This document defines key concepts in research methods including variables, dependent and independent variables, assumptions, hypotheses, and guidelines for formulating hypotheses. It explains that a variable can take on different values, and an attribute is a specific value of a variable. A dependent variable is affected by manipulating independent variables, which the researcher controls. Assumptions are self-evident truths based on facts, while hypotheses are tentative answers to research questions. Hypotheses should be testable, relate variables, and be limited in scope. The document provides examples and guidelines for formulating explicit and null hypotheses to structure an investigation.

1. VARIABLES

2. A VARIABLE IS ANY ENTITY THAT CAN
TAKE ON DIFFERENT VALUES.
VARIABLES AREN'T ALWAYS
'QUANTITATIVE' OR NUMERICAL

3. AN ATTRIBUTE IS A SPECIFIC VALUE ON A VARIABLE.

4. DEPENDENT VARIABLES
SHOW THE EFFECT OF
MANIPULATING OR INTRODUCING
THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES.

5. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
ARE THOSE THAT THE
RESEARCHER HAS CONTROL
OVER.

6. ASSUMPTIONS

7. AN ASSUMPTION IS A SELFEVIDENT TRUTH WHICH IS
BASED UPON A KNOWN FACT OR
PHENOMENON

8. EXAMPLES:
1. SPECIFIC QUESTION: HOW QUALIFIED ARE THE
TEACHERS HANDLING SCIENCE?
UNWRITTEN QUESTION: THERE ARE CERTAIN
QUALIFICATIONS THAT ONE SHOULD POSSESS BEFORE HE
CAN TEACH SCIENCE.

9. 2. SPECIFIC QUESTION: HOW ADEQUATE ARE THE
FACILITIES THAT A SCHOOL SHOULD ACQUIRE BEFORE IT
CAN OFFER SCIENCE.
IMPLICIT ASSUMPTION: THERE ARE CERTAIN
REQUIRED FACILITIES THAT A SCHOOL SHOULD ACQUIRE
BEFORE IT CAN OFFER SCIENCE AS A SUBJECT.

10. 3. SPECIFIC QUESTION: HOW EFFECTIVE ARE
THE METHODS USED IN THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE?
IMPLICIT ASSUMPTION: THERE ARE
CERTAIN METHODS THAT ARE EFFECTIVE IN THE
TEACHING OF SCIENCE.

11. HYPOTHESES

12. A HYPOTHESIS IS A TENTATIVE
CONCLUSION OR ANSWER TO A
SPECIFIC QUESTION RAISED AT THE
BEGINNING OF THE INVESTIGATION.

13. A HYPOTHESIS SHOULD BE:
* STATED CLEARLY USING APPROPRIATE
TERMINOLOGY;
*TESTABLE;
*A STATEMENT OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
VARIABLES;
*LIMITED IN SCOPE (FOCUSED).

14. PURPOSES, FUNCTIONS,
AND IMPORTANCE OF
HYPOTHESES OR SPECIFIC
QUESTIONS.

15. 1. They help the researcher in designing his study.
2. They serve as bases for determining assumptions.
3. They serve as bases for determining the relevance of data.
4. They serve as bases for the explanation or discussion about
the data gathered.
5. They help or guide the researcher in consolidating his
findings and in formulating his conclusions.

16. TWO FORMS OF HYPOTHESES
1.Operational form
states that there is a difference between two
phenomena.
2. Null form
states that there is no difference between the two
phenomena.

17. EXAMPLE:
QUESTION:
IS THERE ANY SIGNIFICANT
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PERCEPTIONS OF THE
TEACHERS AND THOSE OF THE STUDENTS
CONCERNING THE DIFFERENT ASPECTS IN THE
TEACHING OF SCIENCE?

18. OPERATIONAL HYPOTHESIS: THERE IS A
SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE
PERCEPTIONS OF THE TEACHERS AND THOSE OF
THE STUDENTS CONCERNING THE DIFFERENT
ASPECTS IN THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE.
NULL HYPOTHESIS: THERE IS NO SIGNIFICANT
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PERCEPTIONS OF THE
TEACHERS AND THOSE OF THE STUDENTS
CONCERNING THE DIFFERENT ASPECTS IN THE
TEACHING OF SCIENCE

19. ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
ALSO KNOWN AS RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS OR
EXPERIMENTAL HYPOTHESIS IS A STATEMENT OF
INEQUALITY BETWEEN VARIABLES PREDICTING THAT
THERE IS A DIFFERENCE IN CONDITIONS OR THAT
THERE IS AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN VARIABLES
(BRACE, KEMP & SNELGAR, 2006).

20. INSTRUCTIONS
1
KNOW WHAT YOUR NULL HYPOTHESIS IS BEFOREHAND.
FOR EXAMPLE, IN AN EXPERIMENT TESTING THE WHITENING
EFFECTS OF A NEW KIND OF TOOTHPASTE, THE NULL
HYPOTHESIS WOULD BE "ON AVERAGE, THERE IS NO
DIFFERENCE IN WHITENING EFFECT BETWEEN THE NEW
TOOTHPASTE AND THE CONTROL WHITENING TOOTHPASTE."

21. 2
Gather the facts you already have about the new
toothpaste. For example, you may know that the
toothpaste contains higher levels of a whitening agent
than the control toothpaste, that the control toothpaste
does not perform as well as hoped and that the new
toothpaste has seemed to be effective in informal
testing.

22. 3
Compose your alternative hypothesis, using the
facts you have gathered to make an informed guess.
In this case, it may be, "The new toothpaste is more
effective than the control toothpaste for whitening
teeth, on average."

23. 4
Check your alternative hypothesis to make certain it
fulfills the requirements of an experimental hypothesis:
Is it a prediction? Is it testable? If not, rewrite it. For
example, if your hypothesis is "Will the new toothpaste
prove more effective than the control toothpaste?,"
rewrite it as a prediction instead of a question.

24. GUIDELINES IN THE FORMULATION OF EXPLICIT
HYPOTHESES
1. They have to be expressed.(experimental investigation)
2. Hypotheses are seldom expressed if not entirely absent.(descriptive and
historical investigation)
3. Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null
hypothesis is easier than in an operational form of hypothesis.
4. Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which they
are based.

25. GUIDELINES IN THE USE OF BASIC
ASSUMPTIONS
1. You cannot assume the value of your study.
2. You cannot assume the reliability of the instruments you propose
to use in your research.
3. You cannot assume the validity of basic data.
4. You cannot assume that your population is typical.
5. An assumption is not tested, neither is it defended nor argued.