This document provides an overview of key concepts in research methodology. It discusses the aims of research, types of research, conceptual frameworks, literature reviews, research questions and hypotheses, study objectives, research methods including quantitative and qualitative approaches, variables, data collection and analysis, biostatistics, and estimation. The document is intended to help readers understand the basic concepts of research and how to conduct research appropriately.
How to Research
Everybody who want to write research papers , articles , review paper are need to learn some rules for it . These slides will help them alot.
Introduction
In life, there are universal laws that govern everything we do. These laws are so perfect that if you were to align yourself with them, you could have so much prosperity that it would be coming out of your ears. This is because God created the universe in the image and likeness of him. It is failure to follow the universal laws that causes one to fail. The laws that were created consisted of the following: ·
Law of Gratitude: The Law of Gratitude states that you must show gratitude for what you have. By having gratitude, you speed your growth and success faster than you normally would. This is because if you appreciate the things you have, even if they are small things, you are open to receiving more.
Law of Attraction: The Law of Attraction states that if you focus your attention on something long enough you will get it. It all starts in the mind. You think of something and when you think of it, you manifest that in your life. This could be a mental picture of a check or actual cash, but you think about it with an image.
Law of Karma: the Law of Karma states that if you go out and do something bad, it will come back to you with something bad. If you do well for others, good things happen to you. The principle here is to know you can create good or bad through your actions. There will always be an effect no matter what.
Law of Love: the Law of Love states that love is more than emotion or feeling; it is energy. It has substance and can be felt. Love is also considered acceptance of oneself or others. This means that no matter what you do in life if you do not approach or leave the situation out of love, it won't work.
Law of Allowing: The Law of Allowing states that for us to get what we want, we must be receptive to it. We can't merely say to the Universe that we want something if we don't allow ourselves to receive it. This will defeat our purpose for wanting it in the first place.
Law of Vibration: the Law of Vibration states that if you wish on something and use your thoughts to visualize it, you are halfway there to get it. To complete the cycle you must use the Law of Vibration to feel part of what you want. Do this and you'll have anything you want in life.
For everything to function properly there has to be structure. Without structure, our world, or universe, would be in utter chaos. Successful people understand universal laws and apply them daily. They may not acknowledge that to you, but they do follow the laws. There is a higher power and this higher power controls the universe and what we get out of it. People who know this, but wish to direct their own lives, follow the reasons. Successful people don't sit around and say "I'll try," they say yes and act on it.
Chapter - 1
The Law of Attraction
The law of attraction is the most powerful force in the universe. If you work against it, it can only bring you pain and misery. Successful people know this but have kept it hidden from the lower class for centuries because th
All the concepts related to research design are covered in this PPT Presentation.Research Design being an integral and crucial part of Research majorly deals with Parametric and non-parametric test, Type 1 and type 2 error, level of significance etc.It helps in ascertaining which research technique is used in which situation.
Research Awareness Programme-research & developmentlochan100
Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil College of Engineering and Technology
Wardha Road, Nagpur-441 108
NAAC Accredited
Department of Information Technology developed By Dr PL Pradhan
Second Year B.E. (Fifth Semester)
Research & Development
Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil College of Engineering and Technology
Wardha Road, Nagpur-441 108
NAAC Accredited
How to Research
Everybody who want to write research papers , articles , review paper are need to learn some rules for it . These slides will help them alot.
Introduction
In life, there are universal laws that govern everything we do. These laws are so perfect that if you were to align yourself with them, you could have so much prosperity that it would be coming out of your ears. This is because God created the universe in the image and likeness of him. It is failure to follow the universal laws that causes one to fail. The laws that were created consisted of the following: ·
Law of Gratitude: The Law of Gratitude states that you must show gratitude for what you have. By having gratitude, you speed your growth and success faster than you normally would. This is because if you appreciate the things you have, even if they are small things, you are open to receiving more.
Law of Attraction: The Law of Attraction states that if you focus your attention on something long enough you will get it. It all starts in the mind. You think of something and when you think of it, you manifest that in your life. This could be a mental picture of a check or actual cash, but you think about it with an image.
Law of Karma: the Law of Karma states that if you go out and do something bad, it will come back to you with something bad. If you do well for others, good things happen to you. The principle here is to know you can create good or bad through your actions. There will always be an effect no matter what.
Law of Love: the Law of Love states that love is more than emotion or feeling; it is energy. It has substance and can be felt. Love is also considered acceptance of oneself or others. This means that no matter what you do in life if you do not approach or leave the situation out of love, it won't work.
Law of Allowing: The Law of Allowing states that for us to get what we want, we must be receptive to it. We can't merely say to the Universe that we want something if we don't allow ourselves to receive it. This will defeat our purpose for wanting it in the first place.
Law of Vibration: the Law of Vibration states that if you wish on something and use your thoughts to visualize it, you are halfway there to get it. To complete the cycle you must use the Law of Vibration to feel part of what you want. Do this and you'll have anything you want in life.
For everything to function properly there has to be structure. Without structure, our world, or universe, would be in utter chaos. Successful people understand universal laws and apply them daily. They may not acknowledge that to you, but they do follow the laws. There is a higher power and this higher power controls the universe and what we get out of it. People who know this, but wish to direct their own lives, follow the reasons. Successful people don't sit around and say "I'll try," they say yes and act on it.
Chapter - 1
The Law of Attraction
The law of attraction is the most powerful force in the universe. If you work against it, it can only bring you pain and misery. Successful people know this but have kept it hidden from the lower class for centuries because th
All the concepts related to research design are covered in this PPT Presentation.Research Design being an integral and crucial part of Research majorly deals with Parametric and non-parametric test, Type 1 and type 2 error, level of significance etc.It helps in ascertaining which research technique is used in which situation.
Research Awareness Programme-research & developmentlochan100
Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil College of Engineering and Technology
Wardha Road, Nagpur-441 108
NAAC Accredited
Department of Information Technology developed By Dr PL Pradhan
Second Year B.E. (Fifth Semester)
Research & Development
Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil College of Engineering and Technology
Wardha Road, Nagpur-441 108
NAAC Accredited
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
2. Aim of Presentation
Understanding basic
concept of research
and its methodologies
Knowing methodology
to conduct research in
an appropriate manner
Understanding the way
to write a research
protocol
Understanding basic of
biostatistics
3. Introduction to Research
Any systematic and organized investigation towards increasing
the sum of knowledge can be termed as research. Research is
one of the means by which we seek to discover the truth.
Research is best conceived as the process of arriving at
dependable solutions to problems through the planned and
systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data
4. Introduction to Research
• Aims of Research
Exploration
Description
Prediction
Explanation
Validation
Improvement
5. Introduction to Research
• Types of Research
Qualitative and Quantitative
Descriptive and Analytical
Applied and Fundamental
Primary and Secondary
6. Conceptual frameworks
• Conceptual framework outlines the key concepts and ideas that
are relevant to the research topic and identifies the relationships
between them.
• It helps to guide the research process and helps to define the
research problem, research questions, and hypotheses.
• It is developed based on a thorough review of the literature.
7.
8. Literature Review
• A literature review can be defined
as crucial resources to support a
study to achieve the objectives and
needs of the study
• No new research can be taken
seriously without first reviewing the
previous research done on the
topic.
• The presence of a literature review
illustrates wide reading by the
researcher.
9. Literature Review
Four key outcomes of doing the review.
• Assessment of the current state of research on a topic.
• Identification of the experts on a particular topic.
• Identification of key questions about a topic that needs further
research.
• Determination of methodologies used in the past studies of the
same or on similar topics.
10. Literature Review
The sources of literature review –
Articles in journals
Abstracts
Unpublished thesis
Books
Government & other organization documents
Internet
12. Research Question
• ‘A statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied’.
• A research question is usually the first step in any research
project.
13. FINER Criteria for good research Questions
F Feasible
I Interesting
N Novel
E Ethical
R Relevant
14. Examples of Research Questions
Describing and exploring What are the characteristics of X?
How has X changed over time?
What are the main factors in X?
Explaining and testing What is the relationship between X and Y?
What is the role of X in Y?
What are the causes of X?
Evaluating What are the advantages and disadvantages of X?
How effective is X?
15. Research Hypothesis
• A research hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable
guess, and an educated prediction about the nature of the
relationship between two or more variables that we expect to
happen in our study.
• A research question is essentially a hypothesis asked in the form
of a question.
• It is mainly two types- Null Hypothesis and Alternate Hypothesis
16.
17. Objectives of the Research
• General Objective:
expected to achieve by the study in general terms.
• Specific Objective:
break down a general objective into smaller, logically connected parts.
Stated in action verbs e.g., to describe, to identify, to measure, to
compare, etc
S Specific
MMeasurable
A Achievable
R Relevant
T Time-bound
18. Research Methods
Quantitative Research
The process of collecting and
analyzing numerical data. It can
be used to find patterns and
averages, make predictions,
test causal relationships, and
generalize results to wider
populations.
Qualititative Research
Involves collecting and
analyzing non-numerical data
(e.g. text, video, or audio).
19. Types O f quantitative Research Method
Descriptive
Case
Report
Case
Serie
s
Cross
sectional
Analytical
Experiment
al Observational
Case-
Control
Cohor
t
Prospective
Retrospectiv
e
20. Descriptive Study
Case Report:
• Descriptive case reports describe in-depth characteristics of one or a
limited number of ‘cases’.
• A case may be, for example, a patient, a health centre, or a village.
Such a study can provide quite useful insight into a problem.
• Title: "A Rare Case of Autoimmune Encephalitis: Diagnosis and
Treatment Challenges"
21. Descriptive Study
Cross-Sectional surveys:
Cross-sectional surveys aim at describing and quantifying the distribution
of certain variables in a study population at one point in time.
• Physical characteristics of people, materials, or the environment
• Socio-economic characteristics of people such as their age, education, marital
status, number of children and income
Title: "Prevalence of Hypertension among Adults in a Rural Community: A
Cross-Sectional Study
22. Comparative or Analytical Studies
• Case-control study:
• The investigator compares one group (case) among whom the problem
that he wishes to investigate is present (e.g. malnutrition) and another
group called a control or comparison group, where the problem is
absent, to find out what factors have contributed to the problem.
• Association between Smoking and Lung Cancer: A Case-Control Study
23. Comparative or Analytical Studies
• Cohort studies
• In a cohort study, a group of individuals that are exposed to a risk factor
(study group) is compared to a group of individuals not exposed to the
risk factor (control group).
• Cohort studies can be retrospective and prospective
• Title: "Long-term Effects of Physical Activity on Cardiovascular Health: A
Prospective Cohort Study“
• Title: "Association between Prenatal Exposure to Air Pollution and
Childhood Asthma: A Retrospective Cohort Study"
24. Comparative or Analytical Studies
• Experimental studies
• An experimental design is a study design that gives the most reliable
proof for causation.
• Individuals are randomly allocated to at least two groups.
• One group is subject to an intervention, or experiment, while the other
group(s) is not.
• The outcome of the intervention (effect of the intervention on the
dependent variable/problem) is obtained by comparing the two groups.
• Title: "Effectiveness of a New Drug in Lowering Blood Pressure: A
Randomized Controlled Trial
25. Population & Sample
• Population is the pool of individuals from which a
statistical sample is drawn for a study.
• Target population refers to the entire group of
individuals or objects to which researchers are
interested to generalize the conclusions.
• Study population is a subset of the target
population from which the sample is actually
selected.
• Sample is subset of study population used in
26. Sampling
Probability Sampling
i. Simple random
sampling
ii. Systematic Random
Sampling
iii. Stratified Random
Sampling
iv. Cluster Random
Sampling
v. Multistage Random
Sampling
Non-Probability
Sampling
i. Purposive sampling:
ii. Convenience sampling
iii. Quota sampling
iv. Snowball sampling
27.
28.
29. Variables
Variables are characteristics, attributes, or properties that can vary
or take different values within a dataset or research study.
the viewpoint of a causal relationship
1. Independent variable (Exercise)
2. Dependent variable(Cognitive Function)
3. Extraneous variable(Diet)
4. Confounding variable(Age)
30. Variables
• From the viewpoint of the unit of
measurement
1. Quantitative variables
a. Discrete variables(student number)
b. Continuous variables(Age)
2. Categorical variables
a) Binary variables (head tail in coin flip)
b) Nominal variables(colour)
c) Ordinal variables(Place in finishing race)
31. Data:
A set of values or information about a variable that is measured or
recorded on study subjects or observational units.
• The commonly used data collection techniques/methods include:
1. Using available information (document review)
2. Observation
3. Interview (face-to-face)
4. Administering written questionnaire
32. Data Analysis
Data Entry
Data coding
Data Cleaning
Plan for analysis(SPSS, STATA, R or SAS )
Descriptive data analysis
Inferential data analysis
35. Biostatistics
Measures of Dispersion (Scatter/spread)
• Absolute measures of dispersion
• Range
• Mean deviation(MD) Variance
• Standard deviation (SD)
• Relative The measures of dispersion e.g. coefficient of
variation (CV)
36. Biostatistics
Probability Distribution
It is the pattern of distribution of a variable in a population
• Types of probability distribution:
Continuous probability distribution: it is concerned with continuous
variables.
• Normal distribution
• t-distribution
• Log normal distribution etc.
Discrete probability distribution: it is concerned with discrete variables
• Binomial distribution
• Poisson distribution
37. Normal Distribution
I. The mean, median and mode are
exactly the same.
II. The distribution is symmetric
III. The distribution can be described by the
mean and the standard deviation.
IV. Increasing the mean moves the curve
right, while decreasing it moves the
curve left.
V. A small standard deviation results in a
narrow curve, while a large standard
38. Normal Distribution
Application (importance) of the normal distribution:
1. Hypothesis testing
2. Estimation of the unknown population parameter
3. The setting of the normal range (e.g. m±2SD)
39. Biostatistics
Estimation
• It is the process by which sample statistics is used to estimate
the corresponding population parameter within a range of
values. For estimation of any population parameter two types of
estimates need to be computed.
• Point estimate
• Interval estimate: also called confidence interval(CI).Upper and lower
endpoints of CI which serve as bounding values are known as
confidence limit (CL).
40. Biostatistics
Hypothesis tests (Significance tests)
• These are statistical tests used to determine whether the null
hypothesis will be rejected in favor of an alternative hypothesis
or the null hypothesis will be accepted.
• Types of significance test (statistical test):
• Parametric test: e.g. t-test, F-test (ANOVA), Z-test, Correlation
coefficient test etc.
• Non-parametric test: e.g. chi-square test, Fisher exact test, proportion
test, Mann-Whitney test, Wilcoxon test, Spearman rank correlation test
etc
• One Tailed Test
• Two Tailed Test
42. Biostatistics
Level of significance
• It is the point of demarcation between by chance and not by
chance for observation to occur.
• It is customarily expressed as percentage e.g. 5% (0.05) level,
4% (0.04) level etc.
43. Biostatistics
Statistical significance
• Significant means, the event is unlikely to occur due to by chance
(sampling error) without any cause rather it is due to some obvious
extraneous causes.
• Not significant means, the event is likely to occur due to chance
(sampling error) without any cause.
44. Biostatistics
Correlation
• Correlation is the relationship or association between two
variables.
1. Linear relation (Pearson Correlation Coefficient formula)
• Positively correlated two variables changes in the same direction.
e.g. temperature & pulse rate. r = +1
• Negatively correlated two variables changes in the opposite
direction. e.g. Insuline & Blood sugar Level. r = -1
• r =0, there is no relation
2. Non-linear relation( Nonparametric test) eg; Age and Death Rate
45. Biostatistics
Regression Analysis
• The regression analysis is a technique of studying the
dependence of one variable (called dependent variable), on one
or more variables (called Independent variable)
• Linear Regression equation: y = a +bx, where x is the
independent variable and y is the dependent variable. ‘b’ is called
the regression coefficient and measures the amount of change in
y for unit change in x. ‘a’ is a constant.
46. Biostatistics
Odds Ratio (OR)
• The OR represents the odds that an outcome will occur given a
particular exposure, compared to the odds of the outcome occurring in
the absence of that exposure
Relative risk/Risk ratio (RR)
• A risk ratio (RR), also called relative risk, compares the risk of a health
event (disease, injury, risk factor, or death) among one group with the
risk among another group
Absolute risk
• This absolute measure of effect represents the difference between the
risks in two groups; usually between an exposed and an unexposed
group.
47. Odds Ratio
Calculating Odds Ratios:
Exposure Disease disease
Present Absent Total
Present a b a+b
Absent c d c+d
Total a+c b+d a+b+c+d
Where,
a = Number of exposed cases,b = Number
of exposed non-cases
c = Number of unexposed cases,d =
Number of unexposed non-cases
OR=(Odds of outcome in exposed)/(Odds
of outcome in unexposed)=(a⁄b)/(c/d)
=ad/bc
•OR=1 Exposure does not
affect odds of outcome
•OR>1 Exposure associated
with higher odds of outcome
•OR<1 Exposure associated
with lower odds of outcome
48. Relative Risk
Calculation of RR-
Disease
Total Exposure Present
Absent
• Present a b a+b
• Absent c d c+d
• Total a+c b+d
a+b+c+d
• RR =Risk of the disease with
exposure/risk of the disease
without exposure
• RR= (a/a+b)/(c/c+d)
•RR=1, No association
between Disease (D) &
Exposure (E)
•RR>1, D is more likely
in E (E as risk factor)
•RR<1, D is less likely
in E (E as a protective
factor)
49. Biostatistics
Sensitivity:
• Sensitivity is the ability of a test to
correctly classify an individual as
`having the disease’.
Specificity
• The ability of a test to correctly
classify an individual as ‘disease-
free’ is called specificity.
50. Biostatistics
Positive predictive value
(PPV):
• It is the percentage of patients
with a positive test who
actually have the disease.
Negative predictive value
(NPV):
• It is the percentage of patients
with a negative test who do not
have the disease.
51. Referencing
Acknowledgement of the sources .Extensive referencing indicates
wide research, a correct approach and the use of these sources
as evidence to back up the researcher’s argument.
• Vancouver- Numerical i.e. 1, 2,3 consecutively in superscript
and should appear in the reference section in same chronology.
• Harvard- In the text cites author and year and, in the reference,
section appear alphabetically A, B, C ----
52. Referencing
To cite an article
• Vidal MD, Weisser JR, Gonjalez S, Toro MA. Incidence and clinical
effects of intra abdominal hypertension in critically ill patient. Crit care
Med 2008; 36: 1823-31
To cite Chapter in a Book
• Connel PRO. The Vermiform Appendix. In: Williams NS. Short Practice
of Surgery. 26th Ed. Taylor & Francis. Tokyo. 2013. 1199-1214
For Citation from Internet
• Competency-based Medical education. http://www.google.com/med
edu.[Accessed on March 15, 2011].
53. Research
Ethics
• Research ethics
refers to the
principles,
guidelines, and
standards that
govern the conduct
of research involving
human participants
or animals.
55. Research Ethics
• Good Clinical Practice (GCP)
It is an international ethical and
scientific standard for the
design, conduct, performance,
monitoring, auditing, recording,
analysis, and reporting of clinical
trials.
• Institutional Review Board
(IRB)
The purpose is to safeguard the
rights, safety, and well-being of
56. Research Ethics
To approve a research protocol, the IRB must ensure that
Risks to participants are minimized.
Risks to participants are reasonable with anticipated benefits.
The selection of participants is equitable.
Informed consent is properly obtained and documented.
safety of participants.
Confidentiality of data.
57. BCPS Recommendation for Writing Thesis
• The Thesis is the original work of the trainee and should reflect their subject
understanding and research abilities .
Selection of Guide and Co-Guide
Choosing the topic
Preparing Research protocol
Acceptance of protocol by BCPS
To research under the guidance of the guide
Write thesis in a good standard of clear English using appropriate academic terms .
Defend the Thesis
73. Conclusion
• Exploration of research
methodology is not an
endpoint but rather a
stepping stone to further
inquiry and lifelong learning.
It is a journey that extends
far beyond this presentation.
"Nurturing the Seeds of
Knowledge."
Exploration: Research aims to explore and investigate new areas, phenomena, or topics in order to gain a deeper understanding or uncover new knowledge. It involves examining existing information and gaps in knowledge to identify areas that require further investigation.
Description: Research aims to provide a detailed and accurate description of a particular subject, event, or phenomenon. It involves gathering data and information to create a comprehensive picture or account of the topic under study.
Explanation: Research aims to explain the causes, mechanisms, relationships, or patterns behind a specific phenomenon or occurrence. It seeks to understand why certain events or behaviors happen and to uncover the underlying factors or processes involved.
Prediction: Research aims to develop models or theories that can predict future outcomes or trends based on existing data and knowledge. It involves analyzing patterns and trends to make informed projections or forecasts.
Improvement: Research aims to contribute to practical applications and improvements in various fields. It seeks to find solutions, develop interventions, or suggest recommendations that can enhance processes, technologies, policies, or practices.
Validation: Research aims to validate or test existing theories, concepts, or hypotheses through empirical evidence. It involves conducting experiments, gathering data, and analyzing results to confirm or refute existing ideas or theories.
Applied and Fundamental
Applied research is done to find a solution for an immediate problem faced by a society or an industrial/business/service organization. The results are immediately utilizable. Fundamental research (or, Basic or Pure research) is concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
Conceptual and Empirical
The main difference between conceptual and empirical research is that conceptual research involves abstract ideas and concepts, whereas empirical research involves research based on observation, experiments and verifiable evidence.
Descriptive and Analytical
Descriptive research describes phenomena as they exist. It is used to identify and obtain information on the characteristics of a particular is Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding Enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is a description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
Analytical research aims to understand phenomena by discovering and measuring causal relations among them. The researcher must use facts or information that are already available and analyze those to make a critical evaluation of the material. This research finds the cause& effect relationship.
Qualitative and Quantitative
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with the qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. Qualitative research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires of human behavior, using in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and other techniques.
1. Autonomy: It refers to the obligation on the part of the investigator to respect each participant as a person capable of making informed decision
2. Beneficence: Beneficence refers to that the participants are treated ethically not only by respecting their decisions but also by protecting them from harm and making efforts to secure their well-being. The general rules Do no harm
3. Non-maleficence (Maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harms)
4. Justice: Justice connotes fairness and equity and concerns the distribution of benefits and burdens of research. Injustice may arise when selecting participants only from a specific socio-economic class, age, sex, racial, cultural, and institutional setup.
