This document summarizes early biological perspectives on criminal behavior. It discusses theories such as phrenology, Lombroso's theory of atavism, constitutional theories focusing on body types, studies of criminal families suggesting a genetic basis for crime, twin studies supporting a hereditary influence, and sociobiological theories of evolutionary roots of human aggression and territoriality. However, biological theories are criticized for disregarding free will, culture, social learning and individual experiences. No single biological factor can fully explain the complexities of modern crime.

1. Criminology Today
An Integrated Introduction
CHAPTER
Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
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Early Biological
Perspectives on
Criminal Behavior
4

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Traditional Biological versus
Modern Biosocial Theories
• Criminology has been slow to give
credence to biological theories.
• Roots grounded in the social sciences
• Criminology today is interdisciplinary
and recognizes contributions from
many disciplines.

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Frank Schmalleger
Principles of Biological Theories
• Early biological theorists focused mainly
on physical features and heredity.
• Contemporary biosocial theorists take a
more in-depth look at human biology.
• Major distinction is the emphasis placed
on the interplay between biology and
the social and physical environments.

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Frank Schmalleger
Figure 4-2 Fundamental Assumptions of Biological Theories of Crime Causation
Source: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Early Biological Theories
• Built on scientific tradition of positivism
• Positivism
 Associated with the belief that all valid
knowledge is acquired only through
observation
• Key principles
 Social determinism
 Application of scientific techniques to
the study of crime

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Frank Schmalleger
Physical Features and Crime
• Phrenology
 The study of the shape of the head to
determine anatomical correlates of
human behavior
 Franz Joseph Gall located the roots of
personality in the brain.
 Johann Gaspar Spurzheim brought
phrenology to the U.S.

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The Italian School
• Cesare Lombroso
 Atavism
• Criminality is the result of primitive urges
that survived the evolutionary process.
 Stigmata of degeneration – physical
features indicative of criminality
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
The Italian School
• Lombroso's work contributed to field of
criminal anthropology.
 Scientific study of relationship between
physical characteristics and criminality
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
The Italian School
• Lombroso's categories of offenders
 Atavists, or born criminals
 Insane
 Criminaloids
• "Occasional criminals" led into crime by
environmental influences
 Criminal incited by passion
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
The Italian School
• Masculinity hypothesis
 Criminal women exhibited masculine
features and mannerisms.

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Evaluations of Atavism
• Charles Buckman Goring
 Failed to find support for thesis of
atavism
• Earnest A. Hooton
 Criminals are physiologically inferior to
the general population.
continued on next slide

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Evaluations of Atavism
• Canadian study (2000) found subtle
physical abnormalities were associated
with an increased risk of behavioral and
psychiatric problems among boys.

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Frank Schmalleger
Constitutional Theories
• Explain criminality by reference to:
 Offenders' body types
 Genetics
 External, observable physical
characteristics
continued on next slide

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Constitutional Theories
• Ernst Kretschmer
 Proposed relationship between body
build and personality type
• William H. Sheldon
 Endomorph
 Mesomorph
 Ectomorph

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Figure 4-3 Sheldon’s Body Types
Source: Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey.

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Criminal Families
• Sir Francis Galton
 Systematic study of heredity
contributed to field of behavioral
genetics
• Criminal families
 The Juke family
• Richard L. Dugdale
 The Kallikak family
• Henry H. Goddard
continued on next slide

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Criminal Families
• Eugenic criminology
 Root causes of criminality were passed
down in the form of "bad genes."
• Genetic determinism
 Genes are the major determining factor
in human behavior.
• Buck v. Bell (1927)
 Supported Virginia statute permitting
sterilization

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The XYY Supermale
• Research in 1965 led to concept of
"supermale" with XYY chromosome.
 Considered potentially violent
 Led to attempted use of chromosome-
based defense in court
• Recent research has concluded that
XYY males are not predictably
aggressive.

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Twin Studies and Heredity
• Twin studies compare MZ and DZ twins
to examine role of heredity in crime
causation.
• Research supports relationship between
heredity and risk of criminality.
• Minnesota Twin Family Study found MZ
twins reared apart are about as similar
as those reared together.

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Biological Roots of Human
Aggression
• Charles Darwin
 Interspecies aggression favors the
strongest and best animals in the
reproductive process
continued on next slide

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Biological Roots of Human
Aggression
• Konrad Lorenz
 On Aggression (1966)
 Human aggression serves other
purposes but takes on covert forms
(drive to acquire wealth and power).
 Human behavior is adapted instinctive
behavior.

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Sociobiology: The New Synthesis
• Introduced by Edward O. Wilson in
1975
• Systematic study of the biological basis
of all social behavior
• A new paradigm in criminological
theories
 Brought renewed attention to biological
theories in social sciences
continued on next slide

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Sociobiology: The New Synthesis
• The main determinant of behavior is
the need to ensure the survival and
continuity of genetic material
throughout generations.
• Altruism facilitates the continuity of the
gene pool.
continued on next slide

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Sociobiology: The New Synthesis
• Territoriality explains much human
conflict.
 Explain both intergroup aggression
(tribalism) and intragroup aggression

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Criticisms of Sociobiology
• Fails to consider significance of culture,
social learning, individual experiences
• Fundamentally wrong in its depiction of
basic human nature
• Rationalizes labeling, stigmatization of
minorities
• Humans are too different from other
animal species to apply findings from
animal studies to human behavior.

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Critique of Early Biological
Theories of Human Behavior
• Disregard the role of free will in human
behavior
• Crime is a social construct and its
meaning varies over time and place.
• Unlikely that any biological feature or
combination of features could explain
the wide variety of crime today