Researchmethodology

Concept of Research
Research:
 Unfolds new dimensions of knowledge
 Is systematic and scientific process
 Based on relevant logic
 Establishes the cause and effect relationship of an incident
depending upon the various discovered true facts

What is Research?
Research is-
 asking questions
 finding out the truth/fact
is a continuous process
can’t stop
is Communication
is investigation
is discovering a fact

We communicate every time we do research
On the other hand when we research, it is not completed
until it is communicated
So we can say—
Communication = Research or vice versa.
As research is something to find out, we cannot find out the
facts without the help of communication. So, whatever the
subject is for doing a research, there is no other option except
communication to accomplish it.

Common sense on Research
 Research is to enlighten a new area or new dimension
 To do a research we need necessary information
 For research a new direction is needed to be shown
 Research is identifying new facts
 Research is to recognize the original facts
 Research should not cross the common understanding level
 Research should be complete in nature
 Research should be explicable for the society for all total
development
 Research is based on relevant and required logic
 Something new should be explored through research

Significance of fact in Research
 Facts should be authentic, correct, precise
 Fact should not be at all misleading, wrong and irrelevant

How message is different from information-
Message is something
to be communicated
within a small audience
e.g.- from friend to
friend
Information is
disseminated in a large
audience
Here various types of
media are used.

Why Research is interesting?
 Knowing the unknown
 Establishing the cause- effect relationship in every incident
 Unearthing the truth behind the truth
 Testing the older doctrine, value and opinion
 Lighting the dark

Research process step by step
The research process should be planned, deliberate and
sustainable effort
1. Choosing the area of interest
2. Selecting the particular topic
3. Selecting the specific title
4. Analyzing the relevance and significance of topic in current
situation.
5. Establishing the purpose of the study
6. Fixing a particular research problem
7. Identifying the objectives of the study

8. Formulation of final hypothesis or research questions
9. Review of existing relevant literature
10. Framing the research design
11. Relevant required data collection
12. Analyzing the gathered data
13. Finding out the result
14. Preparation of required suggestions and recommendation
15. Research report writing

Discussed accordingly………
 Research Title
 Objective
 Hypothesis
 Literature Review
 Research Method

Phases from Research Question to Final
Title

1. Research Question: A question or set of questions carry the
research root to its completion
E.g. Does the youth read newspaper?
2. Research problem:
Many come forward like:
 Newspaper reading habit in rural youth
 Newspaper reading habit in urban youth
But researcher will take the decision which research problem (s)he
will take

3. Selecting Research Problem based on various aspects:
 Usefulness to the society
 Completion within pre fixed time frame
 No over burden on affordable money
 Interesting and explorative in nature
 More scope of further study
4. Defining Research Problem:
One research question may have many research problems.
Selecting one proper research problem out of those is
important task. Proper understanding and planning is necessary
for the same.

5. Deciding Research Topic:
The more focused Research problem out of others is called
Research topic. E.g. Newspaper reading habit.
Then comes the question- which newspaper- Morning, Evening,
Daily, Weekly or Fortnightly.
Proper observation, social relevancy, fulfillment of need,
command over subject, background, own experience, literature
review, understanding need of the hour- can help to decide a
proper topic in a research process.

6. Title should be-
 Interesting
 Explorative
 Simple
 Focused
 To the point
 Crispy
 Concise
 Relevant
 Meaningful

Objective
After finalizing the research title, second phase is framing the
relevant objectives. It means—
 fixing a clear cut direction to study the research
problem
 helping to design the research
 guiding the procedure of analyzing facts
 assisting in report writing
Example of objective
If the research topic is ‘A study on science coverage in
regional media of Assam’, there the objectives may be –
 to analyze the status of science coverage in regional media
 to investigate the various challenges of science coverage in
regional media
Aim may consists of many objectives. Two or three should be

Hypothesis
It is a tentative assumption on approving or disapproving,
agreeing or disagreeing the result based on would be collected
data.
Characteristics of Hypothesis:
 Clear
 Brief
 Limited
 Easy to test
 Power to add on knowledge
 Straight forward
 Goal oriented

Classification of hypothesis:
 General hypothesis
 Specific hypothesis
 Narrative hypothesis
 Cause and effect relationship hypothesis
 Directional hypothesis
 Non-directional hypothesis
 Alternate hypothesis
Hypothesis Testing
 Parametric test: Z, X2, F t test
 Non parametric test

Literature Review
Concept:
A study on the existing literature available and accessible within
the specific time frame and determined affordability level to have a
clear knowledge on the taken research area. The findings from
relevant books , journals, web sites etc should be written according
to APA style aiming to focus pertinent research theme.
Advantages:
 Gives clear focus to the research problem
 Helps to frame research design
 Broadens the knowledge
Disadvantages:
 Time consuming
 Frustrating
 Boring and tedious

Discussion on Research
Methodology

Concept of Variable
Variables means characteristics or various factors in an
incident/event that can be measured and manipulated based
on facts and logic
Example of variable:
More one will earn, s/he will have more wealth. Wealth variable
depends on earning variable.
 Dependent variable: Wealth depends upon earning
 Independent variable: Earning is independent variable
 Wealth is effect and earning is cause
 Earning = Independent variable = cause
 Wealth = dependent variable = effect

Research is a process of systematic enquiry
Method Approach
A way to collect data The outline of research pattern
Survey, case study Historical, anthropological,
experimental sociological
approach
A study on “Women empowerment
in Akbar regime method of case
study
Historical approach
The difference between Method and Approach

Various research methods
 Observation
 Content analysis
 Experiment
 Survey
 Communicating and listening
 Discussion
 Census
 Case study
 Focus group study
 Interview

Research tools
1. Schedule
2. Questionnaire
3. Questions
4. Case study
5. Recall
6. Scales

Brief of research tools
Schedule is a set of questions along with some blank tables
and fill in the blanks, which is used to collect the information
from the respondent through direct interview or direct
observation and is filled up by the investigator himself.
1. Schedule

Types
 Interview schedule: Purpose is to use in interview method.
 Rating schedule: Purpose is to develop scale or rank.
 Document schedule: Purpose is to document autobiography, case
history, dairy or official record
 Observation schedule: Purpose is to observe (what should be
observed, what not to observe), it is basically used in field.

Questionnaire looks like a schedule but it is not filled up by the
investigator, it is handed over or posted, mailed to the
respondents and filled by them only.
2. Questionnaire

Advantage:
 Less expensive
 Large coverage
 Less time consuming
Disadvantage:
 No confirmation of reply back
 100% unbiased, authenticated, non manipulative answers cannot
be expected always.
 Literacy is bar.
Important Note: In everywhere (Questionnaire/Schedule)
The title of study, clear questions, enough space to answer,
proper address of interviewer and date should be mentioned
carefully.

Case Study: The relevant incidents of the chosen research area
help to identify various aspects of research. It is not only a
tool, it is also considered as method in Research world.
Scale: The scale is used to categorized variables as well as to
measure, which helps in data analyzing.
Recall: Many times the respondents give new direction to the
research flow by recalling various past information.

Brief on various research methods-
A. Census: A complete study on entire population aiming to get
demographic, socio-economic-cultural data.
Advantages:
• It is a complete study, not dependent on sample.
• Less scope for unauthenticated information.
Disadvantages:
• Time consuming
• Expensive

B. Case study
It is a study on previous incident (which is relevant as well as
similar but true) in support of present research.
Advantage:
• Opens up the eyes for the scope of future study
• Helps to work in wider range
• Unfolds hidden angel, unexpected factors
Disadvantage:
• Biased to some extent
• Time consuming
• Tough to summarize the conclusion due to over burden of
information

It is a study along with analysis of relevant content on the research
issue.
Advantages
 Frequently used research method.
 Comparatively easy method.
 Analysis of content, verbally communicated material various forms of
symbolic and audio visual communication.
 A study of already existed record.
Disadvantages
 Tedious
 Time consuming
 Sometimes confusing in selecting the content
 Sometimes impossible to include all relevant content
 Sometimes impossible to get all the required content (like all the issues
of newspapers)
 Sometimes becomes biased at the time of choosing the content.
C. Content Analysis

Methods of content analysis
1. Identification of a research question/issue:
E.g. Science coverage in regional and national newspapers in last
six month.
2. Deciding the source of information:
Region – Assam
Regional newspaper: Asomiya Pratidin
National Newspaper – Hindustan Times
(To have comparative study between national and regional
newspapers)
3. Setting objectives
 To analysis the comparison between the significance of science
stories with other types of news especially in presence of political
news hype and existence of advertising in those selected
newspapers.

4. Hypothesis formulation:
Science gets less importance in regional media.
5. Defining population:
All the newspapers published from Assam and the newspapers
circulated in Assam
6. Sampling:
All the issues of two newspapers of one month duration.
7. Formulating category: Category must be comprehensive and
free from malignity.
Categories may be:
 News on environment
 News on health
 News on hygiene
 News on technology
 News on politics
 Information in advertisement

8. Analyzing unit:
For news papers
 Number of word of published news stories
 Area/space by column centimeter/ square cm
 All kinds of news, articles, features, human interested stories,
investigative reporting will be included.
9. Coding:
 It depends upon unit of analysis. It is a quantified data.
 Code through number.

Content analysis of News coverage
(especially science news and political news)

Code through percentage index (just an example)
Category % of Science news
in Hindustan
Times
% of Science
news in Asomiya
Pratidin
Environment 20 30
Health and Hygiene 32 23
Technology 42 8

10. Analysis:
To fulfill the objectives, the data is to be analyzed. For that
various graphical presentation like chart, bar diagram, pie
graph as analysis techniques are used.
11. Interpretation:
Focusing on objectives, data is to be interpreted.
12. Suggestion:
Based on conclusion the researcher will give the
recommendation to improve the situation.

D. Focused Group Study
 Based on a fixed research problem, group discussion and
group interview are done.
 Need question as tool
 Clear concept of a group and the context they have
assembled.

Advantages:
o Time saving
o Lab experience
o Flexible in nature
Disadvantage:
 Domination by extrovert participants
 In appropriate method in quantitative study
 Affecting the data collection process due to lack of good
communication skill and lack of control over the group
 Only true representatives can give actual information

E. Survey:
 Questionnaire and schedule are used as tool in this process.
 Interaction method (through telephone/ face to face) is used.
 Observation helps the process.
Types of Survey
 Census
 Cross –sectional survey
 Longitudinal survey

 Census:
Data is collected from whole population aiming to bring out
information on demographic profile, socio-economic, cultural
strata.
 Cross sectional survey:
Collection of data from a population within a specific time frame.
In past what was their opinion, at present what is their opinion,
Has the opinion changed happened due to the course of time.
 Longitudinal survey:
It includes-
 Vertical surve
 Trend survey
 Cohort study
 Panel study

F. Observation:
 Systematic, scientifically, minutely notice
 Indispensible part of every research method
Advantage:
 Hidden truth can be find out
Disadvantage:
 Expensive
 Time consuming
 Limited scope for data collection
 More scope for prevalence of researcher biasness
 More scope for getting confusion

Types of Observation
 Participatory
 Non participatory
 Controlled observation
 Non controlled observation

 Participatory:
Observation through participation on respondent’s activities.
Advantage:
 Getting the scope to observe the respondent into a neutral and
natural environment
 Being closed with the respondent, the hidden fact can be
identified
 In-depth study is possible

Disadvantage:
 Participation with emotion affects the impartiality and loyalty of
the researcher.
 Personal views may dilute the news
 Every time participation is not at all possible (e.g.- a study on
the life of a prostitute).
 Sometime participants become conscious due to the active
present of researcher and start behaving artificial. The
authenticity of data may be hampered.

 Non participatory observation:
Observation without participation in the respondents’ activity.
Advantage:
 Neutral and objective information is gathered
 Less scope for researcher biasness
 Unknowingly the respondent shows the actual fact, which
helps the researcher

Disadvantage:
 Respondent may feel awkward after knowing that s/ he is
being observed by someone.
 Lack of participation may lead misinterpretation of an issue.
 Without participation the gravity of the event cannot be
understood properly.
 Sometimes proper sample size and frame cannot be decided
effectively.

 Controlled observation:
Observation in a pre planned environment supported by
experimental procedure
It is especially done in laboratory test
Types:
 Control over phenomena
 Control over observation (perceptions)
 Non controlled observation:
 Observation in natural surrounding and environment

G. Interview:
A systematic process of interaction to collect the data taking
particular prefixed aims and objectives. It is an interpersonal
communication to share knowledge and information.
Advantages:
 Enable to know someone in detail which help to get the authenticate
information.
 It helps to study the past event.

Disadvantage:
 Difficult to convince someone to release information
 Interviewing proper person is another challenging task
 More scope for subjectivity where views get more importance
 Scope for biasness from both part (interviewer and
interviewees)

Types of Interview:
1. Structured interview:
This is controlled, guided and directed in nature. It is the
interview with prefixed schedule and complete format with
advance recording. No scope for after modification.
2. Unstructured interview:
This is free relaxed, uncontrolled type of interview. The questions
are not predetermined but must be related to the issue.

3. Focused interview:
Based on particular situation or issue. It is very similar to
structured interview in nature.
4. Repetitive interview:
To know the gradual progress of an incident repetitive
interview method is taken of. The information is collected
through interview again and again.

How to take an Interview--
The interview may be taken in the field or may be taken from a
personality or group of personalities at his or her place.
In the field interview, the interviewer must be prepared about the
background of the field, the incident , the issue along with a set of
questions, which may be changed according to the circumstances.
In case of interview from a personality, the researcher must follow
a few steps, such as-

1. Formulation of a topic
2. In-depth background study of the topic
3. Background study of the personality to be interviewed
4. Preparation of set of questions
5. Taking appointment from the person to be interviewed
6. Time and venue should be fixed under both side mutual
understanding
7. Reaching the place of interview before time
8. Before starting the interaction, interviewee should be briefed
up
9. With due permission of the interviewee, the interview should
be recorded
10. Researcher must carry pen and paper to note down various
information collected by own observation
11. Interviewee should be given more chance to speak

12. The questions can be put in two ways:
 Funnel (short question to broad question-which begins from the
important questions to the less important ones)
 Inverted Funnel (opposite in nature)
During the interview, if some of the questions happen to be
embarrassed to the interviewee, where (s) he is not comfortable to
answer those questions, then interviewer should immediately put
some filler questions to move on. In this way, the interview can be
carried out smoothly.
13. After coming back, the report is written based on interview
14. The report should be sent to the interviewee to recheck and to take the
consent from him/her on all the written information.
15. At last after publishing/broadcasting the report the researcher should

H. Discussion
Interaction within a group (not more than 6-12 members at a time)
Types
 Panel discussion: Discussion and sharing views of four to five
experts in the field.
 Brainstorming session: As the name implies, a discussion
session and sharing views as well as convincing the target
audience based on inspiring ideas and thought.
 Focus group discussion: As name implies, the discussion will be
based on a particular prefixed topic with a specific group.
 Unfocused group discussion: In this case the topic is not given to
a group or fixed but from the on going discussion the investigator
tries to get the relevant required information

Sampling
In research work, the information is collected as a whole via two
processes:-
i) Census
ii) Sampling
i) Census: The interaction with the whole area or population of
respondents (broadly called universe) to collect data.
ii) Sampling: A small representation of whole area or universe
(total population of the respondents of that area) is called
sample.

Examples of Two Processes:-
Doctors use to prescribe blood test to identify the reason of
the sickness. Examination of one drop of blood gives the
clear picture of whole body and its status of disease.
Similarly two three rice particles can give the idea that the
rice in cooker is boiled properly or not.
So the blood of whole body or the rice in a cooker is
considered as Population or Universe, whereas the drop of
blood or two-three rice particles can be considered as
sample.

Advantages of sampling:
 Time saving
 Less expensive
 Easily administrable
 Possible in depth study
Disadvantage:
 Wrong selection wrong representation of the population
 Wrong representation wrong result
 Scope for biasness of researcher at the time of sample selection
 Need required skill for small heterogeneous respondents
 Impossible to get 100% accurate data

Classification of Sampling Method
There are three types of sampling methods-
1. Probabilistic sampling
2. Non probabilistic sampling
3. Mixed sampling
4. Probabilistic sampling : It follows mathematical logic. Broadly
there are three types of probabilistic sampling.
 Simple random sampling
 Stratified random sampling
 Cluster sampling

3.Non probabilistic sampling : It does not follow mathematical
logic. It is a by-chance method. There are six types of non
probabilistic sampling.
 Convenient sampling
 Purposive Sampling
 Handpicked sampling
 Snowball sampling
 Volunteer Sampling
 Quota
4. Mixed sampling
 Systematic sampling

1. Probabilistic Sampling
1. Simple random sampling:
 Lottery method: selection of sample through the selection of chits,
capsule or real from a container as name implies the meaning.
 Tippet's number: A table with random numbers (of one to five
digits each).
 Grid system: A screen with square boxes are placed on the
sample area map. Some square boxes are selected randomly
and the areas under these boxes are selected as sample.
Advantage:
 Free from bias
 Less sampling error
 Simple
 Not affected by the choice of researcher
Disadvantage:
 Impossible for heterogynous universe
 Sometimes difficult to catalogue the universe

2. Stratified sampling:
 Universe is divided into strata
 Each stratum is independently sampled randomly
 Homogeneity in different units of strata is compulsory from a
heterogeneous population.
Advantages
 Representation of various groups.
 Helping comparison among sub categories
Disadvantages
 Require more effort than simple random sampling
 Need large sample size with statistically meaningful
comparison

3. Cluster sampling:
Sample units are selected based on group not on individual
element. Group element depicts the meaning of cluster. A study on
‘Sarva Siksha Abhiyan’. There especially from Guwahati,
Dibrugarh (representing lower Assam and upper Asam), each
primary school children will be interview.
Advantage:
 Practical convenience
 Easy to test a group
Disadvantage:
 More scope for sampling error
.

Non Probabilistic Sampling
1. Convenient sampling:
 Opportunity based
 Accidental in nature
 Not systematically administered
 Sample structure and size depends upon researcher
convenience, availability and accessibility to the source.
2. Purposive Sampling:
 Sample selection based on researcher purpose
 It is deliberate and planned method
 No scope for by chance factor

3. Handpicked sampling:
In a place, the sample is selected instant . Who ever is coming
first, if s/he fulfills the purpose of research will be selected.
Otherwise if that sample does not represent the universe, the
researcher switches to other sample.
4. Snowball sampling:
Where the shape of universe is not confirm, the sample size
cannot be fixed. At that time interaction with one person gives
the clue of other respondent. Gradually the sample size
increases.
Eg.- there is no actual data how many Bangladeshi have been
migrated to India. So in this case, in a particular area, one by
one interactions is possible. No one can fix, that this the sample
of immigrant from Bangladesh.

5. Volunteer Sampling:
E.g. if an advertisement is published in a newspaper that we
need the opinion on ‘so on so topic’ to run the investigation. The
sample will be volunteer in nature. There the size cannot be
fixed at the starting of research.
6. Quota Sampling:
 A special form of stratified sample
 Number of sample is decided from each strata
 According to the convenience of the researcher

Difference between Quota & Stratified method

Universe / Population
Definition: Total informants in a determined area for a
research work.
Classification:
 Definite Universe: Countable number of individual respondent
 Indefinite universe: Uncountable number of respondents. E.g.
TV viewers in Guwahati.
 Hypothetical universe: Say for instance online women readers
of Times of India.

Source of information
 Personal contact
 Periodical, journal
 Bibliographical database
 Research guides like reference book, referred journal, relevant
social sites.
 Dictionaries, encyclopedia, yearbook
 Statistical sources
 Bibliography

Golden Rule
The greater the sample size, the more accurately your findings
will reflect the true picture

Research design
It is sometimes called a blue print, sometimes a format or
framework of data collection method and analyzing the
gathered facts to solve a research problem or to answer a
research question.
Characteristics:
 Outline of research work like dummy newspaper
 Specifying loopholes in would be research work in advance
 Better understanding of relevant data to be collected within
specific time frame
 Enhancement of accuracy
 Time saving

Steps towards Worthy Research Design
Step 1. Finding out the reason to conduct a research work
Step 2. Recognizing the key unknown factors
Step 3. Selecting aim and objectives
Step 4.Deciding hypotheses to be tested.
Step 5. Distinguishing the key variables.
Step 6. Framing out the sources of information
Step 7. Timeframe for research
Step 8. Chalk out the format of research work
Step 9. Aware and required prevention of various risk
factors could be faced during the research period
Step 10. After confirmation of coordination research can be started

Types of research design
1. Experimental
2. Exploratory
3. Descriptive
4. Longitudinal – Historical studies
5. Simulation studies
6. Anthropological studies

1. Experimental Design
Controlled testing to understand the causal procedure.
Establish and correlation between cause and effect, within
variably.
The experimental design can be classified based on two
criteria- Approach and Method
Approach Method
• Agreement method • Ex post facto
• Method of difference • Panel studies
• Residual method • Quasi experimental
• Associated variation method • Before after
• After only

Classification of Experimental
Design
(Based on approach and variable)
 Agreement method
 Mutual agreement of two variables
 One variable manipulates the other variable
 One variable is considered as cause, another variable is
considered as effect
 Method of difference:
If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation
occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, have every
circumstance save one in common, that one occurring only in the
former; the circumstance in which alone the two instances differ,
is the effect, or cause, or a necessary part of the cause, of the
phenomenon.
—John Stuart Mill

 Residual method
Filtration of known variable of the cause and left cause exists
with unknown variable
 Associated variation method
 One variable increase cause, at the sometime due to that the
other variable increases the effect or vice-versa.
 First variable i.e. X is cause and can be considered as
predecessor and second variable i.e. Y is effect and can be
considered as succession.

a. Ex post Facto
 It has very significant existence in research world
 After completion or ending up an event, this type of research
scrutinizes the whole fact. It finds out the reason for which the
event or incident has happened.
 Tools – Survey, Case studies
 Studying past using present situation. (another research future
prediction is being done using present situation)
 Quite comparative in nature
Classification of Experimental Design
(Based on method and style)

b. After only:
When the experiment is over, the study is done.
c. Before -After:
The study is done before starting the experiment and after
completion of the experiment.
d. Panel Study:
A study on a specified issue is done on different time
frame.

e. Quasi Experimental design:
 Quasi means single or almost same
 It is very much similar in before-after research method
 Only single group will be decided to experiment
E.g.: In a class the researcher will interview only Mediocre
students before and after the examination, but did not take any
other student’s opinion.

2. Exploratory Research Design
 It is also called formulative study
 It is to find out scope, concept, to develop idea, to understand
the limitation of a subject
 Aim is to explore something
Method used:
 Literature review
 Survey
 Case study

3. Description Research Design
 Descriptive in nature
 To identify the problem, to understand the specific nature, to find
out the possible variable and factors
Method used:
 Interview, questionnaire, schedule
 Documentation
 Observation

 It is called vertical study
 Relating the facts in either ascending or descending order
 Especially in historical study, it gives date wise logical analysis
 If it is only historical research-
 Understanding socio-cultural-economical change and
transformation
 Source of information: Diaries, autobiography, archive,
agreement, museums, historical document.
4. Longitudinal – Historical Studies

Classification of Longitudinal Design
Longitudinal research design can be classified as below-
a. Trend Study
b. Cohort Study
c. Panel Study

a. Trend Study
 Different time frame
 Different group of people (different population)
 E.g. In election period people voting behavior
Advantage
 Describing long term change
Disadvantage
 Unreliable data may give false trend result

b. Cohort study
A group of people may be from different places have
experienced the same event within a given period. E.g. A
study on the student attitude passed in 1980 matriculation.
Advantage:
 Highly flexible in nature
 Appealing and useful technique
 Provides insight of change of an event
 Comparatively less expensive than experiment and survey
Disadvantage:
 Difficult to unravel the data (on age, cohort, period)
 Sample mortality

Vertical vs Horizontal Study
Vertical Horizontal
E.g. An analysis of Mughol
region from Babar to
Aurangazeb or vice-versa
E.g. An analysis of the life
span of Aurangazeb.
E.g. A study on Freedom
fighting during British period
from 1857 to 1946
E.g. A study on satyagrah

5. Simulation Study
Sometimes the research is not possible in real situation, the
artificial situation is created to conduct research. It is called
simulation study.
E.g. If any one is studying the topic “Media message is affecting
our normal mind set up balance”. The researcher can go to any
meditation camp for one or two months where no media is
allowed to use even mobile phone is strictly restricted. Then the
change in mind set can be studied.

6. Anthropological Study
A study on understanding human evolution, development,
advancement procedure of the society over the time, socio-
cultural variation.
Observation and in depth interview method to be used mostly

7. Phenomenological Research Design
The idea of Phenomenological Research comes from the
study of a phenomenon. Description of several individuals on
a particular incident becomes the key theme of this type of
research design.
The data are collected mainly through personal interview.
Purposive sampling, snowball sampling processes are
usually taken help to conduct the research.
For instance, an incident has happened, the opinion and
experience of the eye witnesses and the connected persons
are taken into consider in the research format. This type of
research is called phenomenological research.

Discussion on other types of Research Methods

Qualitative Research
It is to study of-
 Various perspectives of human life, society
 Individual opinion, feeling, need, attitude, aptitude, practice, behavior,
knowledge.
 Social complexity, interaction, traditional and contemporary belief,
concept, experience and system.
 It is scientific systematic discussion and description of human
existence & culture.
 In this process the researcher becomes a part of respondent life,
observes minutely, experience their culture and becomes intimate with
them.
 The researcher gather experience and can be able to give detail, in-
depth description on the subject.

Research method in Qualitative Research
 Minute observation
 In depth intimate interview
 Detail survey
 Focus group discussion

Limitations:
 More scope for researcher’s biasness
 Researcher needs to know the respondents culture
 More scope for Researcher- respondent cultural conflict
 Large group study is not always possible
 Time consuming
 Without background study of the respondent may be sometime
becomes risk for the researcher
 Fact credibility

Qualitative vs Quantitative
“When, among a set of observations, any single
observation is a number that represents an amount or a
count, then the data are quantitative.“
“When, among a set of observations, any single
observation is a word, or a sentence, or a description, or a
code that represents a category then the data are
qualitative.“
(Source- Usability Test Data by Dr. Philip Hodgson)

Discussion on Communication
Research

Types of communication Research
There are three types of research-
 Process Research
 Effect Research
 Impact Research

Process Research:
A TV advertisement on chocolate is made to attract youth. If the
impressiveness and persuasive nature of that ad compels youth to
buy it and at that time the research is pursued, that type of
research is called processed research.

Effect Research:
If the advertisement of chocolate can create a demand of that
particular product in youth, it means the ad could create an
effect on the audience. The study on the effect of that ad is
called effect research.

Impact Research:
Effect is considered as short term activity. The use of that
particular product may become habit of a group of youth and
can penetrate the product in daily life causing a distinguished
change in life style. The study on the reasons of continuation
of product existence in life is called impact study or impact
research.

Mass Media Research
 Print media research
 Electronic media research
 Advertising & Public Relations Research
 New media research

A. Print media Research
 Circulation research
 Readership Research
 Management Research
 Typography Research
 Readability Research
 Web use Research

Circulation Research
 A study on number of copies distributed on an
average everyday.
 ABC Audit Bureau of circulation is independent body
in this regard
 Two ways of research

 Analysis of a particular group of people or in a particular
area as readers the circulation of a paper and overall
impact.
 Analysis of impact of circulation on individual reader each
through their behavior pattern.
 Individual subscription makes an impact.

Readership Research
A study on readers’ preference regarding the content, context,
presentation style of the newspaper.

A few areas of Readership Research
 Reader and non reader: Behavioral pattern of the readers.
Non readers mean the person not reading the newspaper
or frequently not read.
 Interaction between reporter to reader via editor: A study
on the interaction among three group of people opens
different dimension in the context of news paper
 Choosing the news item: A study on the reader’s
preference of newspaper items like article, feature, page 3
information, breaking news, science and technology
related new and may more. The item selection method is
called aided recall.

 Readers background: The study on readers background helps
to identify target audience and the preference of content to be
designed.
 Use and gratification: The theory of use and gratification
says-what people do with media rather what media does to the
people. In this type of research, the motive and satisfaction of
reader on media is studied.
 Magazine readership Researcher: Either the individual
respondent is asked to rate (in 5 point scale) the content,
presentation style of the magazine or a panel of readers (20 or
more) are asked to do the same.

Management Research
 A study on the effectiveness of the current management
system of media house.
 Research on Media expansion, cut throat market
competition, adoption of new technology, skill
development of employee and status of intra structure as
well as man power.

•It is also known as make up research.
• Study on presentation style of content in newspaper like
layout, font style, size, white space etc.
Typography Research

Readability research
A study on the level of comprehension of the content of the
newspaper. The quality parameter like-Easy or difficult,
attractive or no attractive etc can affect the success of the
paper.

 Research based on use of web
 Research on acceptability of online journalism
 The impact of online news culture on traditional media.
 Study on use of internet to collect information for news
preparation.

B. Electronic media research
There are two approaches-
 Research on electronic media, e.g. impact TV on children
 Research in electronic media, e.g. The popularity of a
particular programme in a particular channel.
The second category uses two research methods
Rating
Non rating

Rating method
 Aim to actual representation of viewer
 Electronic meter are placed on TV set
 Sample may be hundred, may be thousand
 Besides electronic meter, especially at local level diaries are
used for the same purpose.
 Rating = Household/population
 People/population (in case of radio)
 Total number of homes using television (HUT)
 Person using radio (PUR)

 Three aspects are monitored—
 Mode of access like DTH or cable
 Channel and programme
 The viewer

Non rating method
 Aim to focus on audience behavior and aptitude
 Analysis is done on audience programme preference, their
demographic profile, lifestyle, different programme format to
know the actual demand and aspiration of audience.

A few non-rating methods
1. Testing programme:
A research team studies various phases of a programme like
idea, rough cut and post production on behalf of decision
makers. Before broadcasting the original programme, dummy
production is shown to the target audience and their reaction
is analyzed to confirm the success after broadcasting.

2. Listening habit study:
 It is basically done for radio
 In auditorium music testing, 100-200 listeners gather in an
auditorium (25-40 age group)
 Hooks are played and the reaction of listeners are recorded.

3. Callout research:
 The audience are called on either telephone or mobile
 The respondents give rate upon the hooks after listening on
telephone only.
 At a time 15-20 songs are played
 It is comparatively inexpensive in nature

4. Focus group study:
A group discussion on programme format, character, image of
the channel is analyzed.
5. Performer Q test:
 Celebrities are chosen for anchoring a programme
 A sample of audience are asked to rate the celebrities from a
prefixed list and based on that decision is taken.

Important to know…..
Audience Research
 Gathering data on reach-access, environment-exposure and
content-context of media in relation to a particular group of
audience is called audience research. In audience research
various characteristics (based on various criteria) are needed
to be analyzed to get more authenticated relevant data.
 Demographic profile, social background acceptance and
system economical class, educational status, in build faith,
culture, tradition, values, health and hygiene structure,
language, attitude, attitude, need and demand, life style and
settlement, credibility and reliability of source of information 
a few important as well as significant characteristics of
audience.

C. Advertising Research
Broadly there are five forms of Ad research.
 Ad strategy research: A study on product concept, usage,
target audience, use of media, brand positioning in the market,
competitive situation.
 Research on ad creativity: A study on ad concept, appeal,
pricing, brand name, market opportunity.
Survey, interview, focus group discussion, observation are taken
help for research.


 Audience profile research: A study on audience profile their
expectation and need.
 Pre-testing advertisement: A study on the acceptance of ad
message in advance using various techniques.
Like focus group discussion, port folio test, interview, direct
mail test.
 Post testing and evaluation campaign: A study on after
effect of already launched advertisement. Marketing mix(7 Ps)
are used here to analyze.

D. Public Relations Research
 Applied research: Strategy research and evaluation research
 Basic research: A study on PR process and its fundamental.
 Introspective research: A study on scope, possibilities in PR
field.

Process of PR Research
 Selecting a problem
 Plan and execution of the research design
 Implementation
 Evaluation

Ethics in Research
 Avoiding conflict of interest
 Avoiding plagiarism
 Prior permission to take information
 Respect all cast, creed and culture
 Avoiding biasness

 No exaggeration of message with undue color and aim
 Avoiding to mislead the respondents
 No misleading conclusion
 Avoiding to disclose the respondents identity
 No focus on only personal interest fulfillment
 Respect to own along with others profession

Scales: Qualitative Communication Research
 Continuum
Continuum means measurable factors. E.g. popularity of a
channel according to audience perspective. There will be two
factors- likes or dislikes. Those must be expressed through
number say for instance – likes: 1, Dislikes: 2. Then the result
can be analyzed.

 Reliability
A scale expresses the similar measurement in the similar
condition. E.g. two people from two different groups remaining
under same condition may like the same news channel. Under
the reliability scale pretest method is very significant. One
single scale is prepared and is applied twice on the same
population. After that the results are compared.

 Jury opinion:
There is a scale i.e. validity using jury opinion method is
frequently used in research where the judgment of a group of
people on a particular person or issue is considered final
outcome.
 Point Scale: Proved by Gauss’s Theorema Egregium

 Social distance Scale:
In our society everyone is having relations with others but every
where there is a distinguish space. The distance or space
depends upon the gravity of the relationship. Cost, class,
background fix the distance.
There are three major social distance scales.
i. Bogardus social distance scale
ii. The likert social distance scale
iii. Socio metric social distance scale

i. Bogardus Scale:
 Invented by Emony S. Bogardus
 Psychological testing scale
 Measuring person’s willingness of social activities
participation irrespectively diverse group or class.

ii. Likert Social distance scale:
 To measure the people attitude.
The process:
Five categories of opinion and express into point scale
 Definitely agree (1)
 Agree (2)
 Still not decided (3)
 Disagree (4)
 Definitely disagree (5)
The statement will be given to the respondents and asked to mention
the point against each statement. The score will be arranged in
ascending order.

Selected References and further readings

Anders, H. (1998). Mass Communication Research Methods.
Basingstoke: Macmillan Press.
 Buddenbaum, J. M., & Novak, K. B. (2001). Applied Communication
Research. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
 G, K. P. (2008). Electronic Media and Communication Research
Methods. Place of publication not identified: Authors Press.
 Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods &
Techniques. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd.
 Reinard, J. C. (2006). Communication Research Statistics.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
 Treadwell, D. (2011). Introducing communication research: Paths of
Inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
 Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2005). Mass media
research: An introduction, 8th ed. Belmont, CA: Thompson
Wadsworth.

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