categories make it
difficult to compare NCVS findings over
time.

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Frank Schmalleger
The Uniform Crime Reporting
Program
• Run by the FBI since 1929
• Includes information on reported
crimes
• Collects information on 8 serious crimes
and arrest data on additional crimes
• Data comes from law enforcement
agencies.

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Frank Schmalleger
Advantages of NIBRS
• Provides broad range of crime data
• Victimization data categorized by age
and type of crime
• Data on victim-offender relationships
• Information on timing of victimizations

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Frank Schmalleger
Advantages of NIBRS
• Data on victimizations involving
weapons
• Data on co-occurring victimization in a
given offense
• Statistics on case clearances
• A more complete picture of crime and
victimization

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Frank Schmalleger
UCR Critique
• UCR/NIBRS program only includes
crimes that are reported by the police.
• Rape is the most underreported crime.
• Many other crimes are underreported
as well, including larceny.

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Frank Schmalleger
Comparing the UCR and the NCVS
• Similarities
 Measure same subset of serious crimes
 Similar definitions of most crimes
• Differences
 Program objectives differ
 Measure non-identical sets of crimes
 UCR provides property crime counts per
capita; NCVS counts crimes per
household.

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Frank Schmalleger
Changing Offense Patterns
• Sharp decline in crime in early 1940s
• Dramatic increase in crime from 1960s
to 1990s
• Decrease in crime since mid-1990s
• Some evidence we may be on the cusp
of a new cycle of increased criminal
activity

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Frank Schmalleger
Demographic Correlates of Crime
• Demographic characteristics are
significantly correlated with
victimization risk.
• "Typical" violent crime victim:
socioeconomically disadvantaged young
black male living in inner city region of
large metropolitan area
• Victimization risk varies by type of
crime.

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Frank Schmalleger
Revictimization and
Polyvictimization
• Polyvictimization
 Multiple instances of varied
victimizations
 Polyvictimization has a more negative
impact than being the victim of one type
of chronic victimization.
• Revictimization
 Continued victimization by the same
offender committing the same crime

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Frank Schmalleger
The Developmental Victimization
Survey (DVS)
• National phone survey of 2,030 children
and youth aged 10–17 in 2002-2003
• Information on younger children (age
2–9) obtained from parents/caregivers
• Two follow-up surveys also conducted

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Frank Schmalleger
The Developmental Victimization
Survey (DVS)
• Conceptual model showing 4 pathways
leading to child polyvictimization
 Living in a dangerous family
 Having a family with problems (money,
employment, substance abuse, etc.)
 Living in or moving into a dangerous
community
 Being a child with preexisting emotional
problems that increase risky behavior

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Frank Schmalleger
Psychological Impact of
Victimization
• Victims often experience socio-
emotional impacts of crime.
• Victims of serious violence especially
vulnerable
• Symptoms of stress can be physical as
well as emotional.

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Frank Schmalleger
The Physical Impact of
Victimization
• Crime may result in direct physical
injury as well as other post-crime
physical reactions.
• Physical injuries range from minor to
deadly.
• Injuries can be life-threatening, result
in long-term disability or permanent
disfigurement.
• Not all physical injuries obvious

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Frank Schmalleger
Economic Loss
• Includes immediate losses from
victimization as well as other costs
 Medical/mental health costs
 Repairs to property/possessions
 Increased insurance premiums
 Security system installation
• Participation in justice system can have
substantial personal costs as well.

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Frank Schmalleger
Economic Loss
• Costs due to relocating a residence
• Economic productivity at work may
suffer.
• Family of murder victim having to bear
funeral and burial expenses
• Financial burdens of victimization
especially difficult for economically
marginalized, young, disabled

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Frank Schmalleger
Secondary Victimization
• Social injuries resulting from response
of social institutions and individuals to
the victim
• Occurs as result of initial/primary
victimization
• May involve justice system officials,
members of the public, media

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Secondary Victimization
• Not the same as "secondary victim"
 Person who suffers unintended
consequences when others are
victimized

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Victimization as a Risk Factor for
Crime
• Research shows women's victimization
can significantly contribute to future
criminal involvement.
• Victimization can lead to criminality
through direct and indirect ways.

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Frank Schmalleger
Victimology
• Victimology
 A subfield of criminology
 The scientific study of all aspects of
criminal victimization
 Includes the process of victimization,
the criminal, the victim, the justice
system, society

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Frank Schmalleger
Victimology
• Victimologists study vulnerable groups
to understand the victimization
process.

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Blaming the Victim
• Victimogenesis
 The origin/cause of victimization
• Early victimologists classified the
degree to which victims contributed to
their own victimization.

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Victim Precipitation
• Contribution made by the victim to the
criminal event
• Main types
 Passive
• Victim unknowingly encourages the
offender.
 Active
• Victim literally provokes the
victimization.

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Frank Schmalleger
Victim Precipitation
• Ways in which victims contribute to
their own victimization
 Victim facilitation
• Fail to take simple precautions against
victimization
 Victim provocation
• Victim as initial aggressor
 Victim initiation
• Victim attracts offender's attention.

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Frank Schmalleger
Victim Precipitation Research
• Marvin Wolfgang
 Found 26% of homicides result of active
victim precipitation
• Beniamin Mendelsohn
 Six-part typology based on degree of
victim culpability

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• Hans von Hentig
 13-category taxonomy identifying
psychological, social, biological factors
correlated with victimization risk
• Stephen Schafer
 "Functional responsibility"
 7-category typology based on degree of
provocation

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• Menachim Amir
 19% of forcible rapes involving female
victims were victim precipitated

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Victimization and Lifestyle
• Victimology theories of 1970s shifted
focus to people's choices that affect
availability to offenders, make them
easier targets.
• Key approaches
 Lifestyle theory
 Routine activities approach

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Lifestyle Theory
• Lifestyle
 Style of life, the way a person lives
 Some lifestyles favor victimization
because they offer more opportunities
• Demographic variables determine
victimization risk through their effect
on lifestyle.
• Some populations are at heightened
risk due to their status (e.g., elderly).

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Routine Activities Theory
• Examines interaction of motivated
offenders, suitable targets, and capable
guardians
• Individual's everyday actions contribute
to likelihood of victimization.

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The Situational Model
• Situational insights combine to elicit a
criminal response from individual
actors.
• Crime may result from temptation, bad
company, idleness, provocation.

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Deviant Places Theory
• Spatially oriented theory
• Victimization most frequent in socially
disorganized high-crime areas
• People become victims as a result of
exposure to these areas.
• Focus is on geographically-determined
risk of coming into contact with an
offender, regardless of lifestyle,
behavior, personal characteristics

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Frank Schmalleger
• Certain neighborhood conditions
produce stigmatized neighborhoods
with bad reputations.
• Stigmatized neighborhoods increase
risk of victimization for those living or
visiting but most residents do not
become criminal.

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Frank Schmalleger
A History of the Victim
• Victims rarely had a role in the justice
system other than testifying at trial.
• Needs/problems largely ignored
• 1982 President's Task Force on Victims
of Crime gave focus to victims' rights
movement

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Victims' Rights Legislation
• 1982 Victim and Witness Protection Act
 Judges must consider victim impact
statements at federal sentencing
hearings.
• 1984 Victims of Crime Act (VOCA)
 Established federal Crime Victims Fund
to help states develop victims'
assistance and compensation programs

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Frank Schmalleger
• 1994 Violent Crime Control and Law
Enforcement Act
 Federal right of allocution
 Federal ex offenders and child molesters
must pay restitution.
 Rape shield law protections extended to
civil and criminal cases

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• 1994 Violence against Women Act
 Addressed concerns about violence
against women (sexual violence,
domestic abuse)
• 2001 USA PATRIOT Act amended VOCA
to make victims of terrorism eligible for
victims' compensation.

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Frank Schmalleger
Restorative Justice (RJ)
• Community safety dimension
recognizes that the justice system has
responsibility to protect public.
• Accountability element defines criminal
conduct in terms of offender obligation.

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Frank Schmalleger
Victim Restitution
• Sentencing options seeking to restore
victim frequently focus on restitution
payments by offenders
• All states have passed laws providing
for monetary payments to victims.
• Programs generally have eligibility
requirements and limit maximum
amount of compensation that can be
received.

Schmall crim today8e_ppt_ch10

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