The root and tuber crops, including cassava, sweet potato, yams, and aroids, enjoy considerable importance as a vegetable, staple food, or raw material for small‐scale industries at a global level, particularly in the less developed tropical countries. The perishability and postharvest losses of root and tuber crops are the major constraints in the utilization of these crops. Several simple, low‐cost traditional methods are being followed by fanners in different parts of the world to store different root and tuber crops in the fresh state. An account of different storage practices and constraints is reviewed in this article. Some of these methods have been studied and evaluated by different research workers. Several modern techniques, including refrigerated cold storage, freezing, chemical treatments, wax coating, and irradiation, for storing fresh tropical tubers are also reviewed. The pre‐ and postharvest factors to be considered for postharvest storage of different root and tuber crops are incorporated into the review.
This document summarizes research on transgenic vegetables for horticulture. It discusses how transgenic crops can be used to enhance pest resistance, quality traits, and sustainability in vegetable production. Specifically, it reviews advances in transgenic tomato, potato, eggplant, squash and sweet corn. Transgenic tomatoes have been developed to delay fruit ripening. Transgenic potatoes with resistance to the Colorado potato beetle and viruses were commercialized in the 1990s but later removed from the market due to trade and consumer issues. The document argues that transgenic crops have potential to address challenges in vegetable production, but their development and commercialization faces high costs and regulatory hurdles.
This document provides an overview of the history and evolution of vegetable production. It discusses how vegetable production has increased over time due to technological advances like mechanization, fertilizers, pesticides, and cultivar improvements. It defines what constitutes a vegetable and explores the domestication of early vegetable crops in places like the Middle East around 10,000 years ago. The text also examines how the vegetable industry has become more global and consolidated in recent decades but faces challenges around sustainability and food safety.
Performance Evaluation of Root Crop HarvestersIJERD Editor
This document discusses the development and testing of a tractor-mounted harvester for cocoyam (Xanthosoma spp.), a tropical tuber crop. The harvester was designed and fabricated in Nigeria using locally available materials. It consists of a blade, ridge roller, variable angle bevel gear, and a cleaning web powered by the tractor's PTO shaft. The harvester was tested and found to reduce the labor requirements for cocoyam harvesting compared to manual methods. More research is still needed to improve root crop harvesters given challenges around soil conditions, tuber geometry, and high draft requirements of machines.
This document discusses establishing community seed bank complexes in Africa to conserve crop diversity and secure local seed supply systems. It proposes a model of community seed bank complexes that includes on-farm conservation, community seed banks, and seed production networks. This would build on traditional seed saving practices and community-managed genetic resources. The goal is to improve food security and provide locally-adapted seeds, especially under climate change conditions.
The document discusses the fundamentals of agronomy, including definitions and scope. It covers key revolutions in Indian agriculture that have increased production of crops like milk, fish, oilseeds, sugarcane, and cotton. The document also discusses plant growth and development processes, as well as classifications of different types of crops based on factors like life cycle, economic use, botany, seasons, and climate.
Insect pest diversity of standing crops and traditional pest management in ag...AI Publications
The mountain farming communities of the Garhwal Himalaya rely on a conventional approach to agriculture to meet their subsistence needs. The resilience of local crop varieties plays a significant role in crop productivity in the indigenous agricultural system. In such circumstances, the protection of the crop from insect pests becomes paramount. Traditional ecological knowledge plays a crucial role in safeguarding standing crops from production losses in an environmentally benign and sustainable manner. The investigators in this study have surveyed the Mandakini valley to document the indigenous practices undertaken by the farming folks to protect the crops from pest infestation in the region. These practices are discoursed here and, further, look into the potential of natural predators as bio-control. The findings indicated that pests from the order Coleoptera had the most species, followed by Lepidoptera and Hemiptera. Most of the pests in the study site were serious defoliators, damaging the young foliage of the crops. Some entirely fed upon their roots-stems, while the rest were leaf miners and sapsuckers, thus compromising the overall well-being of the plant. In a developing country like India, there is a lack of reliable data that sheds light on the annual crop losses incurred by these pests. Thus, it becomes pertinent to compute an overall estimate of crop losses at various stages of crop production, from seed storage to post-harvest times.
This document summarizes research on transgenic vegetables for horticulture. It discusses how transgenic crops can be used to enhance pest resistance, quality traits, and sustainability in vegetable production. Specifically, it reviews advances in transgenic tomato, potato, eggplant, squash and sweet corn. Transgenic tomatoes have been developed to delay fruit ripening. Transgenic potatoes with resistance to the Colorado potato beetle and viruses were commercialized in the 1990s but later removed from the market due to trade and consumer issues. The document argues that transgenic crops have potential to address challenges in vegetable production, but their development and commercialization faces high costs and regulatory hurdles.
This document provides an overview of the history and evolution of vegetable production. It discusses how vegetable production has increased over time due to technological advances like mechanization, fertilizers, pesticides, and cultivar improvements. It defines what constitutes a vegetable and explores the domestication of early vegetable crops in places like the Middle East around 10,000 years ago. The text also examines how the vegetable industry has become more global and consolidated in recent decades but faces challenges around sustainability and food safety.
Performance Evaluation of Root Crop HarvestersIJERD Editor
This document discusses the development and testing of a tractor-mounted harvester for cocoyam (Xanthosoma spp.), a tropical tuber crop. The harvester was designed and fabricated in Nigeria using locally available materials. It consists of a blade, ridge roller, variable angle bevel gear, and a cleaning web powered by the tractor's PTO shaft. The harvester was tested and found to reduce the labor requirements for cocoyam harvesting compared to manual methods. More research is still needed to improve root crop harvesters given challenges around soil conditions, tuber geometry, and high draft requirements of machines.
This document discusses establishing community seed bank complexes in Africa to conserve crop diversity and secure local seed supply systems. It proposes a model of community seed bank complexes that includes on-farm conservation, community seed banks, and seed production networks. This would build on traditional seed saving practices and community-managed genetic resources. The goal is to improve food security and provide locally-adapted seeds, especially under climate change conditions.
The document discusses the fundamentals of agronomy, including definitions and scope. It covers key revolutions in Indian agriculture that have increased production of crops like milk, fish, oilseeds, sugarcane, and cotton. The document also discusses plant growth and development processes, as well as classifications of different types of crops based on factors like life cycle, economic use, botany, seasons, and climate.
Insect pest diversity of standing crops and traditional pest management in ag...AI Publications
The mountain farming communities of the Garhwal Himalaya rely on a conventional approach to agriculture to meet their subsistence needs. The resilience of local crop varieties plays a significant role in crop productivity in the indigenous agricultural system. In such circumstances, the protection of the crop from insect pests becomes paramount. Traditional ecological knowledge plays a crucial role in safeguarding standing crops from production losses in an environmentally benign and sustainable manner. The investigators in this study have surveyed the Mandakini valley to document the indigenous practices undertaken by the farming folks to protect the crops from pest infestation in the region. These practices are discoursed here and, further, look into the potential of natural predators as bio-control. The findings indicated that pests from the order Coleoptera had the most species, followed by Lepidoptera and Hemiptera. Most of the pests in the study site were serious defoliators, damaging the young foliage of the crops. Some entirely fed upon their roots-stems, while the rest were leaf miners and sapsuckers, thus compromising the overall well-being of the plant. In a developing country like India, there is a lack of reliable data that sheds light on the annual crop losses incurred by these pests. Thus, it becomes pertinent to compute an overall estimate of crop losses at various stages of crop production, from seed storage to post-harvest times.
In situ/On farm Conservation and Use of Agricultural Biodiversity (Horticultu...Bioversity International
This document discusses the in situ and on-farm conservation of agricultural biodiversity in Central Asia. It notes that Central Asia contains over 8,100 plant species and is a center of origin for many globally important crops. However, the replacement of local varieties and land degradation threaten biodiversity. The project worked in 5 Central Asian countries to conserve diversity of 10 fruit crops on farms and in nature. It established 58 nurseries and 72 demonstration plots conserving over 1,500 local varieties. The project increased knowledge of crop diversity and developed guidelines to protect farmers' rights and access and benefit sharing. Case studies showed how using local drought-resistant fruit varieties helped restore degraded lands and improve livelihoods in the region.
The document discusses the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. It provides a history of the treaty and summarizes its key provisions, including the establishment of a Multilateral System to facilitate access to plant genetic resources and benefit sharing, recognition of Farmers' Rights, and promotion of sustainable use. It also discusses India's national programs and policies related to plant genetic resource management and regional/international collaboration on conservation and use of plant genetic resources.
This study compared ant diversity between a polyculture farm called Lick Run Farm and a monoculture farm growing transgenic corn called Michael Beahm Farm. Ants were collected using pitfall traps from both farms. Results showed higher ant species richness and diversity at Lick Run Farm compared to Michael Beahm Farm, likely due to the differing habitats created by polyculture versus monoculture agricultural practices.
This document discusses improving crop production and animal husbandry to meet the food needs of India's growing population. It outlines that crop yields can be increased through variety improvement, better production management involving nutrients, irrigation, and cropping patterns, and crop protection. Variety improvement is done through hybridization and genetic modification. Nutrient management involves the use of manure and fertilizers. Irrigation and different cropping patterns like intercropping are also described. The document also discusses animal husbandry practices for cattle, poultry and fish farming.
An overview of agronomy departments capabilities, what is being doing in inte...CIAT
This document provides information about Iowa State University's Department of Agronomy. It discusses humanity's greatest challenges around food security and sustainable food systems. It notes that Iowa leads the nation in several agricultural productions. It provides data on Iowa's land usage and 2009 crop production. It defines agronomy and describes the department's research focus areas like plant breeding, crop production/physiology, and soil science. It also discusses the department's faculty, students, and extension activities. Finally, it outlines the department's international collaborations in areas like plant breeding, livestock genetics, and development projects in Africa.
Postharvest spoilage of tomato (lycopersicon esculentum mill.) and control st...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes postharvest spoilage of tomatoes in Nigeria. It discusses how biotic factors like fungi and bacteria cause major losses, estimated at 10-30% annually. Common fungal pathogens include Alternaria, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Aspergillus. Bacterial pathogens include Xanthomonas euvesicatoria and Clavibacter michiganensis. In addition, socioeconomic constraints like poor government policies, lack of credit, and inadequate storage and transport exacerbate postharvest losses. Adopting disease control strategies is important to reduce losses and improve food security.
Agronomy is the science of managing crops and farmland to maximize crop yields. It involves choosing the best crop varieties for the climate and soil, using proper cultivation techniques, managing pests and irrigation, and harvesting at the right time. Key branches of agronomy include crop science, soil science, and environmental science. Crops are classified in various ways, including by place of origin, botanical/taxonomic family, economic use, season grown, and life cycle (annual, biennial, or perennial). The fundamental principles of agronomy are maximizing resource use and choosing adapted crop varieties, along with proper cultivation, nutrient management, and pest control.
What are the income generating activities in agriculture By Allah Dad Khan Mr.Allah Dad Khan
Agriculture is the mainstay of Pakistan's economy, contributing 24% to GDP. The presentation discusses several income generating activities in agriculture, including integrated farm management, good agriculture practices, crops/livestock, and medicinal plants. Integrated farm management uses techniques like crop rotation, cover crops, and natural pest control to improve yields while reducing environmental impact. Good agriculture practices aim to be economically viable, environmentally sustainable, and socially acceptable. Farmer field schools are discussed as an approach to skill development, empowerment, and decision making for farmers.
This document discusses monocropping and its impact on soil quality. It notes that monocropping involves planting a single crop in the same place each year, depleting nutrients from the soil. This forces farmers to use chemical fertilizers that further disrupt the soil's natural makeup. The document also discusses how monocropping reduces microbial diversity compared to crop rotation systems, and that soil microbes play an important role in maintaining soil quality and plant health. Overall, it presents arguments that monocropping is hard on the environment and less profitable than organic farming methods that incorporate crop rotation.
1. Cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables provide humans with proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals which are essential for growth, development, and health.
2. Improving crop varieties, production practices such as nutrient management, irrigation, and cropping patterns can lead to increased crop yields to meet the food demands of a growing population.
3. Scientific management practices like using high-yielding crop varieties, fertilizers, irrigation, and intercropping can help obtain higher yields while preserving soil fertility and environmental balance.
This document outlines the course details for Principles of Agronomy and Agricultural Meteorology. The course is offered by Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University. It is a 3-credit course consisting of both theory and practical components. The theory portion will cover topics related to agronomy principles and agricultural meteorology. The practical portion will involve hands-on exercises related to agricultural operations and meteorological measurements.
Postharvest quality of commercial tomato (lycopersicon esculentum mill.) frui...Alexander Decker
- Only 25.09% of tomato fruits brought to markets in Yenagoa, Nigeria were free from disease or damage, while 59.28% showed signs of postharvest disease and 15.04% had physiological disorders.
- The most common postharvest disease was soft/sour rot (34.43%), likely caused by bacterial pathogens, while alternaria rot (7.76%), buckeye rot (5.87%), anthracnose (0.69%), and rhizopus rot (0.16%) were also present but at lower levels.
- Physiological disorders included fruit shrivel (3.25%) and zippering (8.06%). The long distance transportation of tomatoes from northern
Community Seed Banks ~ fao
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110 ~
This document summarizes the plant genetic resources of India. It discusses the agro-ecological regions and centers of diversity in India. It provides an appraisal of the genetic diversity found in crop plants and wild plants of agricultural importance. It describes the build-up of genetic resources through exploration and collection activities in the 1970s, both within India and abroad via germplasm exchange. It discusses future plans for exploration and collection. It addresses genetic resources conservation through both in-situ and ex-situ methods. It provides references and an appendix with additional information.
The document discusses improving food resources through increasing crop production and animal husbandry. It notes that population growth requires increasing food production since arable land area cannot expand significantly. Crop yields can be improved through variety improvement, production management like fertilizer use and irrigation, and protection from pests. Animal farming including cattle, poultry and fish is also important to increase food resources. Improved breeds, nutrition, disease control and hygienic conditions help boost animal production. Overall the document emphasizes the need to boost both crop and livestock outputs to adequately feed the growing population through scientific agricultural practices.
This document discusses improving food resources through increasing crop production, animal husbandry, and other means. It covers topics like the need to increase food production to feed the growing population, different types of crops and their uses, ways to improve crop yields through variety improvement, production management involving nutrients, irrigation, and cropping patterns, protecting crops from pests and diseases, animal farming practices for cattle, poultry and fish, and beekeeping. The overall aim is to scientifically manage agriculture and livestock to boost food production efficiency.
A brief introduction to Agronomy- etymology, meaning, definition, principles of agronomy, and the relation of agronomy with other branches of agriculture.
The effect of cement as lime on rosette disease and cercospora leaf spot on g...AI Publications
This document summarizes a study that assessed the effect of applying cement as lime on rosette disease and cercospora leaf spot disease severity and their impact on groundnut yield. The study tested five rates of cement application (0, 50, 100, 200, 400 kg/ha) on 39 groundnut lines and found no significant influence on disease incidence or severity. However, some lines including ICGV 1954, ICGV 7445, and ICGV 10900 produced significantly higher yields and showed good resistance to the diseases. Therefore, the study concluded that cement cannot be used to control the diseases but farmers should plant resistant varieties for higher yields.
The Study of Causes Losses Post-Harvests Of Cereal the Case of the Wheat - Ba...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
In situ/On farm Conservation and Use of Agricultural Biodiversity (Horticultu...Bioversity International
This document discusses the in situ and on-farm conservation of agricultural biodiversity in Central Asia. It notes that Central Asia contains over 8,100 plant species and is a center of origin for many globally important crops. However, the replacement of local varieties and land degradation threaten biodiversity. The project worked in 5 Central Asian countries to conserve diversity of 10 fruit crops on farms and in nature. It established 58 nurseries and 72 demonstration plots conserving over 1,500 local varieties. The project increased knowledge of crop diversity and developed guidelines to protect farmers' rights and access and benefit sharing. Case studies showed how using local drought-resistant fruit varieties helped restore degraded lands and improve livelihoods in the region.
The document discusses the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. It provides a history of the treaty and summarizes its key provisions, including the establishment of a Multilateral System to facilitate access to plant genetic resources and benefit sharing, recognition of Farmers' Rights, and promotion of sustainable use. It also discusses India's national programs and policies related to plant genetic resource management and regional/international collaboration on conservation and use of plant genetic resources.
This study compared ant diversity between a polyculture farm called Lick Run Farm and a monoculture farm growing transgenic corn called Michael Beahm Farm. Ants were collected using pitfall traps from both farms. Results showed higher ant species richness and diversity at Lick Run Farm compared to Michael Beahm Farm, likely due to the differing habitats created by polyculture versus monoculture agricultural practices.
This document discusses improving crop production and animal husbandry to meet the food needs of India's growing population. It outlines that crop yields can be increased through variety improvement, better production management involving nutrients, irrigation, and cropping patterns, and crop protection. Variety improvement is done through hybridization and genetic modification. Nutrient management involves the use of manure and fertilizers. Irrigation and different cropping patterns like intercropping are also described. The document also discusses animal husbandry practices for cattle, poultry and fish farming.
An overview of agronomy departments capabilities, what is being doing in inte...CIAT
This document provides information about Iowa State University's Department of Agronomy. It discusses humanity's greatest challenges around food security and sustainable food systems. It notes that Iowa leads the nation in several agricultural productions. It provides data on Iowa's land usage and 2009 crop production. It defines agronomy and describes the department's research focus areas like plant breeding, crop production/physiology, and soil science. It also discusses the department's faculty, students, and extension activities. Finally, it outlines the department's international collaborations in areas like plant breeding, livestock genetics, and development projects in Africa.
Postharvest spoilage of tomato (lycopersicon esculentum mill.) and control st...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes postharvest spoilage of tomatoes in Nigeria. It discusses how biotic factors like fungi and bacteria cause major losses, estimated at 10-30% annually. Common fungal pathogens include Alternaria, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Aspergillus. Bacterial pathogens include Xanthomonas euvesicatoria and Clavibacter michiganensis. In addition, socioeconomic constraints like poor government policies, lack of credit, and inadequate storage and transport exacerbate postharvest losses. Adopting disease control strategies is important to reduce losses and improve food security.
Agronomy is the science of managing crops and farmland to maximize crop yields. It involves choosing the best crop varieties for the climate and soil, using proper cultivation techniques, managing pests and irrigation, and harvesting at the right time. Key branches of agronomy include crop science, soil science, and environmental science. Crops are classified in various ways, including by place of origin, botanical/taxonomic family, economic use, season grown, and life cycle (annual, biennial, or perennial). The fundamental principles of agronomy are maximizing resource use and choosing adapted crop varieties, along with proper cultivation, nutrient management, and pest control.
What are the income generating activities in agriculture By Allah Dad Khan Mr.Allah Dad Khan
Agriculture is the mainstay of Pakistan's economy, contributing 24% to GDP. The presentation discusses several income generating activities in agriculture, including integrated farm management, good agriculture practices, crops/livestock, and medicinal plants. Integrated farm management uses techniques like crop rotation, cover crops, and natural pest control to improve yields while reducing environmental impact. Good agriculture practices aim to be economically viable, environmentally sustainable, and socially acceptable. Farmer field schools are discussed as an approach to skill development, empowerment, and decision making for farmers.
This document discusses monocropping and its impact on soil quality. It notes that monocropping involves planting a single crop in the same place each year, depleting nutrients from the soil. This forces farmers to use chemical fertilizers that further disrupt the soil's natural makeup. The document also discusses how monocropping reduces microbial diversity compared to crop rotation systems, and that soil microbes play an important role in maintaining soil quality and plant health. Overall, it presents arguments that monocropping is hard on the environment and less profitable than organic farming methods that incorporate crop rotation.
1. Cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables provide humans with proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals which are essential for growth, development, and health.
2. Improving crop varieties, production practices such as nutrient management, irrigation, and cropping patterns can lead to increased crop yields to meet the food demands of a growing population.
3. Scientific management practices like using high-yielding crop varieties, fertilizers, irrigation, and intercropping can help obtain higher yields while preserving soil fertility and environmental balance.
This document outlines the course details for Principles of Agronomy and Agricultural Meteorology. The course is offered by Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University. It is a 3-credit course consisting of both theory and practical components. The theory portion will cover topics related to agronomy principles and agricultural meteorology. The practical portion will involve hands-on exercises related to agricultural operations and meteorological measurements.
Postharvest quality of commercial tomato (lycopersicon esculentum mill.) frui...Alexander Decker
- Only 25.09% of tomato fruits brought to markets in Yenagoa, Nigeria were free from disease or damage, while 59.28% showed signs of postharvest disease and 15.04% had physiological disorders.
- The most common postharvest disease was soft/sour rot (34.43%), likely caused by bacterial pathogens, while alternaria rot (7.76%), buckeye rot (5.87%), anthracnose (0.69%), and rhizopus rot (0.16%) were also present but at lower levels.
- Physiological disorders included fruit shrivel (3.25%) and zippering (8.06%). The long distance transportation of tomatoes from northern
Community Seed Banks ~ fao
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110 ~
This document summarizes the plant genetic resources of India. It discusses the agro-ecological regions and centers of diversity in India. It provides an appraisal of the genetic diversity found in crop plants and wild plants of agricultural importance. It describes the build-up of genetic resources through exploration and collection activities in the 1970s, both within India and abroad via germplasm exchange. It discusses future plans for exploration and collection. It addresses genetic resources conservation through both in-situ and ex-situ methods. It provides references and an appendix with additional information.
The document discusses improving food resources through increasing crop production and animal husbandry. It notes that population growth requires increasing food production since arable land area cannot expand significantly. Crop yields can be improved through variety improvement, production management like fertilizer use and irrigation, and protection from pests. Animal farming including cattle, poultry and fish is also important to increase food resources. Improved breeds, nutrition, disease control and hygienic conditions help boost animal production. Overall the document emphasizes the need to boost both crop and livestock outputs to adequately feed the growing population through scientific agricultural practices.
This document discusses improving food resources through increasing crop production, animal husbandry, and other means. It covers topics like the need to increase food production to feed the growing population, different types of crops and their uses, ways to improve crop yields through variety improvement, production management involving nutrients, irrigation, and cropping patterns, protecting crops from pests and diseases, animal farming practices for cattle, poultry and fish, and beekeeping. The overall aim is to scientifically manage agriculture and livestock to boost food production efficiency.
A brief introduction to Agronomy- etymology, meaning, definition, principles of agronomy, and the relation of agronomy with other branches of agriculture.
The effect of cement as lime on rosette disease and cercospora leaf spot on g...AI Publications
This document summarizes a study that assessed the effect of applying cement as lime on rosette disease and cercospora leaf spot disease severity and their impact on groundnut yield. The study tested five rates of cement application (0, 50, 100, 200, 400 kg/ha) on 39 groundnut lines and found no significant influence on disease incidence or severity. However, some lines including ICGV 1954, ICGV 7445, and ICGV 10900 produced significantly higher yields and showed good resistance to the diseases. Therefore, the study concluded that cement cannot be used to control the diseases but farmers should plant resistant varieties for higher yields.
The Study of Causes Losses Post-Harvests Of Cereal the Case of the Wheat - Ba...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
THE ROLE OF ORPHAN ROOT AND TUBER CROPS.pptxTahirNura
FAO defines roots and tubers as plants yielding starchy roots, tubers, rhizomes, corms and stems.
They are used for human food, animal feed and for manufacturing starch, alcohol and fermented beverages including beer.
They contain mainly carbohydrates (largely starches that account for 16-24 percent of their total weight).
The peer-reviewed International Journal of Engineering Inventions (IJEI) is started with a mission to encourage contribution to research in Science and Technology. Encourage and motivate researchers in challenging areas of Sciences and Technology.
Importance of post harvest technology in fruits and vegetables.pptxReetanjaliMeher
This document discusses the importance of post-harvest technology for horticultural crops. It defines post-harvest technology as dealing with operations from harvesting through processing and consumption to utilize waste. India is a major global producer of fruits and vegetables but suffers from 20-40% post-harvest losses. Proper post-harvest handling can increase supply and availability without using more land. It identifies key causes of losses like mechanical injury, diseases, and lack of infrastructure and discusses the economic and social benefits of reducing losses like increased production, exports, employment, and food availability.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
Selection of Drought Tolerant Mutant of Amaranthus Cruentus L. in Green HousePremier Publishers
Water deficit is one of the significant environmental factors limiting plant production. This stress occurs during drought period. The aim of this study was to select gamma irradiation-induced drought tolerant mutant drought lines during vegetative stage. Seeds of the reference cultivar were gamma irradiated using the gamma irradiated facility at the IAEA to induce genetic variation. Four selected lines based on their high biomass (L2, L17, L18 and L23) and the reference cultivar (L0) were grown under four irrigation frequencies: 2, 4, 8 and 12 days with 200 ml as standard water regime for 24 days after transplanting. Completely randomized block design with 3 repetitions was applied. Data related to Relative Plant Height Growth, Relative Leaf Number Growth, Relative Shoot Fresh Mass Growth and Relative Root Length Growth were determined. The results indicated a significant effect of water deficit on all considered parameters by limiting the growth. Reduction observed were less accentuated in lines L2. Line L2 showed a significant difference for root growth indicating the adaptability of drought. Based on drought tolerant index, L2 was the most tolerant. At this stage, lines L2 appeared to be the most promising for the creation of new drought-tolerant amaranth varieties.
Selection of Drought Tolerant Mutant of Amaranthus Cruentus L. in Green HousePremier Publishers
Water deficit is one of the significant environmental factors limiting plant production. This stress occurs during drought period. The aim of this study was to select gamma irradiation-induced drought tolerant mutant drought lines during vegetative stage. Seeds of the reference cultivar were gamma irradiated using the gamma irradiated facility at the IAEA to induce genetic variation. Four selected lines based on their high biomass (L2, L17, L18 and L23) and the reference cultivar (L0) were grown under four irrigation frequencies: 2, 4, 8 and 12 days with 200 ml as standard water regime for 24 days after transplanting. Completely randomized block design with 3 repetitions was applied. Data related to Relative Plant Height Growth, Relative Leaf Number Growth, Relative Shoot Fresh Mass Growth and Relative Root Length Growth were determined. The results indicated a significant effect of water deficit on all considered parameters by limiting the growth. Reduction observed were less accentuated in lines L2. Line L2 showed a significant difference for root growth indicating the adaptability of drought. Based on drought tolerant index, L2 was the most tolerant. At this stage, lines L2 appeared to be the most promising for the creation of new drought-tolerant amaranth varieties.
potato productiona nd factors affecting its productivityaddisalem9
Potato is originated in the high Andes of south America and was first cultivated approximately Lake Titicaca near the present border of Peru and Bolivia.
In the term of quantity produced and consumed worldwide, potato is the most important vegetable crop.
It is one of the most important food crops in the world, in volume of world crop production it ranks fourth following by wheat, rice and maize.Potato is one of the most important cultivated members of the family Solanaceae. A dicotyledonous, herbaceous perennial plant is treating as annual.
It has pinnate compound pattern alternate leaves on its above ground stem and specialized underground storage stems or tubers.
Potato has an indeterminate growth pattern and produces a fibrous system of adventitious root system, which develops just above the nodes on underground portion the stem.- Potato is one of the worlds major staple food crops producing high yields of nutritionally valuable food in the form of tubers, which is an excellent source of carbohydrates protein and vitamins.
- It is also an important crop towards food security, although it is a minor crop in the world trade.
- Is a good source of vitamins B1, B3 and B6 minerals such as K, P and Mg.- Potato is one of the worlds major staple food crops producing high yields of nutritionally valuable food in the form of tubers, which is an excellent source of carbohydrates protein and vitamins.
- It is also an important crop towards food security, although it is a minor crop in the world trade.
- Is a good source of vitamins B1, B3 and B6 minerals such as K, P and Mg. Biotic and Abiotic factors that can affect the growth, yield and tuber quality of potato.
Biotic factor :- refers to living organism that can have a direct and indirect impact on potato production.
Abiotic factor :- refers to non living environmental factors that can affect potato production.Potatoes grow best in well drained, sandy soil. A poorly drained soil is more likely to produce diseased tubers.
Potatoes which have been grown under basin irrigation practices were more vigorous than plants from furrow irrigation. This may be due to the fact that plants over the furrow ridges relatively bears more roots than shoots in search of soil moisture as more proportion of the applied water is deep percolated (FAO, 1985) .
Potassium influences the transport of nutrients and the movement of carbohydrates from the leaf of the tuber.
Different levels of nutrient supply may lead to different seed tuber yields. This is because seed tuber yield is determined not only by total tuber yield but also by tuber size category and tuber numbers. Improved potato varieties that have been recently released in Ethiopia may differ in nutrient efficiency, and could have different optima of balanced macro-nutrient requirements for maximum yield of good quality seed tubers.(Burga et al., 2013).Late blight. This disease is caused by the oomycete patho
Rice stress related gene expression analysis 2019RonHazarika
The study revealed that the proteins seem similar in structure but functionally they are much more diverse. This analysis can help to identify the molecular basis of phenotypic differences and select gene expression targets for in-depth study. The regulation of gene expression in plants, as in other higher eukaryotes, is a subject of daunting complexity.
This document is a review on the effect of plant density on the growth and yields of chickpeas. It discusses how chickpeas are an important crop in Ethiopia and globally, providing nutrition and income. The literature review covers how plant density affects chickpea growth parameters, root parameters, yield, nutrient uptake and soil nutrients, and nutritional content. The objective is to review the effects of inter-row and intra-row spacing on chickpea yield and yield components.
This document is a senior seminar paper reviewing the effect of plant density on growth and yields of chickpea. It begins with an introduction on chickpea production in Ethiopia and outlines the objective to review the effects of inter- and intra-row spacing on chickpea yield and yield components. The literature review covers the origin and distribution of chickpea, its production in Ethiopia, economic importance, and effects of plant density on chickpea growth parameters, root parameters, yield, nutrient uptake, and nutritional content. The paper aims to provide an overview of existing research on how plant density impacts various aspects of chickpea growth and production.
This document summarizes research on integrated farming practices that involve growing fruit trees and rearing ruminant livestock in homesteads. It discusses how small-scale farmers face challenges in adequately feeding confined ruminants and maintaining soil fertility for fruit trees. The paper proposes adjustments to the traditional practices, including planting browse plants and pasture around fruit trees to provide fodder for animals, using prunings as mulch, and composting animal manure and plant waste to fertilize soil and improve yields. Further research is needed on the nutritional values of browse species and their performance in different seasons to help farmers select appropriate plants. The integrated practices aim to sustainably meet the needs of both ruminants and fruit trees using on
Importance, biology, epidemiology, and management of Xanthomonas campestris p...Melkamu Fufa
Enset [Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman] is an economically, nutritionally, and industrially important
root crop in Ethiopia. However, many biotic and abiotic factors are negatively affecting and reducing the
production and productivity of the crop in Ethiopia and elsewhere. Of the various bacterial plant diseases
limiting enset productivity, bacterial wilt caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum is one of
the major cosmopolitan and destructive pathogens in all enset-growing areas. This piece of work was
undertaken to: 1) review the economic importance and ecological requirements of enset and the extent of
total yield loss due to Xcm; 2) review the biology and ecological requirements of the pathogen leading to
epidemics; and 3) compile the management options for sustainable enset production and productivity.
This review highlights various studies on the importance of the disease and the efforts employed so far in
the management of this highly destructive disease to enset production. To achieve these objectives, data
and information were gleaned from different sources of journals, theses, books, proceedings and
symposium papers, relevant compendia, internet resources and personal communications. From the
review insight, it is confirmed that there is no single best enset wilt management option available that
farmers rely on and there is a lack of resistant varieties. Cultural and sanitary measures are the only
methods most frequently used across the enset-growing areas and are found to be fruitful in community
mobilization to create awareness among the farming community. In the future, awareness creation and
regular field monitoring are vital, while the development of resistant or tolerant varieties is mandatory.
Leguminous vegetables production and marketing in Southern Benin|Ijaar vol-15...Innspub Net
This study assessed the production and marketing of leguminous vegetables in southern Benin. It found:
1) The main leguminous vegetables grown were common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and Chinese bean (Phaseolus spp.), with eight varieties of common bean cultivated.
2) Seeds were obtained from local seed companies, saved from previous harvests, or imported. Production occurred in greenhouses or open fields, using organic and inorganic fertilizers.
3) Pests and diseases were controlled chemically. Production was mainly led by men on small plots. The major marketing channels involved collectors, wholesalers, and hotels/restaurants.
4) Respondents faced challenges like
Subtropical and temperate fruit production is important for Ethiopia's food supply and economy. The document discusses the status and issues of fruit production in Ethiopia. It covers the importance of fruits for nutrition, income, and exports. However, fruit production faces problems like lack of improved varieties, disease and pest pressures, and poor cultivation techniques. The future potential is high given Ethiopia's suitable climate and growing markets. The chapter then focuses on citrus production, covering the origin, uses, cultivation requirements, and pests of citrus fruits.
Influence of fertilizers on incidence and severity of early blight and late b...Innspub Net
The potato (Solanum tuberosum) production in the Far North Region, Cameroon is confronted with, diseases and pests. To improve the production of this plant, a study was carried out in Mouvou and Gouria to evaluate the impact of fertilizers on the development of late blight and early blight diseases of this plant. The experimental design used was a completely randomized block with 4 treatments: Mycorrhizae (MYC), NPK (20-10-10) chemical fertilizers, chicken droppings (CD) and a control (T). The plant material used was a local variety of potato (Dosa). Disease incidence and severity and rainfall were evaluated. Area Under Disease Progress Curve was calculated. At 60 DAS, mean incidences recorded for fertilizers were 5.7, 3.6, 1.8 and 0.8 % respectively for control, MYC, NPK and CD. In general, early blight severity decreased from 22.1% at 45 DAS to 0.3 % at 60 DAS. The highest AUDPC value of late blight at Mouvou site was observed in NPK treatment while potato in CD treatment had the lowest. The lowest AUDPC value of early blight was observed in CD treatment at both sites. AUDSIPC value for late blight was significantly higher in NPK treatment in both sites. The highest value of AUDPSIC of early blight was recorded in MYC treatment, 45 DAS in both sites. The average rainfall was higher in the Gouria site (716.5mm) than in Mouvou site (679 mm). The CD treatment can be recommended to the farmers for the phytosanitary protection of potatoes.
The document discusses various types of crops and their definitions. It provides definitions and examples for terms like cash crops, cover crops, catch crops, bumper crops, crop wild relatives, and more. The definitions cover crops grown for food, fiber, fuel and other economic purposes.
This document provides information about the Agri. 105 course on Crop Production practices at 3 units, 2 hours of lecture and 3 hours of lab per week. Grading is based on self-checks, hands-on exercises, and a midterm and final exam. The course introduces agriculture, its branches, and the human development of agriculture from early humans to modern times. It defines crop production and groups major crops as agronomic, horticultural, cereals, pulses, fibers, roots, forages, and industrial crops. Basic physiological processes important to crop yields like photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration are also summarized.
This document summarizes a study that evaluated the impact of the rhizobacteria Pseudomonas fluorescens (P. fluorescens) bio-fertilizer on growth and yield parameters of two maize varieties, DMRESR-Y and EV99-MRP, in northern Cote d'Ivoire. Statistical analyses using correlation tests and principal component analysis in R software showed that growth and yield parameters were influenced by the bio-fertilizer regardless of maize variety. Treatment with P. fluorescens bio-fertilizer alone or combined with foliar fertilizer resulted in higher dry biomass and growth/yield parameters compared to treatments without the bio-fertilizer.
Similar to Review on Postharvest Handling Practices of Root and Tuber Crops. (20)
Evaluation of Agro-morphological Performances of Hybrid Varieties of Chili Pe...Premier Publishers
In Benin, chilli pepper is a widely consumed as vegetable whose production requires the use of performant varieties. This work assessed, at Parakou and Malanville, the performance of six F1 hybrids of chilli including five imported (Laali, Laser, Nandi, Kranti, Nandita) and one local (De cayenne), in completely randomized block design at four replications and 15 plants per elementary plot. Agro-morphological data were collected and submitted to analysis of variance and factor analysis of mixed data. The results showed the effects of variety, location and their interactions were highly significant for most of the growth, earliness and yield traits. Imported hybrid varieties showed the best performances compared to the local one. Multivariate analysis revealed that 'De cayenne' was earlier, short in size, thin-stemmed, red fruits and less yielding (≈ 1 t.ha-1). The imported hybrids LaaliF1 and KrantiF1 were of strong vegetative vigor, more yielding (> 6 t.ha-1) by developing larger, long and hard fruits. Other hybrids showed intermediate performances. This study highlighted the importance of imported hybrids in improving yield and preservation of chili fruits. However, stability and adaptation analyses to local conditions are necessary for their adoption.
An Empirical Approach for the Variation in Capital Market Price Changes Premier Publishers
The chances of an investor in the stock market depends mainly on some certain decisions in respect to equilibrium prices, which is the condition of a system competing favorably and effectively. This paper considered a stochastic model which was latter transformed to non-linear ordinary differential equation where stock volatility was used as a key parameter. The analytical solution was obtained which determined the equilibrium prices. A theorem was developed and proved to show that the proposed mathematical model follows a normal distribution since it has a symmetric property. Finally, graphical results were presented and the effects of the relevant parameters were discussed.
Influence of Nitrogen and Spacing on Growth and Yield of Chia (Salvia hispani...Premier Publishers
Chia is an emerging cash crop in Kenya and its production is inhibited by lack of agronomic management information. A field experiment was conducted in February-June and May-August 2021, to determine the influence of nitrogen and spacing on growth and yield of Chia. A randomized complete block design with a split plot arrangement was used with four nitrogen rates as the main plots (0, 40, 80, 120 kg N ha-1) and three spacing (30 cm x 15 cm (s1), 30 cm x 30 cm (s2), 50 cm x 50 cm (s3)). Application of 120 kg N ha-1 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth and seed yield of Chia. Stem height, branches, stem diameter and leaves increased by 23-28%, 11-13%, 43-55% and 59-88% respectively. Spacing s3 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth. An increase of 27-74%, 36-45% and 73-107% was recorded in number of leaves, stem diameter and dry weight, respectively. Chia yield per plant was significantly higher (p≤0.05) in s3. However, when expressed per unit area, s1 significantly produced higher yields. The study recommends 120 kg N ha-1 or higher nitrogen rates and a closer spacing of 15 cm x 30 cm as the best option for Chia production in Kenya.
Enhancing Social Capital During the Pandemic: A Case of the Rural Women in Bu...Premier Publishers
The document discusses a case study of enhancing social capital among rural women in Bukidnon Province, Philippines during the COVID-19 pandemic through a livelihood project. Key findings include:
1) Technical trainings provided by the project increased the women's knowledge, allowing them to generate additional household income through vegetable gardening during the pandemic.
2) The women's social capital, as measured by groups/networks, trust, and cooperation, increased by 15.5% from 2019 to 2020 through increased participation in their association.
3) Main occupations, income sources, and ethnicity influenced the women's social capital. The project enhanced social ties that empowered the rural women economically and socially despite challenges of the pandemic.
Impact of Provision of Litigation Supports through Forensic Investigations on...Premier Publishers
This paper presents an argument through the fraud triangle theory that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases is adequate for effective prosecution of perpetrators as well as corporate fraud prevention. To support this argument, this study operationalized provision of litigation supports through forensic audit and investigations, data mining for trends and patterns, and fraud data collection and preparation. A sample of 500 respondents was drawn from the population of professional accountants and legal practitioners in Nigeria. Questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection and this was mailed to the respective respondents. Resulting responses were analyzed using the OLS multiple regression techniques via the SPSS statistical software. The results reveal that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations, fraud data mining for trends and patterns and fraud data collection and preparation for court proceedings have a positive and significant impact on corporate fraud prevention in Nigeria. This study therefore recommends that regulators should promote the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases in publicly listed firms in Nigeria, as this will help provide reports that are acceptable in court proceedings.
Improving the Efficiency of Ratio Estimators by Calibration WeightingsPremier Publishers
It is observed that the performances of most improved ratio estimators depend on some optimality conditions that need to be satisfied to guarantee better estimator. This paper develops a new approach to ratio estimation that produces a more efficient class of ratio estimators that do not depend on any optimality conditions for optimum performance using calibration weightings. The relative performances of the proposed calibration ratio estimators are compared with a corresponding global [Generalized Regression (GREG)] estimator. Results of analysis showed that the proposed calibration ratio estimators are substantially superior to the traditional GREG-estimator with relatively small bias, mean square error, average length of confidence interval and coverage probability. In general, the proposed calibration ratio estimators are more efficient than all existing estimators considered in the study.
Urban Liveability in the Context of Sustainable Development: A Perspective fr...Premier Publishers
Urbanization and quality of urban life are mutually related and however it varies geographically and regionally. With unprecedented growth of urban centres, challenge against urban development is more in terms of how to enhance quality of urban life and liveability. Making sense of and measuring urban liveability of urban places has become a crucial step in the context of sustainable development paradigm. Geographical regions depict variations in nature of urban development and consequently level of urban liveability. The coastal regain of West Bengal faces unusual challenges caused by increasing urbanization, uncontrolled growth, and expansion of economic activities like tourism and changing environmental quality. The present study offers a perspective on urban liveability of urban places located in coastal region comprising of Purba Medinipur and South 24 Parganas districts. The study uses the liveability standards covering four major pillars- institutional, social, economic and physical and their indicators. This leads to develop a City Liveability Index to rank urban places of the region, higher the index values better the urban liveability. The data for the purpose is collected from various secondary sources. Study finds that the eastern coastal region of the country covering state of West Bengal depicts variations in index of liveability determined by physical, economic, social and institutional indicators.
Transcript Level of Genes Involved in “Rebaudioside A” Biosynthesis Pathway u...Premier Publishers
Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni is a plant which has recently been used widely as a sweetener. This medicinal plant has some components such as diterpenoid glycosides called steviol glycosides [SGs]. Rebaudioside A is a diterpenoid steviol glycoside which is 300 times sweeter than table sugar. This study was done to investigate the effect of GA3 (50 mg/L) on the expression of 14 genes involved in Rebaudioside A biosynthesis pathway in Stevia rebaudiana under in vitro conditions. The expression of DXS remarkably decreased by day 3. Also, probably because of the negative feedback of GA3 on MEP-drived isoprenes, GGDS transcript level reached its lowest amount after GA3 treatment. The abundance of DXR, CMS, CMK, MCS, and CDPS transcripts showed a significant increase at various days after this treatment. A significant drop in the expression levels of KS and UGT85C2 is detected during the first day. However, expression changes of HDR and KD were not remarkable. Results revealed that the level of transcript of UGT74G1 and UGT76G1 up regulated significantly 4 and 2 times higher than control, respectively. However, more research needs to shed more light on the mechanism of GA3 on gene expression of MEP pathway.
Multivariate Analysis of Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) Clones on Mor...Premier Publishers
Information on genetic variability for biochemical characters is a prerequisite for improvement of tea quality. Thirteen introduced tea clones characterized with objective; assessing tea clones based on morphological characters at Melko and Gera research stations. The study was conducted during 2017/18 cropping season on experimental plots in RCBD with three replications. Data recorded on morphological traits like days from pruning to harvest, height to first branch, stem diameter, leaf serration density, leaf length, leaf width, leaf size, petiole length, leaf ratio, internode length, shoot length, number of shoot, canopy diameter, hundred shoot weight, fresh leaf yield per tree. Cluster analysis of morphological trait grouped into four clusters indicated, the existence of divergence among the tested clones. The maximum inter-cluster distance was between clusters I and IV (35.27) while the minimum inter cluster distance was observed between clusters I and II (7.8).Principal components analysis showed that the first five principal components with eigenvalues greater than one accounted 86.45% for 15 morphological traits. Generally, the study indicated presence of variability for several morphological traits. However, high morphological variation between clones is not a guarantee for a high genetic variation; therefore, molecular studies need to be considered as complementary to biochemical studies.
Causes, Consequences and Remedies of Juvenile Delinquency in the Context of S...Premier Publishers
This research work was designed to examine nature of juvenile offences committed by juveniles, causes of juvenile delinquency, consequences of juvenile delinquency and remedies for juvenile delinquency in the context of Sub-Saharan Africa with specific reference to Eritrea. Left unchecked, juvenile delinquents on the streets engage in petty theft, take alcohol or drugs, rape women, rob people at night involve themselves in criminal gangs and threaten the public at night. To shed light on the problem of juvenile delinquency in the Sub-Saharan region data was collected through primary and secondary sources. A sample size of 70 juvenile delinquents was selected from among 112 juvenile delinquents in remand at the Asmara Juvenile Rehabilitation Center in the Eritrean capital. The study was carried out through coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 70 juvenile delinquents. The survey evidence indicates that the majority of the juvenile respondents come either from families constructed by unmarried couples or separated or divorced parents where largely the father is missing in the home or dead. The findings also indicate that children born out of wedlock, families led by single mothers, lack of fatherly role models, poor parental-child relationships and negative peer group influence as dominant causes of juvenile infractions. The implication is that broken and stressed families are highly likely to be the breeding grounds for juvenile delinquency. The survey evidence indicates that stealing, truancy or absenteeism from school, rowdy or unruly behavior at school, free-riding in public transportation, damaging the book of fellow students and beating other young persons are the most common forms of juvenile offenses. It is therefore, recommended that parents and guardians should exercise proper parental supervision and give adequate care to transmit positive societal values to children. In addition, the government, the police, prosecution and courts, non-government organizations, parents, teachers, religious leaders, education administrators and other stakeholders should develop a child justice system that strives to prevent children from entering deeper into the criminal justice process.
The Knowledge of and Attitude to and Beliefs about Causes and Treatments of M...Premier Publishers
Stigma and discrimination associated with mental illness are a common occurrence in the Sub-Saharan region including Eritrea. Numerous studies from Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that stigma and discrimination are major problems in the community, with negative attitudes and behavior towards people with mental illness being widespread. In order to assess the whether such negative attitudes persist in the context of Eritrea this study explored the knowledge and perceptions of 90 Eritrean university students at the College of Business and Economics, the University of Asmara regarding the causes and remedies of mental illness A qualitative method involving coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 90 university students to collecting data at the end of 2019. The survey evidence points that almost 50% of the respondents had contact with a mentally ill person suggesting that the significant number of the respondents experienced a first-hand encounter and knowledge of mental illness in their family and community. The findings show an overall greater science-based understanding of the causes of mental illness to be followed by recommended psychiatric treatments. The survey evidence indicates that the top three leading causes of mental illness in the context of Eritrea according to the respondents are brain disease (76%), bad events in the life of the mentally ill person (66%) and substance abuse or alcohol taking, smoking, taking drugs like hashish. (54%). The majority of the respondents have a very sympathetic and positive outlook towards mentally ill persons suggesting that mentally illness does not simply affect a chosen individual rather it can happen to anybody regardless of economic class, social status, ethnicity race and religion. Medical interventions cited by the majority of the respondents as being effective treatments for mental illness centered on the idea that hospitals and clinics for treatment and even cures for psychiatric disease. Changing perceptions of mental illnesses in Eritrea that paralleled the very caring and sympathetic attitudes of the sample university students would require raising public awareness regarding mental illness through education, using the mass media to raise public awareness, integrating mental health into the primary health care system, decentralizing mental health care services to increase access to treatment and providing affordable service to maintain positive treatment outcomes.
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This study investigated the effects of phosphorus and zinc on the growth, nodulation, and yield of two soybean varieties in Nigeria. Phosphorus application significantly affected growth, nodulation, yield, and some yield components, with 60 kg P2O5/ha giving the highest growth and yield. Phosphorus also increased nodulation, with 30 kg P2O5/ha providing the highest nodulation. Zinc application did not significantly affect most growth characters or nodulation, except for reducing plant height. Phosphorus increased soybean yield significantly to 1.9 t/ha compared to the control of 1.7 t/ha. Protein and oil contents were not significantly affected by phosphorus but were by zinc
Influence of Harvest Stage on Yield and Yield Components of Orange Fleshed Sw...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Adami Tullu Agricultural Research Center in 2018 under rainfed condition with supplementary irrigation to determine the influence of harvest stage on vine yield and tuberous root yield of orange fleshed sweet potato varieties. The experiment consisted of four harvest stages (105, 120, 135 and 150 days after planting) and Kulfo, Tulla and Guntute varieties. A 4 X 3 factorial experiment arranged in randomized complete block design with three replications was used. Interaction of harvest stage and variety significantly influenced above ground fresh biomass, vine length, marketable tuberous root weight per hectare, commercial harvest index and harvest index. The highest mean values of above ground fresh biomass (66.12 t/ha) and marketable tuberous root weight (56.39 t/ha) were produced by Guntute variety harvested at 135 days after planting. Based on the results, it can be recommended that, farmers of the study area can grow Guntute variety by harvesting at 135 days after planting to obtain optimum vine and tuberous root yields.
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This study evaluated 13 upland rice varieties over two locations in Ethiopia for yield and other traits. Significant differences were found among varieties for several traits. The highest yielding varieties were Chewaka, Hiddassie, and Fogera 1. Chewaka yielded 5395.8 kg/ha on average, 25.8-35% more than the check. Most varieties matured within 120-130 days. High heritability was found for days to heading, panicle length, and grain yield, indicating these traits can be easily improved through selection. Grain yield also had high genetic variation and heritability with genetic advance, suggesting yield can be improved through selection. This study identified variability that can be used
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This study was conducted at Enchete kebele in Benna-Tsemay Woreda, South Omo Zone to evaluate the response of hot pepper to deficit irrigation on yield and water productivity under furrow irrigation system. The experiment comprised four treatments (100 % of ETc, 85% of ETc, 70 % of ETc and 50% of ETc), respectively. The experiment was laid out in RCBD and replicated four times. The two years combined yield results indicated that, the maximum total yield (20.38 t/ha) was obtained from 100% ETc while minimum yield (12.92 t/ha) was obtained from 50% of ETc deficit irrigation level. The highest WUE 5.22 kg/ha mm-1 was obtained from 50% of ETc. Treatment of 100% ETc irrigation application had highest benefit cost ratio (4.5) than all others treatments. Applying 50% of ETc reduce the yield by 37% when compared to 100 % ETc. Accordingly, to achieve maximum hot pepper yield in areas where water is not scarce, applying 100% ETc irrigation water application level throughout whole growing season under furrow irrigation system is recommended. But, in the study area water scarcity is the major limiting factor for crop production. So, it is possible to get better yield and water productivity of hot pepper when we apply 85% ETc irrigation water throughout growing season under furrow irrigation system.
Harnessing the Power of Agricultural Waste: A Study of Sabo Market, Ikorodu, ...Premier Publishers
Nigeria is still burdened with huge responsibilities of waste disposal because the potential for benefits of proper waste management is yet to be harnessed. The paper evaluates the capacity of the Sabo Cattle market in producing the required quantities of waste from animal dung alongside decomposed fruits with a view to generating renewable energy possibilities for lighting, security and other business activities of the market. It is estimated that about 998 million tons of agricultural waste is produced yearly in the country with organic wastes amounting to 80 percent of the total solid wastes. This can be categorized into biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes. The paper evaluates the capacity of the Sabo Cattle market in producing the required quantities of waste from animal dung alongside decomposed fruits with a view to generating renewable energy possibilities for lighting, security and other business activities of the market. The Sabo market was treated as a study case with the adoption of in-depth examinations of the facility, animals and products for sale and waste generated. A combination of experimental, interviews (qualitative) and design simulation (for final phase) was adopted to extract, verify and analyse the data generated from the study. Animal waste samples were subjected to compositional and fibre analysis with results showing that the sample has high potency for biogas production. Biodegradable Wastes are human and animal excreta, agricultural and all degradable wastes. Availability of high quantity of waste generated being organic in Sabo market allows the use of anaerobic digestion to be proposed as a waste to energy technology due to its feasibility for conversion of moist biodegradable wastes into biogas. The study found that at peak supply period during the Islamic festivities, a conservative 300tonnes of animal waste is generated during the week which translates to over 800kilowatts of electricity.
Influence of Conferences and Job Rotation on Job Productivity of Library Staf...Premier Publishers
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Scanning Electron Microscopic Structure and Composition of Urinary Calculi of...Premier Publishers
This document summarizes a study on the scanning electron microscopic structure and chemical composition of urinary calculi (stones) found in geriatric dogs. Microscopic examination of urine samples revealed increased numbers of blood cells, epithelial cells, pus cells, casts, bacteria and crystals of various shapes, predominantly struvite, calcium oxalate dihydrate and monohydrate, and ammonium urate. Scanning electron microscopy showed perpendicular columnar strata of struvite crystals and wavy phases of uric acid. Chemical analysis identified calcium phosphate, calcium oxalate and urea stones. The study characterized the microscopic and electron microscopic appearance of crystals and chemical composition of urinary calculi in geriatric dogs.
Gentrification and its Effects on Minority Communities – A Comparative Case S...Premier Publishers
This paper does a comparative analysis of four global cities and their minority districts which have been experiencing the same structural pressure of gentrification. The main contribution of this paper is providing a detailed comparison of four micro geographies worldwide and the impacts of gentrification on them: Barrio Logan in San Diego, Bo-Kaap in Cape Town, the Mission District in San Francisco, and the Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus District in Vienna. All four cities have been experiencing the displacement of minority communities due to increases in property values. These cities were chosen because their governments enacted different policies to temper the gentrification process. It was found that cities which implemented social housing and cultural inclusionary policies were more successful in maintaining the cultural and demographic make-up of the districts.
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This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
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2. Review on Postharvest Handling Practices of Root and Tuber Crops
Damtew A. 993
The perishability and postharvest losses of root and tuber
crops are the major constraints in the utilization of these
crops. Root and tuber crops are still living organisms after
they have been harvested and losses that occur during
storage arise mainly from their physical and physiological
condition. Several simple, low‐cost traditional methods are
being followed by fanners in different parts of the world to
store different root and tuber crops in the fresh state. To
ensure effective storage of root and tuber crops, these
major causative factors need to be properly understood
and, where appropriate, be properly controlled, taking into
account the socio-economic factors which prevail in the
areas of production and marketing. For most root and tuber
crops a significant proportion of the crop is processed.
Transformation of the crop into a more storable form
reduces physical losses as well as providing income and
employment. Where processing leads to increased value
of the product it can effectively change a situation of
postharvest loss to one of net economic gain (Kiaya,
2014). Therefore the objective of this paper is to review
some of the factors which cause losses of root and tuber
crop produces after harvesting and their control measures
so that the losses of those crops will be minimized.
Factors Affecting Storability of Roots and Tubers
Once harvested, roots and tubers are more perishable
than grains. This is related to their higher moisture content,
greater susceptibility to physical damage and higher
metabolic activity. While losses of grains are due primarily
to external factors such as insects, rodents and mould
damage, roots and tubers are primarily affected by two
types of postharvest deterioration: primary physiological
deterioration that is the initial cause of loss of market
acceptability and secondary deterioration due to microbial
spoilage (Booth and Coursey, 1974). Even among roots
and tubers there is a wide range in perishability: while
some varieties of yam and sweetpotato can be stored for
several months, cassava has a particularly short shelf-life
(1-3 days). Where cassava is harvested and processed or
consumed locally this is not a great problem, but it is a
serious constraint for the development of marketing, where
the distance between production and
consumption/process increases (Westby et al., 2004). As
well as direct physical loss of the crop, postharvest
deterioration causes a reduction in quality that results in
price discounts and so contributes to economic losses
(Naziri et al., 2014; Wenham, 1995; Westby et al., 2004).
Furthermore, there can be additional losses due to change
in use. For example, if harvested cassava roots cannot be
marketed within two or three days of harvest then they may
be processed into dried products of low quality, which
have lower value (Westby et al., 2004).
There are few reliable estimates of the extent of losses. A
systematic assessment of physical losses worldwide by
FAO suggests that losses of root and tuber crops are in
the range of 30% to 60%. In the case of cassava in Africa
losses in 2002 were estimated as 19 million tonnes from a
total continent wide production of 101 million tonnes
(FAOSTAT, 2004). Yet, the magnitude of losses
significantly differs across countries and different value
chains within a single country as they depend largely on
how cassava is produced, processed and consumed and
on the level of coordination among value chain actors
(Naziri et al., 2014). It has been argued that in the case of
subsistence farmers, PHLs are negligible since, when
cassava is for household consumption, the farmers
harvest just the quantity necessary for the preparation of
individual dishes or immediate processing. Moreover, as
the product deteriorates it is used for other purposes such
as animal feed (Hall et al., 1998). Naziri et al. (2014) have
estimated physical losses of cassava to be 12% in Ghana,
7% in South-West Nigeria, 3% in Vietnam and 2% in
Thailand. These losses occur at different stages of the
value chain. In Ghana the combined impact of cassava's
physical and economic losses in monetary terms has been
estimated at about half a US$500 million/annum.
With increasing urbanization of the African population,
transport of fresh products into urban centers has become
more significant. Poor marketing systems and poor roads
lead to significant losses (Thomson et al., 1997). In the
case of sweet potato in Tanzania, a loss in value of 13%
due to handling and transport alone has been recorded
(Tomlins et al., 2000).
Mechanical damage
The skin of a mature root or tuber is normally an effective
barrier against most potentially invading bacteria and fungi
causing rotting of the tissues. Any rupture of this barrier
caused by damage or injury to the skin will provide an entry
point for infection and will also stimulate physiological
deterioration and dehydration. There are different degrees
of mechanical damage, from small bruises to deep cuts
and they may be sustained at any stage, from pre-harvest
operations, through harvesting and subsequent handling
operations when the product is graded, packed and
transported for market or, simply, even carried to the
farmer's house. Serious mechanical injury, which may
result in the product being rejected during grading, is a
direct loss. Damage to the tuber skin that is not
immediately obvious can lead to physiological
deterioration and allow the entry of pathogens (Sudheer
and Indira, 2007).
Physiological factors
Respiration
Roots and tubers are living organisms and as such, they
respire. The respiration process results in the oxidation of
the starch (a polymer of glucose) contained in the cells of
the tuber, which converts it into water, carbon dioxide and
heat energy. During this transformation of the starch the
dry matter of the tuber is reduced (Mishra and Gamage,
2007). For respiration to occur freely a supply of oxygen is
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Int. J. Plant Breed. Crop Sci. 994
needed and the resulting carbon dioxide and heat have to
be removed from the products' environment. A limited
supply of oxygen and inadequate removal of carbon
dioxide may lead to effective asphyxiation and the death
of product tissue. The rate of respiration is assessed either
by measuring the uptake of oxygen or the quantity of
carbon dioxide released and is expressed in milligrams of
CO2 per kilogram of tuber per hour (Bergman, 1959).
Generally, the rate of respiration is relatively high at
harvest, followed shortly by a decrease, especially during
storage, then followed by an increase once sprouting
begins. For example, the dry matter losses for potatoes
stored at 10°C are approximately 1% to 2% during the first
month after harvest, 0.8% per month during storage but
rising to 1% to 5% per month when sprouting is well
advanced (Burton, 1966; Rastovski et al., 1981).
Respiration rate of tubers is at its minimum and the dry
matter losses are correspondingly reduced. For example,
it has been shown that immediately after harvest yam
tubers (D. rotundata) respire at a rate of 15mL CO2/kg
fresh weight/hour at 25°C. The respiration rate will later
drop as low as 3 ml CO2/kg/hr and remain at that level until
sprouting starts. During sprouting the respiration rate
increases dramatically to over 30mL CO2/kg/hr (Cooke et
al., 1988).
Damage and wound healing greatly influence respiration.
It has been found that simply cutting through a potato will
double its respiration rate and dropping the potato from a
height of about 1 meter will so damage a potato skin as to
increase respiration by 30% to 50%. For sweet potatoes
the rate of respiration of a damaged tuber doubles in
response to a wound after a delay of about 20 hours. This
effect is known as wound respiration response (Pringle et
al., 2009).
Temperature is the single most important factor affecting
the rate of respiration. For biological material this can be
expressed as; Q10 = 2, i.e. the rate of respiration is doubled
for every 10°C increase in temperature over the range 5°C
to 25°C. Significant variations to this general rule will occur
through interactions with other factors affecting the rate of
respiration, as discussed in the previous paragraphs.For
potatoes, the rate of respiration is at a minimum around
5°C. Below this temperature the respiration rate tends to
increase. For yams, it is known that low temperatures
reduce the rate of metabolic activity of the tubers, but
temperatures in the range 10° to 12°C cause damage
through chilling which, because of a breakdown of internal
tissues, increases water loss and increases susceptibility
to decay. Very low temperatures, below 5°C, similarly
affect sweet potato and cassava. The symptoms of chilling
injury are not always obvious when the tubers are still in
cold storage; they become noticeable as soon as the
tubers are restored to ambient temperatures (Wills and
Golding, 2016).
Transpiration or evaporation of water from tubers
Transpiration is water loss through the skin pores of the
tuber and is, effectively, evaporation. Because roots and
tubers are characterized by having high moisture content,
even in the ambient conditions prevailing in the humid
tropics, they will continually lose water to the surrounding
air. This loss of water can be significant in several ways.
While the original food value may not be affected a large
water loss will adversely affect the quality of the produce,
for example a loss greater than 10% will result in a bigger
peeling loss because of the shriveled texture of the skin
and the culinary quality may also be affected. A weight loss
becomes an economic loss when the produce is marketed
on a weight basis as well as being less attractive to
potential customers. It is very difficult to give precise data
on transpiration weight loss, even under precisely defined
conditions because of the wide range of factors by which
it is influenced. These include: temperature, relative
humidity, the rate of air movement surrounding the tuber,
most significantly, the permeability of the skin and how this
may have been affected (Gupta, 2014).
There are interstitial spaces within all plant tissues that
allow water vapour and air to move throughout the plant.
The water vapour within these spaces exerts a water
vapour pressure, which pressure is a function of the
amount of free water contained within the tissues and its
temperature. The rate at which water is lost from fresh
tubers depends on the difference between the water
vapour pressure within the tubers and the water vapour
pressure of the surrounding air, with moisture passing from
the higher pressure to the lower. (For simplicity, although
it is not really accurate, the phenomenon can be
considered as a movement of moisture caused by the
difference in relative humidity of the air within the plant
tissues and the air surrounding the plant.) If there is a
considerable difference between the temperature of the
produce and the surrounding air, temperature becomes
the dominating influence on water vapor pressures,
whereas when both are at similar temperatures it is the
amount of water vapor that has the most significant effect.
It therefore follows that to minimize water loss from high
moisture content produce, the produce should be kept in
atmospheres that have a comparable water vapor
pressures. The skin of tuber crops will allow water vapour
to diffuse through it during respiration and transpiration.
The factors which affect the rate of respiration also affect
the rate of transpiration through the skin (Magistad and
Breazeale, 1929).
Dormancy and sprouting
Yam, cocoyam, potato and sweet potato tubers propagate
vegetatively. To counter what is often an unfavorable
climate at the end of their growth period, they go into a
dormant phase. The beginning of this period is considered
to be the point of the physiological maturity of the tubers,
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Damtew A. 995
also called "wilting point". The dormancy period can be
defined as the period of reduced endogenous metabolic
activity during which the tuber shows no intrinsic or bud
growth, although it retains the potential for future growth.
Dormancy is both a species and a varietal characteristic. It
is also affected by other factors, temperature is the most
important but others, including moisture, oxygen and
CO2 content of the storage atmosphere, the extent of
wounding and any disease of the tuber, real or putative,
although normally of lesser importance may, occasionally,
have an over-riding effect. The cassava root, as opposed
to other roots and tubers, is a plant of presentation and not
propagation. It has no dormancy and it senesces soon
after harvesting (Wills and Golding, 2016).
Passam (1982) suggested that differences in the
dormancy of yam species are the result of the ecological
environments in which the different species have evolved.
For example, varieties of yam native to regions with
marked arid seasons have a longer period of dormancy
than those that are native to regions with shorter dry
seasons. D. cayenensis, which originates from the West
African forest zone where the dry season is very short,
shows almost continuous vegetative growth. In
contrast, D. alata and D. rotundata, originating
respectively in Asia and Africa, appear to be adapted to
climates where there is a longer dry season during which
the plant survives as a resting tuber. These inherent
differences in dormancy are responsible to a large extent
for variations in the ability of different species to store well.
Lower storage temperatures are widely practiced as a
technique for reducing the metabolic activity of roots and
tubers and prolonging their dormancy. Temperatures of
16° to 17°C have been used to prolong the storage period
for D. alata tubers for up to four months, provided the
tubers were properly cured prior to storage in order to
control infection by wound pathogens. For potatoes, sprout
growth is practically negligible at 4°C and below and
increases with increasing temperature. However,
avoidance of sprouting by low temperatures leads to
sweetening of the tuber, which is considered to lower the
value of the stored crop (Rav et al., 1996).
While roots and tubers remain dormant they can be stored
satisfactorily, (provided they are undamaged and free from
disease). As soon as dormancy is broken and sprouting
begins, the rate of dry matter loss increases dramatically
since the formation of sprouts requires energy, which is
drawn from the tubers' carbohydrate reserves. The rate of
water loss also increases and if this becomes excessive
the tubers dry out allowing pathogens to penetrate the
tuber, potentially causing severe damage if not total loss,
making continued storage quite impracticable (Ravi et al.,
1996).
Pathological factors
All living organisms are subject to invasion by
microorganisms, fungi, bacteria and viruses, which
constitute the most serious cause of direct post-harvest
loss in tropical root crops. These disease organisms are
widely distributed in the air and soil and on dead and
decaying plant material. The extent of the occurrence and
the magnitude of losses due to pathogenic
microorganisms are very variable. The time of infection
varies with the crop and with different diseases, it can
occur in the field before harvest or at any time afterwards.
Since many post-harvest pathogens are introduced
through wounds, one of the major factors governing the
incidence and magnitude of such losses is the physical
condition of the produce. The cork layer surrounding the
roots and tubers is intended to serve as a barrier against
bacterial and fungal attack. When this protective barrier is
damaged the plant is predisposed to pathogenic infection
(Brackett, 1994).
Losses reducing the quantity of sound produce are,
generally, the more serious losses but are often
underestimated because they are not easily recognized or
evaluated. They are often caused by infection of the
produce in the field before harvest either by a primary
infection or a secondary infection following an initial
infection by one of a few specific pathogens, normally
through a wound. The initial infections cause a breakdown
of the host tissues and once these primary pathogens are
established, they are followed by an invasion by a broad
spectrum of secondary pathogens.
Losses affecting the quality of the produce and which
occur when the disease affects only the surface of the
produce do not necessarily affect the intrinsic quality or
quantity of the commodity but makes the crop less
attractive to the consumer or buyer in the market. In crops
grown for domestic consumption, the result is not
necessarily serious since the affected skin can often be
removed and the undamaged interior can be used. For
crops intended for a commercial market, qualitative losses
usually result in financial loss. In yams, sweet potatoes and
potatoes, diseases causing internal blemishes also reduce
the final quality of the crop (Antunes and Cavaco, 2010).
Damage by extremes of temperatures
Roots and tubers are susceptible to extremely low or high
storage temperatures. Yams, cassava and sweet potatoes
are known to suffer from chilling damage at 12°C or below,
while for potatoes, cocoyams and sweet potatoes this type
of damage occurs at 2°C or below. The extent of chilling
damage usually depends on a time/temperature
interaction. The most common symptoms are internal
tissue breakdown, increased water loss, susceptibility to
decay, failure to sprout and changes in culinary qualities,
cooking and taste. Potatoes respire strongly at
temperatures of 30°C and above. At these high
temperature levels the tubers require a great deal of
oxygen and respire a considerable volume of carbon
dioxide. At a certain point, the rate of respiration is so great
5. Review on Postharvest Handling Practices of Root and Tuber Crops
Int. J. Plant Breed. Crop Sci. 996
that the cells can no longer obtain sufficient oxygen to
sustain the rate induced by the temperature and the
carbon dioxide formed cannot be disseminated. This
ultimately leads to the death of the cells, giving rise to what
is commonly known as "black heart" (Rastovski et al,
1981).
Principles of Storage for Roots and Tubers
Root and tuber crops are still living organisms after they
have been harvested and losses that occur during storage
arise mainly from their physical and physiological
condition. To ensure effective storage of root and tuber
crops, these major causative factors need to be properly
understood and, where appropriate, be properly
controlled, taking into account the socio-economic factors
which prevail in the areas of production and marketing
(Kiaya, 2014).
It has been stated that the key to reducing losses is in 'soft'
infrastructure investments, improved market integration,
and in value addition through processing. This is
particularly pertinent to cassava where although in the
export markets refrigeration or coating the root with
paraffin wax are used to extend shelf-life to over a month,
such procedures are too expensive to be adopted by local
markets in developing countries. Sweet potato and yam
are different as they have relatively long shelf-lives under
ambient conditions. But there is scope for improving shelf-
life by a process of curing. If immediately after harvest the
product is stored for a few days in a warm, high humidity
environment then the healing of harvest damage is
promoted which reduces water loss so that quality is
retained. Sweet potato is particularly prone to preharvest
infestation of the sweet potato weevil (Cylas spp.), which
leads to postharvest deterioration. Considerable effort is
being expended to overcome this problem both through
production of bt-sweetpotato and natural resistance. In the
case of yams there would be benefits if cultivars could be
developed with tubers that have extended periods of
dormancy (Verma and Joshi, 2000).
For most root and tuber crops a significant proportion of
the crop is processed. Transformation of the crop into a
more storable form reduces physical losses as well as
providing income and employment. Where processing
leads to increased value of the product it can effectively
change a situation of postharvest loss to one of net
economic gain. Both dried and fermented products are
common but here are still subject to physical losses, albeit
at a lower rate than the fresh product. Significant volumes
of by-products, such as peel, siftings and cassava pulp,
are produced during processing (Wenham, 1995).
Control of Mechanical Damage
Root and tuber crops need to be handled gently to
minimize bruising and breaking of the skin because of its
relatively soft texture compared, for example, to cereal
grains. The effect of mechanical injury resulting in external
and/or internal bruising and tissue discoloration is often
underestimated. Severely damaged tubers should not be
stored for three reasons; because of lower quality,
because of the increased risk of subsequent pathogenic
losses and because of the risk of introducing disease
organisms into sound produce. Most mechanical damage
occurs as a result of careless handling at harvest and
during transport to and within a store since, generally in
the tropics, food handling procedures are poorly
developed and fresh produce is all too frequently treated
as an inert object. Careful harvesting and proper handling
of roots and tubers is, therefore, an important step towards
successful storage. Crops are most likely to be injured at
harvest by the digging tools, which may be wooden sticks,
machetes, hoes or forks. Therefore, immediately after
harvest, the crop must undergo the operation of curing.
The need for curing as a method of reducing the onset of
disease is well recognized and the technique is becoming
more widely understood and practiced (Sudheer and
Indira, 2007).
Roots and tubers have the ability to heal their skin wounds
when held at relatively high temperatures and humidities
for few days after harvest while at the same time there is a
general strengthening of the skin. Although wound healing
is important in preventing the invasion by pathogens, it
also important in limiting the rate of respiration and water
loss. Since water loss in badly damaged tubers may be
very high, it is important that the curing operation is carried
out as soon as possible after harvest. This will encourage
as complete healing as possible although the extent of
healing will depend on the on the type of damage; the older
the tuber, the less well a wound will heal. Four factors
affect the healing of wounds; temperature of the
commodity, oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration
within the commodity, humidity within the commodity and
the use of sprout inhibitors (Kihurani and Kaushal, 2016).
It is perhaps unfortunate that the curing operation when
carried out properly involve conditions of high temperature
and high humidity within the commodity, which also favour
the rapid growth of microorganisms and commodity
deterioration. Therefore it needs to be carried out very
carefully and quickly and it follows that after curing further
handling of the produce should be reduced to a minimum
so as to avoid further injury that may result in further
losses. The length of time for proper curing cannot be
precisely defined as it depends on many factors, such as
condition of the crop at harvest, type of wound, season,
storage temperature and relative humidity (Booth, 1974).
Proper packaging and handling
The ideal in packaging is to protect the produce from
damage during handling, transport and storage and to
provide containers of uniform size that are conveniently
stacked and handled, easily accounted for in quantity and,
6. Review on Postharvest Handling Practices of Root and Tuber Crops
Damtew A. 997
where appropriate, in weight. In many developing
countries traditional baskets and various types of trays or
buckets are used for transporting produce to the house or
to village markets. These are usually of low cost, made
from readily available material and serve the purpose for
transport over short distances. But, they have many
disadvantages in large loads carried over long distances:
they are difficult to clean when contaminated with decay
organisms; they often lack rigidity and distort when
stacked thus applying severe local pressure to their
contents they are frequently very variable in shape and
therefore are difficult to load, especially for long
journeys. Being of local manufacture they are often rather
crude and may have sharp edges or splinters causing cuts
and punctures to the commodity (Paine and Paine, 2012).
Many authorities have observed that produce being
transported and marketed in commercial quantities needs
better packaging in appropriately sized units if losses are
to be minimized and to achieve economical use of
transport. The shape of packages is significant because of
need to load for maximum capacity and stability. Round
baskets, whether cylindrical or tapered, hold considerably
less produce than boxes occupying the same cubic space;
a cylindrical basket contains only 78.5% by volume
compared with a rectangular box occupying the same
space on a vehicle (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2015).
However, packaging can be a major item of expense in
produce marketing, especially in developing countries
where packaging industries are not well developed. The
selection of suitable containers for commercial scale
marketing requires very careful consideration. Among the
various types of packaging material that are available,
natural and synthetic fibre sacks and bags as well as
moulded plastic boxes seem to be more suitable and have
greater promise for packaging roots and tubers and for
their transport to distant markets(Paine and Paine, 2012).
Control of Temperature
Temperature has a great influence on many factors that
cause loss during storage. It is the single most important
factor affecting the rate of respiration; it also influences the
rate of sprout growth, the development of rotting micro-
organisms and insect infestation. At 10°C, the rates of
sprout development, rotting and respiration are shown to
be moderate but at 4°C, sprouting is stopped, while rotting
and respiration continue but at very low levels (Ragaert et
al., 2007)
With the exception of highland areas, low temperature
storage in the tropics within the range 10° to 15°C can only
be envisaged by using a refrigeration process of some
kind. At subsistence or small farmer level this is generally
not practical because of cost implications and the technical
support needed to sustain conventional refrigeration
technology. Only in very dry areas is simple evaporative
cooling at all successful but even this simple technology
needs a prime mover to be operating almost continuously.
Therefore, successful storage of roots and tubers in any
sort of structure depends very much on natural ventilation
to remove respiration heat, to remove carbon dioxide,
which in concentration can lead to the breakdown of
dormancy, and to keep the temperature of the crop as low
as possible. Ventilation should be with the coolest possible
air; night time ventilation is not only the coolest but has the
highest relative humidity, so that water loss through
transpiration is also held to a minimum (Onwueme and
Charles, 1994).
Control of Sprouting
How long roots and tubers, with the exception of cassava,
can be made to remain dormant with limited endogenous
metabolic activity is, generally, the determining factor in
how long the commodity can be stored. The end of
dormancy leads to the initiation of sprouting which, in turn,
means increased respiration and dry matter loss.
Therefore, if the duration of storage is to be longer than the
natural dormancy period an alternative method to prevent
or delay sprouting is needed. One or more of three
methods can be used: (Coursey, 1983)
Storage at low temperatures
The effects of temperature on dormancy have been
discussed in section 2.2.3.1. For potatoes stored at 4°C
sprout growth is negligible; for yams storage at 15° to 16°C
prolonged the dormancy period for six months. But, socio-
economic constraints in most developing countries will
limit the use of refrigeration in the storage of roots and
tubers at farmer level.
Chemical sprout inhibitors
In stores using natural air ventilation, with relatively high
ambient temperatures (20°C to 30°C such as are normally
experienced in tropical and subtropical lowlands) and for
any period of storage beyond the normal or natural end of
the dormancy period, the use of sprout inhibiting chemicals
is the only practical means of controlling sprouting. This
treatment has proved effective on potatoes and sweet
potatoes (Onwueme and Charles, 1994).
CIPC (isopropyl-N-chlorophenylcarbamate) is the
chemical most commonly used as a sprout suppressant. It
is mixed with an inert filler to give a concentration of about
2%, and applied as a dust on potatoes at a rate of 1.0-
1.5kg per ton of produce and it has been very effective in
delaying and reducing sprout growth. As sprout
suppressants also inhibit the development of wound cork,
they must be applied only after the curing operation has
been completed or a few weeks after harvest when
wounds have healed and any lesions would have naturally
sealed off.
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Int. J. Plant Breed. Crop Sci. 998
Sprout suppressants have almost all proved to be quite
ineffective on yams. This is probably because yam tubers
are unique amongst plants propagating vegetatively in not
having pre-formed buds. Most sprout suppressants, such
as CIPC affect the meristematic cells of the sprouting loci.
On potato tuber these loci are well formed at the time of
harvest and are located at the tuber surface. In yam sprout
initials are formed only just before the end of dormancy
and then rise from beneath the periderm. When a sprout
inhibitor is applied on the yam tuber just after harvest there
are no sprout loci on which the chemical can act. Once
sprouting has been started, the application of sprout
suppressant may then inhibit further growth of the sprout
initials (Adesuyi, 1982).
Control of the Spread of Diseases
Efforts to control the spread of diseases should aim to be
preventive rather than curative. Simple and low cost
preventive measures which to help control the incidence of
post-harvest diseases includes: gentle handling to
minimize the risk of injury to tubers during harvesting,
transport and storage; Adequate cultural practices and
especially using disease free planting material; good
phytosanitary practices, including regular inspection of
fields and premises, proper disposal of diseased tubers
and plant debris, the cleaning and sterilizing of
implements, boxes, buildings, etc. Some diseases can be
prevented or controlled by the direct application of
chemicals to the produce by dipping the produce, applying
sprays or dusts. To be effective chemical treatment
requires the application of the appropriate compound, at
the recommended dosage, by the most appropriate
method and at the most suitable time. It is important to
have a thorough knowledge of the pathogens being
treated in order that the correct treatment can be selected
and properly applied (Eckert and Sommer, 1967).
Thiabendazole and Benomyl are presently the most
commonly used fungicides for post-harvest treatment of
pathogenic diseases of roots and tubers. The best results
are obtained when the chemicals are applied not later than
three days after harvest and not after the pathogen is well
established. One drawback to these particular chemicals
is that they are not always readily available to farmers or
they are too expensive. There is a very real risk, which is
frequently borne out in practice, that farmers who, for any
reason, cannot obtain these chemicals will use whatever
is at hand without regard to the danger of applying
chemicals which are suitable for growing plants but which
are dangerously toxic when applied directly to stored food
produce, whether or not the produce will be treated, as a
minimum being washed in potable water, before being
consumed (Eckert and Ogawa, 1988).
Control of Damage Caused by Insects
Insect pests can be the cause of serious losses in stored
roots and tubers, yams and sweet potatoes in particular.
Surveys carried out in 1981, 1983 and 1984 in Côte
d'Ivoire showed increasing levels of infestation of stored
yams over a period of four months storage, with 63% of
stored tubers being infested by moths and weight losses
of 25% attributed to insects. (Sauphanor and Ratnadass,
1985).
Good hygiene is of paramount importance in insect control
including, particularly, the destruction by burning of
infested tubers and rubbish that can act as host to a variety
of insect pests and cleaning and disinfection of the store
structure. In many areas it may still be necessary to use
some form of chemical control especially if storage is
extended over several months. Various methods of control
of the potato tuber moth in potato stores have been tested
in many countries. In stores in Bangladesh dried and
crushed Lantana camara, as well as the insecticide
Decamethrin (Decis), has been reported to be effective.
Deltamethrin used as a spray of 2.5g active ingredient per
100 liter of water, has been reported to be effective in
controlling moths (Tineidae sp) on stored yams
(Sauphanor and Ratnadass 1985).
Insecticides may be applied as dusts on the planting
material, on the soil during the tuber-forming period, or as
sprays applied to the growing crop. The same
observations on the misuse and application of unsuitable
chemicals apply equally to use insecticides as to
fungicides. Allegedly safer and more practical alternative
control methods are continually being developed which are
particularly suitable for subsistence agriculture. Some
level of control can be achieved through the use of
established insect repellents, such as "lantana" and
through crop rotation and forms of shifting cultivation which
reduce the likelihood of a serious build-up of soilborne
pests. Another promising control is the use of cultivars that
have a marked genetic resistance to insects and new
cultivars are being bred with resistance characteristics
(Morse et al., 2000).
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The root and tuber crops, including cassava, sweet potato,
yams, and aroids, enjoy considerable importance as a
vegetable, staple food, or raw material for small‐scale
industries at a global level, particularly in the less
developed tropical countries. The perishability and
postharvest losses of root and tuber crops are the major
constraints in the utilization of these crops. Root and tuber
crops are second only in importance to cereals as a global
source of carbohydrates. They also provide some minerals
and essential vitamins, although a proportion of the mine-
8. Review on Postharvest Handling Practices of Root and Tuber Crops
Damtew A. 999
rals and vitamins may be lost during processing as, for
example, in the case of cassava. The quantity and quality
of the protein in starchy staples are variable and relatively
low on a fresh weight basis but compare favorably with
some cereals on a dry weight basis. In most traditional
diets vegetable soups, meat, groundnuts, grain legumes
and fish are good sources of protein and are frequently
used to supplement root crops and compensate for their
protein deficiencies. In some parts of Africa the diet is
supplemented with the tender leaves of sweet potato,
cassava and cocoyam which are rich sources of protein,
minerals and vitamins
The perishability and postharvest losses of root and tuber
crops are the major constraints in the utilization of these
crops. Root and tuber crops are still living organisms after
they have been harvested and losses that occur during
storage arise mainly from their physical and physiological
condition. Several simple, low‐cost traditional methods are
being followed by fanners in different parts of the world to
store different root and tuber crops in the fresh state. To
ensure effective storage of root and tuber crops, these
major causative factors need to be properly understood
and, where appropriate, be properly controlled, taking into
account the socio-economic factors which prevail in the
areas of production and marketing. For most root and tuber
crops a significant proportion of the crop is processed.
Transformation of the crop into a more storable form
reduces physical losses as well as providing income and
employment. Where processing leads to increased value
of the product it can effectively change a situation of
postharvest loss to one of net economic gain.
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