This document provides an overview of research methodology and outlines various aspects of designing a research study, including: - Defining experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental research designs. - Describing common data collection methods like surveys, case studies, and content analysis. - Explaining key components of a research plan such as the research problem, objectives, background, methods, and literature cited. - Detailing important considerations for sampling, ensuring the normality of data distribution, and selecting appropriate statistical tests for analysis. - Providing guidance on effectively presenting research findings through elements like visuals, abstracts, introductions, results and discussions.

1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
DR. NIRAJ KUMAR
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR PHYSIOTHERAPY DEPT.
SHRI GURU RAM RAI INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL AND
HEALTH SCIENCES

2. •Clinical research is a structured process of investigating facts
and theories.
•It is a method of answering the questions in a systematic and
objective way to examine clinical conditions and outcomes.

3. Experimental research(Gold standard research)
• Pretest-posttest designs
• Post test only designs
• Complex variations (several independent
variable)

4. Experimental research
• Quasi experimental designs
• Sequential clinical trials
• Single case experimental designs

5. Non-Experimental research
Descriptive
or
Exploratory

6. Descriptive research
• Systematically describe and interpret conditions or
relationships that already exist.
• Involves questionnaires, , interviews or direct observation
Correlational research
• Used to examine the extent to which variation in
one variable corresponds with variation in one or
more other factors.

7. Epidemiology
• Concerned with the risk of disease or disability
associated with specific exposures.
– Surveys
– Experimental studies
– Correlational studies

8. Evaluation research
• An objective and empirical assessment of the
success of a program or policy in meeting its
goal and objectives.
• Used to assist
– Decision making
– Determining if a clinical program should be
implemented, continued, or modified

9. Methodological research
• Involves the development and validation of
measurement tools used in practice and
clinical research.

10. Purpose of a research design
Provide information regarding:
• What is the study?
• Why is the study being carried out?
• Where will the study be carried out?
• How will the study be carried out?
• What will be the processes and tasks involved?
• What will be the data?
• How will the data be collected?
• What methods of sampling will be used? and
• How will the analysis be done?

11. Functions of the research design
• Provide a plan to undertake systematic study
and help to provide procedures to undertake
the research work; and
• Ensure objective, valid, and economic
undertaking of the study.

12. Types of research design
Factors
• Nature of investigation,
• Data collection methods,
• Number of contacts made with the subjects,
• and the Period of reference

13. Nature of Investigation
• Exploratory
• Descriptive
• Experimental
• Semi or Quasi- experimental
• Non- experimental and
• Field research.

14. Data Collection Methods
• Survey
• Case studies and
• Content analysis

15. Definitions of Study Design
• Case–control study
– Retrospective comparison of exposures of persons with disease (cases) with those of persons
without the disease (controls). (Harm/Etiology) (EBM Toolkit, 2008)
• Case–series
– Report of a number of cases of disease. (Harm/Etiology) (EBM Toolkit, 2008)
• Cohort study
– A study that begins with the gathering of two matched groups (the cohorts), one which has
been exposed to a prognostic factor, risk factor, or intervention and one which has not. The
groups are then followed forward in time (prospective) to measure the development of
different outcomes. In a retrospective cohort study, cohorts are identified at a point of time in
the past and information is collected on their subsequent outcomes. (Diagnosis, Harm/Etiology,
Prognosis, Therapy) (EBM Toolkit, 2008)
• Meta–analysis
– Broad term that includes reports that collect and synthesize data from individual studies to
provide new information. (McKibbon, 2009)
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16. The research plan

17. Title
• Concise and informative
• Has an independent variable, dependent
variable and the sample.

18. Abstract
• Should be in one page
• It includes
– A brief description of the method
– Procedures
– Methods for data analysis
– The proposed duration of the study and overall
projected costs may be stated

19. Statement of the research problem
– Rationale and justification for the study
• Why the study was needed?
– Significance of the study
• What is the use?

20. Statement of the purpose of the
study
• Specific aims or objectives
– Help the researcher guide the discussion of results
when the study is completed (comparative,
correlational, reliability of an instrument and the
relationships)
• Research hypotheses or guiding questions
– Positive or negative

21. Aim
• to map, to develop, to design, to track, to
generate, to theorize, to build …
• Sometimes ‘to investigate, to understand, and
to explore…
• to synthesize, to catalogue, to challenge, to
critically interrogate …

22. Objectives
• There are usually more than one, are the
specific steps you will take to achieve your
aim.

23. Objectives
• Objectives are often expressed through active
sentences. So, objectives often start something like In
order to achieve this aim, I will… collect, construct,
produce, test, trial, measure, document, pilot,
deconstruct, analyse…
• The list of objectives spells out what you actually and
really will do to get to the point of it all.
• Objectives have to be practical, do-able and
achievable.

24. Background of the study
• Topics for review of literature related to
– Theory and supportive rational
– Related studies
– Methods
• Previous work by the investigator that supports
the project

25. Method
• Subjects : Characteristics, sampling method, plans for recruitment
• Materials: instrumentation, plans to establish reliability and validity
• Procedures
– Study design
– Details of test and treatment administration
– Data collection methods
– Timetable and organizational chart
• Data management and analysis

26. Literature cited
References should be in any one of the format
Vancouver
Harvard

27. Sampling

28. Population
• The larger group to which research results are
generalized is called a population.
– Defined aggregate of Objects
– Persons
– Places
– Organizations, animals, days etc.

29. Sample
• Through a process of
sampling, a researcher
chooses a subgroup of the
population, called a sample.
• It serves as the reference
group for drawing conclusions
about the population.

30. Target population
• Target or reference population: to study the
overall group of people
– OA
– Learning disability
– Gait dysfunction in hemiplegia

31. Target Population
Accessible population
Subject selection
Participants
Group assignment
Experimental Control
Nonparticipants

32. Sampling techniques
Probability method
•Random selection – equal chance
Nonprobability method
•Probability of selection is not known

33. Simple random sampling
• In clinical studies
– List the available population
– Chit method (equal size and shape)
– Tables of random numbers

34. Systematic sampling
• Lists arranged alphabetically or in some other
ordered fashion.
– 100 / 1000

35. Convenience
• Other name: accidental sample
• Most common form
• Chosen according to the availability of the
patient.
• Disadvantage: bias of self selection

36. Normality test
Less than 50 (<50)
• Shapiro – Wilk test
• If the significance value is
greater than 0.05
More than 50 (>50)
• Kolmogorov – Smirnov test
• KS Test
• If the significance value is
greater than 0.05

37. Parametric (Normal distribution)
• Parametric – paired t test (pre-
post design),
• Repeated measures Anova –
(Pre-Post-Follow up)
• Independent t test – individual
comparison of 2 data
(between group)
• One way Anova – to
comparison of all 3 group
• Pearson correlation – validity.
Nonparametric (Non normal distribution)
• Non- parametric - Wilcoxon (pre-
post design)
• Friedman test (Pre-Post-Follow up)
• Mann Whitney – individual
comparison of 2 data (between
group)
• Krusskal Wallis - to comparison of
all 3 group
• Spearman rank correlation
coefficient

38. Presentation of the research

39. Visual presentation
• Avoid confusing slides
• 4 types of slides may be presented
– Words or phrases (text)
– Photographs
– Graphs
– Tables

40. Words and Phrases
• Title
• Purpose
• Important background material
• Hypothesis
• Description of subjects and study protocol
• Summary of results and
• Conclusion

41. Abstract should contain
• Overview and purpose of the study
• General description of methods
• Highlights of results
• Statement of significance of results
• General conclusion

42. Abstract
• Abstract summarizes
– The purpose of the study
– Number and type of subjects
– The basic procedures used
– Summary of the results
– And the major conclusion
• Must be concise
• Word limits 100

43. Introduction
• Statement of the problem
• Clinical relevance
• Review of literature
• Rationale and theoretical framework
• Specific purpose and hypotheses (or guiding
questions)

44. Introduction should contain
• The 1st one or two paragraphs of the
introduction should have a clear
understanding of the problem being studied.
• The introduction should end with a statement
of the specific purpose of the study

45. Methodology should contain
• No. of subjects
• Selection criteria
• Informed consent
• Approved by the appropriate committees.
• Description of equipment
• Data collection procedures

46. Results should contain
• Should contain only a report of results
• Significant test and its probability.
• Tables and figures
• Statements to support or reject hypotheses

47. Discussion should contain
• Reflects the researcher‘s interpretation of the
results in terms of the purpose of the study and
the outside world.
• The should comment on
– Importance of the result
– Limitation of the study
– Suggestion for future research
– And clinical implications

48. Conclusion
• A brief restatement of the purpose of the study and its
principal findings.
• Author states the deductions made from the results.
• Phrases like “the results of this study indicates” and
“this study demonstrates” serve to link the summary of
results and the meaning of those results.

49. • List of all references cited in the article