The document provides an overview of the concept of research. It discusses that research unfolds new knowledge, is a systematic process based on logic, and establishes cause-and-effect relationships. It also notes that research involves asking questions, investigating to find facts, and is a continuous process that requires communication. Additionally, the document outlines several steps in the typical research process, including choosing an area of interest, selecting a topic, establishing objectives and hypotheses, conducting a literature review, collecting and analyzing data, and writing a report. It also discusses various research methods like surveys, case studies, interviews, and observation.
This purpose of this workshop is to facilitate novice participants through the typical steps recommended for the design of a research survey (or questionnaire). The focus in on the design and development of surveys; it is not about data analysis.
Writing a research proposal is a very important step for research at any level. Good quality research is always based on a perfectly planned outline. The meaning & the procedure of writing a research proposal is described in the given presentation.
This purpose of this workshop is to facilitate novice participants through the typical steps recommended for the design of a research survey (or questionnaire). The focus in on the design and development of surveys; it is not about data analysis.
Writing a research proposal is a very important step for research at any level. Good quality research is always based on a perfectly planned outline. The meaning & the procedure of writing a research proposal is described in the given presentation.
This presentation is related to tools of Educational Research. This presentation slides deals various tools of educational research likes rating scale, opionnaire, checklist, aptitude test, inventory, observation, interview, schedule etc. This presentation slides also describe the item analysis, steps for item analysis and online survey tools.
There are three major methods of research. the method which enquirers regarding past is called as historical method. In this presentation, historical method is described in brief.
Basic concepts in research methodology -part 2.Neha Deo
Before conducting research,in any field, researcher must understand the different basic concepts used in the Research Methodology.In this presentation, Scope, Limitations, delimitation, Operational definitions & Statement of aim, these five concepts are considered.
This deals with the entire concept of research problem from why we need a research problem, sources of the research problem, evaluation of research problem, identification of research problem.
Research questions derive from many sources:
Everyday experiences.
Hunches.
Questions raised after reading a popular or scientific article.
Educational or psychological theory.
Questionnaire as a tool for data collectionNeha Deo
A researcher has to use different tools for data collection. Questionnaire is one of the most widely used tool for surveys The details of a questionnaire is given in this presentation. .
This presentation is related to tools of Educational Research. This presentation slides deals various tools of educational research likes rating scale, opionnaire, checklist, aptitude test, inventory, observation, interview, schedule etc. This presentation slides also describe the item analysis, steps for item analysis and online survey tools.
There are three major methods of research. the method which enquirers regarding past is called as historical method. In this presentation, historical method is described in brief.
Basic concepts in research methodology -part 2.Neha Deo
Before conducting research,in any field, researcher must understand the different basic concepts used in the Research Methodology.In this presentation, Scope, Limitations, delimitation, Operational definitions & Statement of aim, these five concepts are considered.
This deals with the entire concept of research problem from why we need a research problem, sources of the research problem, evaluation of research problem, identification of research problem.
Research questions derive from many sources:
Everyday experiences.
Hunches.
Questions raised after reading a popular or scientific article.
Educational or psychological theory.
Questionnaire as a tool for data collectionNeha Deo
A researcher has to use different tools for data collection. Questionnaire is one of the most widely used tool for surveys The details of a questionnaire is given in this presentation. .
The material can be used without any restriction wha so ever is. It is usefu for teachrers, students and practioners. The contents can be relicated, reprinted but shall not be used for trade.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
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A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
2. Concept of Research
Research:
Unfolds new dimensions of knowledge
Is systematic and scientific process
Based on relevant logic
Establishes the cause and effect relationship of an incident
depending upon the various discovered true facts
3. What is Research?
Research is-
asking questions
finding out the truth/fact
is a continuous process
can’t stop
is Communication
is investigation
is discovering a fact
4. We communicate every time we do research
On the other hand when we research, it is not completed
until it is communicated
So we can say—
Communication = Research or vice versa.
As research is something to find out, we cannot find out the
facts without the help of communication. So, whatever the
subject is for doing a research, there is no other option except
communication to accomplish it.
5. Common sense on Research
Research is to enlighten a new area or new dimension
To do a research we need necessary information
For research a new direction is needed to be shown
Research is identifying new facts
Research is to recognize the original facts
Research should not cross the common understanding level
Research should be complete in nature
Research should be explicable for the society for all total
development
Research is based on relevant and required logic
Something new should be explored through research
6. Significance of fact in Research
Facts should be authentic, correct, precise
Fact should not be at all misleading, wrong and irrelevant
7. How message is different from information-
Message is something
to be communicated
within a small audience
e.g.- from friend to
friend
Information is
disseminated in a large
audience
Here various types of
media are used.
8. Why Research is interesting?
Knowing the unknown
Establishing the cause- effect relationship in every incident
Unearthing the truth behind the truth
Testing the older doctrine, value and opinion
Lighting the dark
9. Research process step by step
The research process should be planned, deliberate and
sustainable effort
1. Choosing the area of interest
2. Selecting the particular topic
3. Selecting the specific title
4. Analyzing the relevance and significance of topic in current
situation.
5. Establishing the purpose of the study
6. Fixing a particular research problem
7. Identifying the objectives of the study
10. 8. Formulation of final hypothesis or research questions
9. Review of existing relevant literature
10. Framing the research design
11. Relevant required data collection
12. Analyzing the gathered data
13. Finding out the result
14. Preparation of required suggestions and recommendation
15. Research report writing
14. 1. Research Question: A question or set of questions carry the
research root to its completion
E.g. Does the youth read newspaper?
2. Research problem:
Many come forward like:
Newspaper reading habit in rural youth
Newspaper reading habit in urban youth
But researcher will take the decision which research problem (s)he
will take
15. 3. Selecting Research Problem based on various aspects:
Usefulness to the society
Completion within pre fixed time frame
No over burden on affordable money
Interesting and explorative in nature
More scope of further study
4. Defining Research Problem:
One research question may have many research problems.
Selecting one proper research problem out of those is
important task. Proper understanding and planning is necessary
for the same.
16. 5. Deciding Research Topic:
The more focused Research problem out of others is called
Research topic. E.g. Newspaper reading habit.
Then comes the question- which newspaper- Morning, Evening,
Daily, Weekly or Fortnightly.
Proper observation, social relevancy, fulfillment of need,
command over subject, background, own experience, literature
review, understanding need of the hour- can help to decide a
proper topic in a research process.
17. 6. Title should be-
Interesting
Explorative
Simple
Focused
To the point
Crispy
Concise
Relevant
Meaningful
19. Objective
After finalizing the research title, second phase is framing the
relevant objectives. It means—
fixing a clear cut direction to study the research
problem
helping to design the research
guiding the procedure of analyzing facts
assisting in report writing
Example of objective
If the research topic is ‘A study on science coverage in
regional media of Assam’, there the objectives may be –
to analyze the status of science coverage in regional media
to investigate the various challenges of science coverage in
regional media
Aim may consists of many objectives. Two or three should be
21. Hypothesis
It is a tentative assumption on approving or disapproving,
agreeing or disagreeing the result based on would be collected
data.
Characteristics of Hypothesis:
Clear
Brief
Limited
Easy to test
Power to add on knowledge
Straight forward
Goal oriented
22. Classification of hypothesis:
General hypothesis
Specific hypothesis
Narrative hypothesis
Cause and effect relationship hypothesis
Directional hypothesis
Non-directional hypothesis
Alternate hypothesis
Hypothesis Testing
Parametric test: Z, X2, F t test
Non parametric test
23. Literature Review
Concept:
A study on the existing literature available and accessible within
the specific time frame and determined affordability level to have a
clear knowledge on the taken research area. The findings from
relevant books , journals, web sites etc should be written according
to APA style aiming to focus pertinent research theme.
Advantages:
Gives clear focus to the research problem
Helps to frame research design
Broadens the knowledge
Disadvantages:
Time consuming
Frustrating
Boring and tedious
25. Concept of Variable
Variables means characteristics or various factors in an
incident/event that can be measured and manipulated based
on facts and logic
Example of variable:
More one will earn, s/he will have more wealth. Wealth variable
depends on earning variable.
Dependent variable: Wealth depends upon earning
Independent variable: Earning is independent variable
Wealth is effect and earning is cause
Earning = Independent variable = cause
Wealth = dependent variable = effect
26. Research is a process of systematic enquiry
Method Approach
A way to collect data The outline of research pattern
Survey, case study Historical, anthropological,
experimental sociological
approach
A study on “Women empowerment
in Akbar regime method of case
study
Historical approach
The difference between Method and Approach
27. Various research methods
Observation
Content analysis
Experiment
Survey
Communicating and listening
Discussion
Census
Case study
Focus group study
Interview
29. Brief of research tools
Schedule is a set of questions along with some blank tables
and fill in the blanks, which is used to collect the information
from the respondent through direct interview or direct
observation and is filled up by the investigator himself.
1. Schedule
30. Types
Interview schedule: Purpose is to use in interview method.
Rating schedule: Purpose is to develop scale or rank.
Document schedule: Purpose is to document autobiography, case
history, dairy or official record
Observation schedule: Purpose is to observe (what should be
observed, what not to observe), it is basically used in field.
31. Questionnaire looks like a schedule but it is not filled up by the
investigator, it is handed over or posted, mailed to the
respondents and filled by them only.
2. Questionnaire
32. Advantage:
Less expensive
Large coverage
Less time consuming
Disadvantage:
No confirmation of reply back
100% unbiased, authenticated, non manipulative answers cannot
be expected always.
Literacy is bar.
Important Note: In everywhere (Questionnaire/Schedule)
The title of study, clear questions, enough space to answer,
proper address of interviewer and date should be mentioned
carefully.
33. Case Study: The relevant incidents of the chosen research area
help to identify various aspects of research. It is not only a
tool, it is also considered as method in Research world.
Scale: The scale is used to categorized variables as well as to
measure, which helps in data analyzing.
Recall: Many times the respondents give new direction to the
research flow by recalling various past information.
34. Brief on various research methods-
A. Census: A complete study on entire population aiming to get
demographic, socio-economic-cultural data.
Advantages:
• It is a complete study, not dependent on sample.
• Less scope for unauthenticated information.
Disadvantages:
• Time consuming
• Expensive
35. B. Case study
It is a study on previous incident (which is relevant as well as
similar but true) in support of present research.
Advantage:
• Opens up the eyes for the scope of future study
• Helps to work in wider range
• Unfolds hidden angel, unexpected factors
Disadvantage:
• Biased to some extent
• Time consuming
• Tough to summarize the conclusion due to over burden of
information
36. It is a study along with analysis of relevant content on the research
issue.
Advantages
Frequently used research method.
Comparatively easy method.
Analysis of content, verbally communicated material various forms of
symbolic and audio visual communication.
A study of already existed record.
Disadvantages
Tedious
Time consuming
Sometimes confusing in selecting the content
Sometimes impossible to include all relevant content
Sometimes impossible to get all the required content (like all the issues
of newspapers)
Sometimes becomes biased at the time of choosing the content.
C. Content Analysis
37. Methods of content analysis
1. Identification of a research question/issue:
E.g. Science coverage in regional and national newspapers in last
six month.
2. Deciding the source of information:
Region – Assam
Regional newspaper: Asomiya Pratidin
National Newspaper – Hindustan Times
(To have comparative study between national and regional
newspapers)
3. Setting objectives
To analysis the comparison between the significance of science
stories with other types of news especially in presence of political
news hype and existence of advertising in those selected
newspapers.
38. 4. Hypothesis formulation:
Science gets less importance in regional media.
5. Defining population:
All the newspapers published from Assam and the newspapers
circulated in Assam
6. Sampling:
All the issues of two newspapers of one month duration.
7. Formulating category: Category must be comprehensive and
free from malignity.
Categories may be:
News on environment
News on health
News on hygiene
News on technology
News on politics
Information in advertisement
39. 8. Analyzing unit:
For news papers
Number of word of published news stories
Area/space by column centimeter/ square cm
All kinds of news, articles, features, human interested stories,
investigative reporting will be included.
9. Coding:
It depends upon unit of analysis. It is a quantified data.
Code through number.
40. Content analysis of News coverage
(especially science news and political news)
41. Code through percentage index (just an example)
Category % of Science news
in Hindustan
Times
% of Science
news in Asomiya
Pratidin
Environment 20 30
Health and Hygiene 32 23
Technology 42 8
42. 10. Analysis:
To fulfill the objectives, the data is to be analyzed. For that
various graphical presentation like chart, bar diagram, pie
graph as analysis techniques are used.
11. Interpretation:
Focusing on objectives, data is to be interpreted.
12. Suggestion:
Based on conclusion the researcher will give the
recommendation to improve the situation.
43. D. Focused Group Study
Based on a fixed research problem, group discussion and
group interview are done.
Need question as tool
Clear concept of a group and the context they have
assembled.
44. Advantages:
o Time saving
o Lab experience
o Flexible in nature
Disadvantage:
Domination by extrovert participants
In appropriate method in quantitative study
Affecting the data collection process due to lack of good
communication skill and lack of control over the group
Only true representatives can give actual information
45. E. Survey:
Questionnaire and schedule are used as tool in this process.
Interaction method (through telephone/ face to face) is used.
Observation helps the process.
Types of Survey
Census
Cross –sectional survey
Longitudinal survey
46. Census:
Data is collected from whole population aiming to bring out
information on demographic profile, socio-economic, cultural
strata.
Cross sectional survey:
Collection of data from a population within a specific time frame.
In past what was their opinion, at present what is their opinion,
Has the opinion changed happened due to the course of time.
Longitudinal survey:
It includes-
Vertical surve
Trend survey
Cohort study
Panel study
47. F. Observation:
Systematic, scientifically, minutely notice
Indispensible part of every research method
Advantage:
Hidden truth can be find out
Disadvantage:
Expensive
Time consuming
Limited scope for data collection
More scope for prevalence of researcher biasness
More scope for getting confusion
48. Types of Observation
Participatory
Non participatory
Controlled observation
Non controlled observation
49. Participatory:
Observation through participation on respondent’s activities.
Advantage:
Getting the scope to observe the respondent into a neutral and
natural environment
Being closed with the respondent, the hidden fact can be
identified
In-depth study is possible
50. Disadvantage:
Participation with emotion affects the impartiality and loyalty of
the researcher.
Personal views may dilute the news
Every time participation is not at all possible (e.g.- a study on
the life of a prostitute).
Sometime participants become conscious due to the active
present of researcher and start behaving artificial. The
authenticity of data may be hampered.
51. Non participatory observation:
Observation without participation in the respondents’ activity.
Advantage:
Neutral and objective information is gathered
Less scope for researcher biasness
Unknowingly the respondent shows the actual fact, which
helps the researcher
52. Disadvantage:
Respondent may feel awkward after knowing that s/ he is
being observed by someone.
Lack of participation may lead misinterpretation of an issue.
Without participation the gravity of the event cannot be
understood properly.
Sometimes proper sample size and frame cannot be decided
effectively.
53. Controlled observation:
Observation in a pre planned environment supported by
experimental procedure
It is especially done in laboratory test
Types:
Control over phenomena
Control over observation (perceptions)
Non controlled observation:
Observation in natural surrounding and environment
54. G. Interview:
A systematic process of interaction to collect the data taking
particular prefixed aims and objectives. It is an interpersonal
communication to share knowledge and information.
Advantages:
Enable to know someone in detail which help to get the authenticate
information.
It helps to study the past event.
55. Disadvantage:
Difficult to convince someone to release information
Interviewing proper person is another challenging task
More scope for subjectivity where views get more importance
Scope for biasness from both part (interviewer and
interviewees)
56. Types of Interview:
1. Structured interview:
This is controlled, guided and directed in nature. It is the
interview with prefixed schedule and complete format with
advance recording. No scope for after modification.
2. Unstructured interview:
This is free relaxed, uncontrolled type of interview. The questions
are not predetermined but must be related to the issue.
57. 3. Focused interview:
Based on particular situation or issue. It is very similar to
structured interview in nature.
4. Repetitive interview:
To know the gradual progress of an incident repetitive
interview method is taken of. The information is collected
through interview again and again.
58. How to take an Interview--
The interview may be taken in the field or may be taken from a
personality or group of personalities at his or her place.
In the field interview, the interviewer must be prepared about the
background of the field, the incident , the issue along with a set of
questions, which may be changed according to the circumstances.
In case of interview from a personality, the researcher must follow
a few steps, such as-
59. 1. Formulation of a topic
2. In-depth background study of the topic
3. Background study of the personality to be interviewed
4. Preparation of set of questions
5. Taking appointment from the person to be interviewed
6. Time and venue should be fixed under both side mutual
understanding
7. Reaching the place of interview before time
8. Before starting the interaction, interviewee should be briefed
up
9. With due permission of the interviewee, the interview should
be recorded
10. Researcher must carry pen and paper to note down various
information collected by own observation
11. Interviewee should be given more chance to speak
60. 12. The questions can be put in two ways:
Funnel (short question to broad question-which begins from the
important questions to the less important ones)
Inverted Funnel (opposite in nature)
During the interview, if some of the questions happen to be
embarrassed to the interviewee, where (s) he is not comfortable to
answer those questions, then interviewer should immediately put
some filler questions to move on. In this way, the interview can be
carried out smoothly.
13. After coming back, the report is written based on interview
14. The report should be sent to the interviewee to recheck and to take the
consent from him/her on all the written information.
15. At last after publishing/broadcasting the report the researcher should
61. H. Discussion
Interaction within a group (not more than 6-12 members at a time)
Types
Panel discussion: Discussion and sharing views of four to five
experts in the field.
Brainstorming session: As the name implies, a discussion
session and sharing views as well as convincing the target
audience based on inspiring ideas and thought.
Focus group discussion: As name implies, the discussion will be
based on a particular prefixed topic with a specific group.
Unfocused group discussion: In this case the topic is not given to
a group or fixed but from the on going discussion the investigator
tries to get the relevant required information
62. Sampling
In research work, the information is collected as a whole via two
processes:-
i) Census
ii) Sampling
i) Census: The interaction with the whole area or population of
respondents (broadly called universe) to collect data.
ii) Sampling: A small representation of whole area or universe
(total population of the respondents of that area) is called
sample.
63. Examples of Two Processes:-
Doctors use to prescribe blood test to identify the reason of
the sickness. Examination of one drop of blood gives the
clear picture of whole body and its status of disease.
Similarly two three rice particles can give the idea that the
rice in cooker is boiled properly or not.
So the blood of whole body or the rice in a cooker is
considered as Population or Universe, whereas the drop of
blood or two-three rice particles can be considered as
sample.
64. Advantages of sampling:
Time saving
Less expensive
Easily administrable
Possible in depth study
Disadvantage:
Wrong selection wrong representation of the population
Wrong representation wrong result
Scope for biasness of researcher at the time of sample selection
Need required skill for small heterogeneous respondents
Impossible to get 100% accurate data
65. Classification of Sampling Method
There are three types of sampling methods-
1. Probabilistic sampling
2. Non probabilistic sampling
3. Mixed sampling
4. Probabilistic sampling : It follows mathematical logic. Broadly
there are three types of probabilistic sampling.
Simple random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Cluster sampling
66. 3.Non probabilistic sampling : It does not follow mathematical
logic. It is a by-chance method. There are six types of non
probabilistic sampling.
Convenient sampling
Purposive Sampling
Handpicked sampling
Snowball sampling
Volunteer Sampling
Quota
4. Mixed sampling
Systematic sampling
67. 1. Probabilistic Sampling
1. Simple random sampling:
Lottery method: selection of sample through the selection of chits,
capsule or real from a container as name implies the meaning.
Tippet's number: A table with random numbers (of one to five
digits each).
Grid system: A screen with square boxes are placed on the
sample area map. Some square boxes are selected randomly
and the areas under these boxes are selected as sample.
Advantage:
Free from bias
Less sampling error
Simple
Not affected by the choice of researcher
Disadvantage:
Impossible for heterogynous universe
Sometimes difficult to catalogue the universe
68. 2. Stratified sampling:
Universe is divided into strata
Each stratum is independently sampled randomly
Homogeneity in different units of strata is compulsory from a
heterogeneous population.
Advantages
Representation of various groups.
Helping comparison among sub categories
Disadvantages
Require more effort than simple random sampling
Need large sample size with statistically meaningful
comparison
69. 3. Cluster sampling:
Sample units are selected based on group not on individual
element. Group element depicts the meaning of cluster. A study on
‘Sarva Siksha Abhiyan’. There especially from Guwahati,
Dibrugarh (representing lower Assam and upper Asam), each
primary school children will be interview.
Advantage:
Practical convenience
Easy to test a group
Disadvantage:
More scope for sampling error
.
70. Non Probabilistic Sampling
1. Convenient sampling:
Opportunity based
Accidental in nature
Not systematically administered
Sample structure and size depends upon researcher
convenience, availability and accessibility to the source.
2. Purposive Sampling:
Sample selection based on researcher purpose
It is deliberate and planned method
No scope for by chance factor
71. 3. Handpicked sampling:
In a place, the sample is selected instant . Who ever is coming
first, if s/he fulfills the purpose of research will be selected.
Otherwise if that sample does not represent the universe, the
researcher switches to other sample.
4. Snowball sampling:
Where the shape of universe is not confirm, the sample size
cannot be fixed. At that time interaction with one person gives
the clue of other respondent. Gradually the sample size
increases.
Eg.- there is no actual data how many Bangladeshi have been
migrated to India. So in this case, in a particular area, one by
one interactions is possible. No one can fix, that this the sample
of immigrant from Bangladesh.
72. 5. Volunteer Sampling:
E.g. if an advertisement is published in a newspaper that we
need the opinion on ‘so on so topic’ to run the investigation. The
sample will be volunteer in nature. There the size cannot be
fixed at the starting of research.
6. Quota Sampling:
A special form of stratified sample
Number of sample is decided from each strata
According to the convenience of the researcher
74. Universe / Population
Definition: Total informants in a determined area for a
research work.
Classification:
Definite Universe: Countable number of individual respondent
Indefinite universe: Uncountable number of respondents. E.g.
TV viewers in Guwahati.
Hypothetical universe: Say for instance online women readers
of Times of India.
75. Source of information
Personal contact
Periodical, journal
Bibliographical database
Research guides like reference book, referred journal, relevant
social sites.
Dictionaries, encyclopedia, yearbook
Statistical sources
Bibliography
76. Golden Rule
The greater the sample size, the more accurately your findings
will reflect the true picture
77. Research design
It is sometimes called a blue print, sometimes a format or
framework of data collection method and analyzing the
gathered facts to solve a research problem or to answer a
research question.
Characteristics:
Outline of research work like dummy newspaper
Specifying loopholes in would be research work in advance
Better understanding of relevant data to be collected within
specific time frame
Enhancement of accuracy
Time saving
78. Steps towards Worthy Research Design
Step 1. Finding out the reason to conduct a research work
Step 2. Recognizing the key unknown factors
Step 3. Selecting aim and objectives
Step 4.Deciding hypotheses to be tested.
Step 5. Distinguishing the key variables.
Step 6. Framing out the sources of information
Step 7. Timeframe for research
Step 8. Chalk out the format of research work
Step 9. Aware and required prevention of various risk
factors could be faced during the research period
Step 10. After confirmation of coordination research can be started
80. 1. Experimental Design
Controlled testing to understand the causal procedure.
Establish and correlation between cause and effect, within
variably.
The experimental design can be classified based on two
criteria- Approach and Method
Approach Method
• Agreement method • Ex post facto
• Method of difference • Panel studies
• Residual method • Quasi experimental
• Associated variation method • Before after
• After only
81. Classification of Experimental
Design
(Based on approach and variable)
Agreement method
Mutual agreement of two variables
One variable manipulates the other variable
One variable is considered as cause, another variable is
considered as effect
Method of difference:
If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation
occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, have every
circumstance save one in common, that one occurring only in the
former; the circumstance in which alone the two instances differ,
is the effect, or cause, or a necessary part of the cause, of the
phenomenon.
—John Stuart Mill
82. Residual method
Filtration of known variable of the cause and left cause exists
with unknown variable
Associated variation method
One variable increase cause, at the sometime due to that the
other variable increases the effect or vice-versa.
First variable i.e. X is cause and can be considered as
predecessor and second variable i.e. Y is effect and can be
considered as succession.
83. a. Ex post Facto
It has very significant existence in research world
After completion or ending up an event, this type of research
scrutinizes the whole fact. It finds out the reason for which the
event or incident has happened.
Tools – Survey, Case studies
Studying past using present situation. (another research future
prediction is being done using present situation)
Quite comparative in nature
Classification of Experimental Design
(Based on method and style)
84. b. After only:
When the experiment is over, the study is done.
c. Before -After:
The study is done before starting the experiment and after
completion of the experiment.
d. Panel Study:
A study on a specified issue is done on different time
frame.
85. e. Quasi Experimental design:
Quasi means single or almost same
It is very much similar in before-after research method
Only single group will be decided to experiment
E.g.: In a class the researcher will interview only Mediocre
students before and after the examination, but did not take any
other student’s opinion.
86. 2. Exploratory Research Design
It is also called formulative study
It is to find out scope, concept, to develop idea, to understand
the limitation of a subject
Aim is to explore something
Method used:
Literature review
Survey
Case study
87. 3. Description Research Design
Descriptive in nature
To identify the problem, to understand the specific nature, to find
out the possible variable and factors
Method used:
Interview, questionnaire, schedule
Documentation
Observation
88. It is called vertical study
Relating the facts in either ascending or descending order
Especially in historical study, it gives date wise logical analysis
If it is only historical research-
Understanding socio-cultural-economical change and
transformation
Source of information: Diaries, autobiography, archive,
agreement, museums, historical document.
4. Longitudinal – Historical Studies
89. Classification of Longitudinal Design
Longitudinal research design can be classified as below-
a. Trend Study
b. Cohort Study
c. Panel Study
90. a. Trend Study
Different time frame
Different group of people (different population)
E.g. In election period people voting behavior
Advantage
Describing long term change
Disadvantage
Unreliable data may give false trend result
91. b. Cohort study
A group of people may be from different places have
experienced the same event within a given period. E.g. A
study on the student attitude passed in 1980 matriculation.
Advantage:
Highly flexible in nature
Appealing and useful technique
Provides insight of change of an event
Comparatively less expensive than experiment and survey
Disadvantage:
Difficult to unravel the data (on age, cohort, period)
Sample mortality
92. Vertical vs Horizontal Study
Vertical Horizontal
E.g. An analysis of Mughol
region from Babar to
Aurangazeb or vice-versa
E.g. An analysis of the life
span of Aurangazeb.
E.g. A study on Freedom
fighting during British period
from 1857 to 1946
E.g. A study on satyagrah
93. 5. Simulation Study
Sometimes the research is not possible in real situation, the
artificial situation is created to conduct research. It is called
simulation study.
E.g. If any one is studying the topic “Media message is affecting
our normal mind set up balance”. The researcher can go to any
meditation camp for one or two months where no media is
allowed to use even mobile phone is strictly restricted. Then the
change in mind set can be studied.
94. 6. Anthropological Study
A study on understanding human evolution, development,
advancement procedure of the society over the time, socio-
cultural variation.
Observation and in depth interview method to be used mostly
95. 7. Phenomenological Research Design
The idea of Phenomenological Research comes from the
study of a phenomenon. Description of several individuals on
a particular incident becomes the key theme of this type of
research design.
The data are collected mainly through personal interview.
Purposive sampling, snowball sampling processes are
usually taken help to conduct the research.
For instance, an incident has happened, the opinion and
experience of the eye witnesses and the connected persons
are taken into consider in the research format. This type of
research is called phenomenological research.
97. Qualitative Research
It is to study of-
Various perspectives of human life, society
Individual opinion, feeling, need, attitude, aptitude, practice, behavior,
knowledge.
Social complexity, interaction, traditional and contemporary belief,
concept, experience and system.
It is scientific systematic discussion and description of human
existence & culture.
In this process the researcher becomes a part of respondent life,
observes minutely, experience their culture and becomes intimate with
them.
The researcher gather experience and can be able to give detail, in-
depth description on the subject.
98. Research method in Qualitative Research
Minute observation
In depth intimate interview
Detail survey
Focus group discussion
99. Limitations:
More scope for researcher’s biasness
Researcher needs to know the respondents culture
More scope for Researcher- respondent cultural conflict
Large group study is not always possible
Time consuming
Without background study of the respondent may be sometime
becomes risk for the researcher
Fact credibility
100. Qualitative vs Quantitative
“When, among a set of observations, any single
observation is a number that represents an amount or a
count, then the data are quantitative.“
“When, among a set of observations, any single
observation is a word, or a sentence, or a description, or a
code that represents a category then the data are
qualitative.“
(Source- Usability Test Data by Dr. Philip Hodgson)
102. Types of communication Research
There are three types of research-
Process Research
Effect Research
Impact Research
103. Process Research:
A TV advertisement on chocolate is made to attract youth. If the
impressiveness and persuasive nature of that ad compels youth to
buy it and at that time the research is pursued, that type of
research is called processed research.
104. Effect Research:
If the advertisement of chocolate can create a demand of that
particular product in youth, it means the ad could create an
effect on the audience. The study on the effect of that ad is
called effect research.
105. Impact Research:
Effect is considered as short term activity. The use of that
particular product may become habit of a group of youth and
can penetrate the product in daily life causing a distinguished
change in life style. The study on the reasons of continuation
of product existence in life is called impact study or impact
research.
106. Mass Media Research
Print media research
Electronic media research
Advertising & Public Relations Research
New media research
107. A. Print media Research
Circulation research
Readership Research
Management Research
Typography Research
Readability Research
Web use Research
108. Circulation Research
A study on number of copies distributed on an
average everyday.
ABC Audit Bureau of circulation is independent body
in this regard
Two ways of research
109. Analysis of a particular group of people or in a particular
area as readers the circulation of a paper and overall
impact.
Analysis of impact of circulation on individual reader each
through their behavior pattern.
Individual subscription makes an impact.
110. Readership Research
A study on readers’ preference regarding the content, context,
presentation style of the newspaper.
111. A few areas of Readership Research
Reader and non reader: Behavioral pattern of the readers.
Non readers mean the person not reading the newspaper
or frequently not read.
Interaction between reporter to reader via editor: A study
on the interaction among three group of people opens
different dimension in the context of news paper
Choosing the news item: A study on the reader’s
preference of newspaper items like article, feature, page 3
information, breaking news, science and technology
related new and may more. The item selection method is
called aided recall.
112. Readers background: The study on readers background helps
to identify target audience and the preference of content to be
designed.
Use and gratification: The theory of use and gratification
says-what people do with media rather what media does to the
people. In this type of research, the motive and satisfaction of
reader on media is studied.
Magazine readership Researcher: Either the individual
respondent is asked to rate (in 5 point scale) the content,
presentation style of the magazine or a panel of readers (20 or
more) are asked to do the same.
113. Management Research
A study on the effectiveness of the current management
system of media house.
Research on Media expansion, cut throat market
competition, adoption of new technology, skill
development of employee and status of intra structure as
well as man power.
114. •It is also known as make up research.
• Study on presentation style of content in newspaper like
layout, font style, size, white space etc.
Typography Research
115. Readability research
A study on the level of comprehension of the content of the
newspaper. The quality parameter like-Easy or difficult,
attractive or no attractive etc can affect the success of the
paper.
116. Research based on use of web
Research on acceptability of online journalism
The impact of online news culture on traditional media.
Study on use of internet to collect information for news
preparation.
117. B. Electronic media research
There are two approaches-
Research on electronic media, e.g. impact TV on children
Research in electronic media, e.g. The popularity of a
particular programme in a particular channel.
The second category uses two research methods
Rating
Non rating
118. Rating method
Aim to actual representation of viewer
Electronic meter are placed on TV set
Sample may be hundred, may be thousand
Besides electronic meter, especially at local level diaries are
used for the same purpose.
Rating = Household/population
People/population (in case of radio)
Total number of homes using television (HUT)
Person using radio (PUR)
119. Three aspects are monitored—
Mode of access like DTH or cable
Channel and programme
The viewer
120. Non rating method
Aim to focus on audience behavior and aptitude
Analysis is done on audience programme preference, their
demographic profile, lifestyle, different programme format to
know the actual demand and aspiration of audience.
121. A few non-rating methods
1. Testing programme:
A research team studies various phases of a programme like
idea, rough cut and post production on behalf of decision
makers. Before broadcasting the original programme, dummy
production is shown to the target audience and their reaction
is analyzed to confirm the success after broadcasting.
122. 2. Listening habit study:
It is basically done for radio
In auditorium music testing, 100-200 listeners gather in an
auditorium (25-40 age group)
Hooks are played and the reaction of listeners are recorded.
123. 3. Callout research:
The audience are called on either telephone or mobile
The respondents give rate upon the hooks after listening on
telephone only.
At a time 15-20 songs are played
It is comparatively inexpensive in nature
124. 4. Focus group study:
A group discussion on programme format, character, image of
the channel is analyzed.
5. Performer Q test:
Celebrities are chosen for anchoring a programme
A sample of audience are asked to rate the celebrities from a
prefixed list and based on that decision is taken.
125. Important to know…..
Audience Research
Gathering data on reach-access, environment-exposure and
content-context of media in relation to a particular group of
audience is called audience research. In audience research
various characteristics (based on various criteria) are needed
to be analyzed to get more authenticated relevant data.
Demographic profile, social background acceptance and
system economical class, educational status, in build faith,
culture, tradition, values, health and hygiene structure,
language, attitude, attitude, need and demand, life style and
settlement, credibility and reliability of source of information
a few important as well as significant characteristics of
audience.
126. C. Advertising Research
Broadly there are five forms of Ad research.
Ad strategy research: A study on product concept, usage,
target audience, use of media, brand positioning in the market,
competitive situation.
Research on ad creativity: A study on ad concept, appeal,
pricing, brand name, market opportunity.
Survey, interview, focus group discussion, observation are taken
help for research.
127. Audience profile research: A study on audience profile their
expectation and need.
Pre-testing advertisement: A study on the acceptance of ad
message in advance using various techniques.
Like focus group discussion, port folio test, interview, direct
mail test.
Post testing and evaluation campaign: A study on after
effect of already launched advertisement. Marketing mix(7 Ps)
are used here to analyze.
128. D. Public Relations Research
Applied research: Strategy research and evaluation research
Basic research: A study on PR process and its fundamental.
Introspective research: A study on scope, possibilities in PR
field.
129. Process of PR Research
Selecting a problem
Plan and execution of the research design
Implementation
Evaluation
130. Ethics in Research
Avoiding conflict of interest
Avoiding plagiarism
Prior permission to take information
Respect all cast, creed and culture
Avoiding biasness
131. No exaggeration of message with undue color and aim
Avoiding to mislead the respondents
No misleading conclusion
Avoiding to disclose the respondents identity
No focus on only personal interest fulfillment
Respect to own along with others profession
132. Scales: Qualitative Communication Research
Continuum
Continuum means measurable factors. E.g. popularity of a
channel according to audience perspective. There will be two
factors- likes or dislikes. Those must be expressed through
number say for instance – likes: 1, Dislikes: 2. Then the result
can be analyzed.
133. Reliability
A scale expresses the similar measurement in the similar
condition. E.g. two people from two different groups remaining
under same condition may like the same news channel. Under
the reliability scale pretest method is very significant. One
single scale is prepared and is applied twice on the same
population. After that the results are compared.
134. Jury opinion:
There is a scale i.e. validity using jury opinion method is
frequently used in research where the judgment of a group of
people on a particular person or issue is considered final
outcome.
Point Scale: Proved by Gauss’s Theorema Egregium
135. Social distance Scale:
In our society everyone is having relations with others but every
where there is a distinguish space. The distance or space
depends upon the gravity of the relationship. Cost, class,
background fix the distance.
There are three major social distance scales.
i. Bogardus social distance scale
ii. The likert social distance scale
iii. Socio metric social distance scale
136. i. Bogardus Scale:
Invented by Emony S. Bogardus
Psychological testing scale
Measuring person’s willingness of social activities
participation irrespectively diverse group or class.
137. ii. Likert Social distance scale:
To measure the people attitude.
The process:
Five categories of opinion and express into point scale
Definitely agree (1)
Agree (2)
Still not decided (3)
Disagree (4)
Definitely disagree (5)
The statement will be given to the respondents and asked to mention
the point against each statement. The score will be arranged in
ascending order.
138. Selected References and further readings
Anders, H. (1998). Mass Communication Research Methods.
Basingstoke: Macmillan Press.
Buddenbaum, J. M., & Novak, K. B. (2001). Applied Communication
Research. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
G, K. P. (2008). Electronic Media and Communication Research
Methods. Place of publication not identified: Authors Press.
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods &
Techniques. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd.
Reinard, J. C. (2006). Communication Research Statistics.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Treadwell, D. (2011). Introducing communication research: Paths of
Inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2005). Mass media
research: An introduction, 8th ed. Belmont, CA: Thompson
Wadsworth.