This document discusses historical research and descriptive research. Historical research involves systematically investigating past events, actions, or developments to describe and understand what occurred without manipulating variables. Descriptive research aims to describe present conditions without evaluating causes or relationships, typically through surveys, case studies, or observational studies. Both seek to understand phenomena as objectively as possible given limitations like lack of control over past events.

1. By Dr. Sudhir Sahu

2. Historical Research
-A method of investigation to discover, describe
and interpreted what existed in the past.

3. Meaning of Historical Research
 So What is Historical Research?
 The systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe,
explain, and understand actions or events that occurred
sometime in the past.
 There is no manipulation or control of variables as in
experimental research.
 An attempt is made to reconstruct what happened during a
certain period of time as completely and accurately as possible.
According to Karlinger-
Historical research is the critical investigation of events,
developments and experience of the past. It is the careful
weighing of evidence of the validity of sources of information on
the past and the interpretation of weighed evidence.

4. The Purposes
of Historical Research
 Learn from past failures and successes
 Apply them to present-day problems
 Satisfy their scholarly curiosity about past things,
person, place or such.
 Make predictions
 Understand present educational practices and policies
better than before
To make people aware of what has happened in the past
in order to:

5. Types of Historical Research
 Legal Research
 Study about historical ideas
 Study about the History of Institution
or Organization
 Biography Research

6. Types of Historical Research : Legal Research
Legal research is study about
 Legal basis of educational institutions run by different
religions and caste,
 Relation between Center al and State Government with
regards to Education.
 Legal status of teacher and students.
 Administration of govt, aided and self-financed
institutes
 School Finance in a specific periods
 Students role in institution administration etc.

7. Types of Historical Research :
Study of Historical Ideas/ Beliefs
 Historical Ideas or Beliefs Research is concerned with
 Study of major philosophical and scientific thoughts
from their origin through different stages of
development.
 Study of changes in popular thoughts over a given period
of time.
 Evolution of current concept like- system approach,
mastery learning etc

8. Types of Historical Research :
Study of History of Institutions and Organization
 Study of History of Institutions and Organization is
concerned with
 It is study about history of popular institution like-
Nalanda, Takshashila, Viswabharati etc.
 It is also looking through various historical aspects of
popular organization like- Muslim League, RSS, UNO,
Red, All India Congress, BJP, JDU, Akalidal, Red Cross
etc.

9. Types of Historical Research :
Biography Research
 Aim of Biography Research is concerned with
 Determining and presenting truthfully the
important facts about the life, character and
achievement of important personalities.

10. Steps of Historical Research-
Steps Activity Process Logic
1. Selection and Identification of Problem
S
Inductive
2. Defining the Problem
3. Formulation of Hypothesis/es G
Deductive
4.
Process of Data
Collection
Primary Source
S
Secondary Source
5.
Criticism of the
Data
External Criticism
Internal Criticism
6. Analysis, Interpretation of the data
7. Findings and Reporting of the

11. Steps of Historical Research-
Step 3- Formulation of Hypothesis/es-
 Formulation of Hypothesis/es to provide direction for
further research process (generally question or
statement type of hypothesis).
Step 2- Defining of the problem-
From abroad to specific, abstract to concrete,
theoretical to operational and précising form.
Step 1- selection of the problem-
Selection of problem on the basis of personal interest,
utility to present condition, availability of resources, time,
budget etc.

12. Steps of Historical Research-
 Step 4- Collection of Data from Primary and
Secondary Sources-
 A)Primary Sources-
 Primary Sources are the eye witness accounts and are the
only solid bases of historical Research (Goods, Barr and
Scates, 1941)
 1) Conscious Testimony-
 Personal Records
 Official Records
 Pictorial Records
 Mechanical Records

13. Steps of Historical Research-
Step 4- Collection of Data – A) Primary Sources-
 2) Unconscious Testimony-
 Remains
 Relics
 3) Oral Testimony-
 Myths, Folk Talks. Family Stories, interview data.
 B) Secondary Source s-
 Secondary sources are the account of an event provided by a
person who didn’t directly observe the event, object or
condition
 Textbooks
 Encyclopedias
 Newspapers
 Periodicals
 Reviews of research and other references

14. Steps of Historical Research-
Step 6- Analysis and Interpretation of the data
 Narration of the data on the light of objectives and hypothesis of the
study to reach up to a certain conclusion.
Step 5- Criticism of Data
A)External Criticism of the Data
This criticism is designed to establish authenticity of the data
.
B) Internal Criticism of the Data
This criticism is designed to check reliability of the data.
Steps 7- Findings and Reporting of the Research.

15. Limitation of Historical Research
 Problem that already occurred in pas rarely repeats
again and again in future
 Past problems have limited use in present and future
in a different setting
 Same wine in a new bottle.

17. Meaning of Descriptive Research
Characteristics of Descriptive Research-
 Focused towards the present
 Gathering information and describing the current
situation
 Answers the question “What is?”
 It doesn’t evaluate cause and effect relationship.
 Control and Manipulation never be done in Descriptive
Research
“Descriptive research may best define as the study about a
phenomena, attributes, event, relation or development in
current condition.”

18. Importance of
Descriptive Research
 Most appropriate to solve ongoing problem
 Utility oriented
 Empirical Observation
 Suitable for most of the Studies undertaken in
educational and social field.
 Easy in information collection
 Suitable for statistical inference.
 Valid and Reliable than Historical method of study.

19. Types of Descriptive Research
 Survey Research
 Institutional Survey
 Social Survey
 Public opinion Survey
 Personal Survey or Case Study
 Normative Survey Research
 Co-relational Study
 Co-relation and Prediction Study
 Comparative Study
 Observational Study
 Causal-Comparative
 Developmental
 Growth Studies
 Longitudinal approach
 Cross-sectional approach
 Trend Studies
 Fellow up Studies

20. Survey Research
 Most common type of descriptive
research
 Tries to ascertain opinions and
practices through interviews and
questionnaires

21. Survey Research Methodology
 Survey research is the most common type of
descriptive research
 Involves questioning techniques for data collection
 Survey methodology consists of asking questions of a
(supposedly) representative sample of the desired
population at a single point in time. The persons of
whom the questions are asked are called survey
respondents
 The most difficult part of conducting a survey is writing
the questions

22. Census
 A survey which obtains responses from the entire
population is called a census

23. The Normative Survey
 Establishes norms for
abilities, performances,
beliefs and attitudes on
samples of people of different
ages, genders and other
classifications

24. The Case Study
 Strives for an in-
depth understanding
of a single situation
or phenomenon
 A case can be a
person, program,
institution, project or
a concept

25. Correlational
 To determine if a
relationship exists
between two
variables measured
on the same
individual
 e.g. Age and alcohol
consumption; Years
in the profession and
safety record

26. Developmental Research
 Looks at changes in
behavior or
knowledge across
years
 Longitudinal designs
 Cross-sectional
designs

27. Steps of Descriptive Research:
Steps Activity Process Logic
1. Selection and Identification of Problem
S
Inductive
2. Defining the Problem
3. Formulation of Hypothesis G
Deductive
4.
Process of Data
Collection
Development/
Selection Research
Tools
S
Sampling
Collection of Data
5. Analysis, Interpretation and Verification
6. Findings

28. Limitation of Descriptive Research
 No Control on Extraneous and intervening factors
 No manipulation of Independent factors
 No cause and effect findings
 Unreliable observational techniques- i.e.- questioner,
interview, checklist etc.
 Highly depends on statistical values.
 Need too expertise on overall process including- tool
development, sampling and statistical implication.

29. The strongest of the
research designs
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30. Experimental Research
Experimental research is an attempt by the
researcher to maintain control over all factors that
may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this,
the researcher attempts to determine or predict what
may occur.

31. Overview of Experimental Research
 Traditional type of research
 Purpose is to investigate cause-and-effect relationships
among variables
 Experimental groups vs. control groups
 Each group of participants receives a different treatment
 Always involves manipulation of the independent
variable
 Answers the question “What will be?”

32. Characteristics of
Experimental Research
 Four essential characteristics of Experimental Research
 Control
Control refers to restriction of effects of other variable (except
treatment variable) on dependent variable.
 Manipulation
Deliberate operation of treatment variable in a control condition
during a treatment tenure.
 Observation
 Observation of change in status of dependent variable after
manipulation in a control condition
 Replication
 Replication refers to conduction of a numbers of sub- experiments
with in the frame work of over all experimental design.

33. Importance of
Experimental Research
 To ascertain accurate effect of independent variables on
dependent variable.
 To predict effectiveness of new strategies, policies,
methods, curriculum or ideas on a certain field.
 Manipulation in a control condition gives more reliable
and valid prediction on relationship between
independent and dependent variables.
 Systematic and small sample reduced time and puzzles
of the researcher.
 Applicability oriented
 Support dynamic and progressive aspect of life.

34. Types of
Experimental Research
On the basis of Approach-
Quantitative
Qualitative
On the basis of Experimental Condition
Within Laboratory
Out side Laboratory/ Field Experiment
On the basis of Extend of Control and Manipulation
Experimental
Quasi- Experimental

35. Steps of Experimental Research-
Steps Activity Process Logic
1. Selection and Identification of Problem
S
Inductive
2. Defining the Problem
3. Formulation of Hypothesis/es G
Deductive
4.
Construction of Experimental Plans/
Experimental Design
S
5. Observation of Experimental Results
6.
Analysis, Interpretation and Verification
of Results
7. Findings and Reporting of Research

36. Experimental Research Design
The blueprint of the Experimental Frame work is Experimental Research
Design
Types of Experimental Research Design
 Single Group Design
 One-Shot Design
 Pre test- Post Test Design
 Single Group Rotational Design
 Parallel/ Equivalent Group Design
 Pre Test – Post Test Equivalent Group Design
 Parallel Group Rotational Design
 Multi-Group/ Replicable Group Design
 Pre Test – Post Test Multi Group Design
 Multi Group Rotational Design
 Factorial Group Design
 More than two independent variable with their more than two levels
 Two Way ANOVA, Three Way ANOVA, Four Way ANOVA etc
 ANCOVA- Analysis of Covariance Design
 MNOVA- Multi-Variate Analysis of Varience
 Repeated Measures- Nesting Cum Crossing Designing

37. Experimental Research Design
 Single Group Design -One-Shot Design-
 Observation in single Treatment-
 Effect of Independent Variables = Change in Dependent variable
after a single treatment on Same group
 Example- Change in the Style of Teaching for Classroom
Achievement.
 Merits-
 Easy and Systematic Process, Adequate control , Cheap in the
means of time money and labor
 Limitation
 No real comparison, Effected with extraneous and intervening
factors, no replication
 Unreliable results

38. Experimental Research Design
 Single Group Design: Pre test- Post Test Design
Control and manipulation with in the same group with pre test and post
test comparison
Pre-
Test
Post
Test
• Experimental Treatment
Post-
Test
• Control Treatment
Effect of Independent variable = (Pre Test – Conrl) – (Pre Test – Exp)
Merits- Easy and Systematic Process, Adequate control , Cheap in the means of time
money and labor
Limitation- no replication, unreliable results

39. Experimental Research Design
 Single Group Design: Within Group Rotational Design
Control and manipulation with in the same group for multiple times
Effect of Independent variable = Mean of CT – Mean of ET or
= (CT1 + CT2) – (ET1 + ET2)
Merits- Easy and Systematic Process, Adequate control , Cheap in the means of time
money and labor
Limitation- Less internal validity.
Experimental
• ET1
Control
• CT1
Experimental
• ET1
Control
• CT1

40. Experimental Research Design
 Equivalent/ Parallel Group design
Effect of Independent variable = Mean of CT – Mean of ET or
= (CT1 + CT2) – (ET1 + ET2)
Merits- Easy and Systematic Process, Adequate control , Cheap in the means of time
money and labor
Limitation- Less internal validity, no replication
Control Group
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change
Post- Test (CT2)
Experimental Group
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)

41. Experimental Research Design
 Equivalent Group Rotational design
Control Group
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change –
Conventional Way
Post- Test (CT2)
Treat as Experimental
Group
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET3)
Experimental Group
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)
Treat as Control
Group
No Change -
Conventional Way
Post Test (CT3)
Effect of Independent variable = Mean of CT – Mean of ET or
= (CT1 + CT2 + CT3) – (ET1 + ET2+ ET3)
Group A
(Control)
Group B
(Experimental)
Group A
(Experimental)
Group B
(Control)

42. Experimental Research Design
 Multi Group Design
Effect of Independent variable = Mean of CT – Mean of ET
Merits- Easy and Systematic Process, Adequate control , Cheap in the means of time
money and labor
Limitation- Less internal validity, no replication
Control Group
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change
Post- Test (CT2)
Experimental Group
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)
Control Group
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change
Post- Test (CT2)
Experimental Group
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)

43. Experimental Research Design
 Multi - Group Rotational design
Control Group S1
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change –
Conventional Way
Post- Test (CT2)
Treat as Experimental
Group
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET3)
Experimental Group S1
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)
Treat as Control Group
No Change -
Conventional Way
Post Test (CT3)
Control Group S2
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change –
Conventional Way
Post- Test (CT2)
Treat as Experimental
Group
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET3)
Experimental Group S3
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)
Treat as Control Group
No Change -
Conventional Way
Post Test (CT3)
Effect of Independent variable = Mean of CT – Mean of ET or
= (CT1 + CT2 + CT3) – (ET1 + ET2+ ET3)

44. Factorial Design
Two Way ANOVA: (2×2)
Two Independent variables with their two levels/fold
Example- Audio-Visual= 1. Experimental 2. Control
SES= 1. High SES 2. Low SES
Control Group
High SES
Pre-Test (CT1)
No Change
Post- Test (CT2)
Control Group
Low SES
Pre-Test (ET1)
No Change
Post- Test (ET2)
Experimental Group
High SES
Pre-Test (CT1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (CT2)
Experimental Group
Low SES
Pre-Test (ET1)
Manipulation
Post- Test (ET2)
Control Group Experimental Group

45.  How valid is the experiment?
 Validity = am I measuring what I think I am measuring
 Campbell & Stanley (1963)
 Internal validity – is about the design
 External validity – is about generalizability
Internal & External Validity

46.  An experiment is internally valid when
 the results can be attributed to the manipulation/
independent variable
 Internal validity is all about control
 We gain control by “being random”
 Random selection
 Random assignment
 Ideally, we use probability sampling techniques (i.e.,
random, systematic, stratified random, cluster)
 We gain control by using “good measures”
Internal Validity

47.  External validity is all about generalizability
 Can we generalize to the population from which the
sample was taken?
 Can we generalize to another sample or population that
is similar to the one we used?
 How do we know if we can generalize? What do we
examine?
 Characteristics of the sample (like what?)
 Versus the population
 Versus other samples or populations
External Validity

48.  These evil menaces lead us to question if our findings
are real. Remember Type I and Type II errors. Meet
some possible causes:
History Maturation
Selection Testing
Instrumentation
Regression Mortality (attrition)
Threats to Internal Validity

49.  Sample size
 Dependent variable poorly measured
 Lack of variability in the measure
 Treatment not reliably implemented
 Treatment lacked necessary intensity
 Placebo treatment had an effect – wasn’t a true placebo
Other Threats to Internal Validity