Zoo Animal Medicine

1. REPTILES
PREPARED BY;-
MOHAMMAD MEHADI HASAN JOY
STUDENT OF FACULTY OF VETERINARY SCIENCE (L-04;S-01)
BANGLADESH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,MYMENSINGH-2202.

2. TAXONOMY
The class Reptilia comprises the orders
• Chelonia,
• Crocodilia,
• Squamata, and
• Rhyncocephalia.

3. ORDER: CHELONIA
The order Chelonia includes terrestrial tortoises (primarily
herbivorous), amphibious freshwater turtles or terrapins (primarily
carnivorous), and aquatic marine turtles (omnivorous).
Figure. Holding a small tortoise.
Figure. Steve Irwin and his croc team from
Australia Zoo restraining a large male
estuarine crocodile. Figure. A male tuata
Figure. A male tuatara.

4. ORDER:CROCODILIA
Included in the order Crocodilia are crocodiles, alligators, and cai-
mans
Figure. Steve Irwin and his croc
team from Australia Zoo
restraining a large male estuarine
crocodile.
Figure. Alligators Figure. Small caiman

5. Order: Rhyncocephalia
• The order Rhyncocephalia contains only one species, the Snakes and lizards belong to
the order Squamata
Figure. Rattlesnake
Figure. Small lizards

6. ANATOMIC FEATURES
• THE CHELONIAN SHELL CONSISTS OF THE CARAPACE (DORSAL SHELL), WHICH IN
CORPORATES THE RIBS AND 10 FUSED THORACOLUMBAR VERTEBRAE AND THE
VENTRAL SHELL TERMED THE PLASTRON . THE BRIDGE JOINS THE CARAPACE
AND THE PLASTRON LATERALLY. THE SHELL ACCOUNTS FOR 40-60% OF THE
BODY WEIGHT IN MOST TURTLES.
Figure. A. Examining the plastron of a tortoise. B.
Fixing the head for examinin

7. ANATOMIC FEATURES(CONT…)
• THE PLASTRON TENDS TO BE CONCAVE IN THE MALE. THERE ARE TUBERCLES ON THE
VENTRAL MANDIBLE OF MALE TORTOISES IN SOME
• IN CROCODILIANS THE ADULT MALES ARE USUALLY LARGER THAN THE FEMALES, AND
DIGITAL PALPATION OF THE CLOACA WILL REVEAL A RIGID PENIS.
• IN SOME SPECIES, SWELLINGS CAUDAL TO THE EYES ARE LARGER IN MALES THAN IN FE-
MALES.
• IN CHELONIAS THE PLASTRON IS USUALLY FLAT IN THE FEMALE, AND THE TAIL IS LESS
DEVELOPED THAN IN THE MALE. THE PLASTRON TENDS TO BE CONCAVE IN THE MALE.
• ALL TURTLES AND CROCODILIANS AND MANY SPECIES OF SNAKES AND LIZARDS LAY
EGGS.

8. ANATOMIC FEATURES(CONT…)
FIGURE. SNAKES AND LIZARDS
Figure. Snakes and lizards
Figure. All turtles and crocodilians and many species of snakes and
lizards lay eggs

9. ANATOMIC FEATURES(CONT…)
• MALE SNAKES AND LIZARDS HAVE PAIRED COPULATORY ORGANS CALLED
HEMIPENIS .
• INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTION MAY BE GIVEN IN EITHER SIDE OF THE VERTEBRAL
COLUMN IN THE CRANIAL HALF OF THE BODY .
Figure. Snakes and lizards have paired
hemipenis
Figure. Intramuscular injection may be given in
either side of the vertebral column in the cranial
half of the body.

10. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CROCODILE AND ALLIGATOR
CROCODILE
• CROCODILES PREFER TO LIVE IN SALTWATER
OR BRACKISH WATER (SALTWATER &
FRESHWATER MIX).
• CROCODILES TEND TO ATTACK ANYTHING
THAT COMES ACROSS NEARBY
• CROCODILE IS OLIVE-GREEN OR BROWN.
• THE SNOUT SHAPE OF CROCODILES IS
NARROW AND FORM A V TOWARDS THE
END.
ALLIGATORS
• ALLIGATORS PREFER A FRESHWATER
HABITAT.
• ALLIGATORS TRY TO FLEE IN MOST
TIMES WHEN APPROACHED BY
HUMANS
• ALLIGATORS ARE MOSTLY BLACKISH
OR GRA
• ALLIGATORS HAVE A BROADER ‘U’
SHAPED SNOUT

11. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CROCODILE AND
ALLIGATOR(CONT..)
CROCODILE
• IN CASE OF A CROCODILE, THE
WIDTHS OF THE UPPER AND LOWER
JAW ARE THE SAME
• THESE FRINGES ARE PRESENT IN THE
HIND LEGS AND FEET OF CROCODILES
.
ALLIGATORS
• THE JAW PLACEMENT OF AN
ALLIGATOR IS SUCH THAT THE UPPER
JAW IS WIDER AND COVERS THE
LOWER JAW COMPLETELY.
• IN ALLIGATORS, THERE IS THE
ABSENCE OF A NOTICEABLE JAGGED
FRINGE IN THE HIND LEGS

12. ANATOMIC FEATURES(CONT…)
• IN BOAS AND PYTHONS, SPURS ON EITHER SIDE OF THE CLOACAL VENT ARE
LARGER AND MORE PROMINENT IN MALES THAN IN FEMALES.
• SEX CAN BE MORE DEFINITIVELY DETERMINED IN SNAKES BY MEASURING THE
DEPTH OF THE PARACLOACAL SACS WITH A LUBRICATED BLUNT PROBE-THE
PROBE CAN BE INSERTED TO A GREATER DEPTH IN MALES THAN IN FEMALES
Figure. Showing the depth penetration of the probe. In a
male it will penetrate to the 7th to 15th subcaudal scales; in a
female it will penetrate to only the 5th subcaudal scale
Figure. Sexing a snake; Insert the probe into the lateral
aspect of the vent and direct the probe caudally in the
bursa

13. ANATOMIC FEATURES(CONT…)
• COMPARING TAIL LENGTH IN A SEXUALLY DIMORPHIC SPECIES (BALL PYTHONS,
PYTHON REGIUS), WHERE A ~3 LB MALE SNAKE POSSESSES ONLY A SLIGHTLY
SHORTER TAIL THAN A FEMALE SNAKE TWICE ITS WEIGHT. MALE BALL PYTHONS
GROW LONGER TAILS THAN FEMALES .
Figure. Comparing tail length in a sexually dimorphic species
(Ball Pythons, Python regius), where a ~3 lb male snake possesses
only a slightly shorter tail than a female snake twice its weight.
Male Ball Pythons grow longer tails than females

14. ANATOMIC FEATURES(CONT…)
• THE SNAKE LUNG IS ELONGATE AND ENDS IN AN AIR SAC. ALL REPTILES EXCEPT
CROCODILIANS HAVE A THREE CHAMBREED HEART, AND ALL HAVE PAIRED
AORTAS.
Figure. The snake lung is
elongate and ends in an air
sac.
Figure. All reptiles except
crocodilians have a three-
chambreed heart, and all have
paired aortas (arrows).
Figure. The snake liver is large and
elongate.

15. ANATOMIC FEATURES(CONT…)
• THE SNAKE LIVER IS LARGE AND ELONGATE .
• BASKING LIGHTS SHOULD BE PROVIDED FOR MANY REPTILE SPECIES .
Figure. The snake liver is large and
elongate.
Figure. Basking lights should be provided for
many reptile species.

16. ANATOMIC FEATURES(CONT…)
• THE OCULAR SCALES OF THE SNAKE BECOME CLOUDY (OPAQUE) PRIOR TO
SHEDDING .
• THE SNAPPING TURTLE HAS POWERFUL JAWS AND CAN INFLICT A SERIOUS BITE .
Figure. The ocular scales of the snake become
cloudy (opaque) prior to shedding (arrow).
Figure. The snapping turtle has powerful jaws
and can inflict a serious bite

17. HOUSING
• HOUSING REQUIREMENTS FOR REPTILES INCLUDE AN APPROPRIATE ENCLOSURE
AND SOURCES OF LIGHT, HEAT, AND WATER.
• BE SURE TO HAVE THE HABITAT COMPLETELY READY AND SECURE BEFORE
BRINGING YOUR PET HOME
1. ENCLOSURE DESIGN
• ARBOREAL SPECIES (THOSE THAT LIVE IN TREES) SHOULD BE PROVIDED WITH
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL TREE BRANCHES OR OTHER APPROPRIATE
CLIMBING MATERIAL.

18. HOUSING(CONT..)
• FOR SOME SPECIES, A SOLID BLACK BORDER PAINTED ON THE GLASS WALL 8
INCHES (20 CENTIMETERS) FROM THE CAGE BOTTOM PROVIDES ADDED
SECURITY
• FOR EXPERIENCED REPTILE OWNERS, IT MAY BE POSSIBLE TO CREATE AN
ENCLOSURE SUITABLE FOR HOUSING SEVERAL COMPATIBLE SPECIES TOGETHER
• OVERCROWDING MUST BE AVOIDED TO REDUCE STRESS AND COMPETITION FOR
FOOD, WATER, BASKING SITES, AND MATES.
• THE FLOOR OF THE ENCLOSURE SHOULD BE COVERED WITH A MATERIAL THAT
IS DISPOSABLE, INEXPENSIVE, NONTOXIC, AND NONABRASIVE

19. HOUSING(CONT..)
• NEWSPAPER, SAND, PEAT MOSS, POTTING SOIL, WOOD SHAVINGS, CYPRESS MULCH,
CORNCOB BEDDING, WALNUT BEDDING, GRAVEL, ALFALFA PELLETS, AND ARTIFICIAL
TURF HAVE ALL BEEN USED SUCCESSFULLY FOR SNAKES.
• SNAKES LESS THAN 18 INCHES (45 CENTIMETERS) LONG SHOULD NOT BE FED WHILE
ON “LOOSE” SUBSTRATES SUCH AS SHAVINGS, CORNCOB OR WALNUT BEDDING, OR
SMALL GRAVEL BECAUSE THESE SUBSTRATES ACCUMULATE AROUND THE MOUTH
(POSSIBLY CAUSING INFLAMMATION OF THE MOUTH) AND MAY BE SWALLOWED
• NEWSPAPER IS THE SUBSTRATE OF CHOICE FOR SICK REPTILES BECAUSE IT IS
INEXPENSIVE, EASY TO CLEAN, AND ALLOWS REGURGITATED MATERIAL OR
DROPPINGS TO BE EASILY OBSERVED.

20. HOUSING(CONT..)
• MIXTURES OF SAND, PEAT MOSS, AND SOIL HOLD MOISTURE AND ALLOW
BURROWING.
• SAND OR SOIL CAN ALSO BE USED FOR A DRIER SUBSTRATE.
• SAND, POTTING SOIL, AND LEAF LITTERS ARE ADEQUATE SUBSTRATES FOR
MANY SPECIES OF LIZARDS, TURTLES, AND TORTOISES.
• ALFALFA PELLETS (COMMON RABBIT PELLETS) ARE ALSO USEFUL BEDDING FOR
TURTLES AND TORTOISES. THE PELLETS ARE INEXPENSIVE AND EASY TO CLEAN
AND THEY ARE NUTRITIOUS IF EATEN!

21. HOUSING(CONT..)
• 2. TEMPERATURE
• MOST REPTILES ARE ECTOTHERMS (OFTEN CALLED “COLD-BLOODED” ANIMALS),
BECAUSE THEY MAINTAIN THEIR BODY TEMPERATURES BY MOVING TO DIFFERENT
PLACES IN THEIR ENVIRONMENTS.
• . A RANGE OF TEMPERATURES ALSO HELPS WITH DIGESTION, KEEPS THEIR IMMUNE
SYSTEMS HEALTHY, AND INCREASES THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CERTAIN DRUGS.
TROPICAL SPECIES GENERALLY PREFER TEMPERATURES OF 80 TO 100°F (27 TO 38°C)
AND TEMPERATE SPECIES, 68 TO 95°F (20 TO 35°C).
• BASKING LIGHTS ARE PREFERRED FOR TURTLES, TORTOISES, AND LIZARDS; THIS CAN
BE AN INCANDESCENT BULB, INFRARED DEVICE, MERCURY VAPOR LAMP, OR A
CERAMIC BULB HEATER

22. HOUSING(CONT..)
• TWO MORE RECENT PRODUCTS FOR HEATING REPTILE ENCLOSURES ARE
MERCURY VAPOR BULBS AND INFRARED HEATERS.
• REPTILES BECOME INACTIVE AT LOWER TEMPERATURES. THIS IS A NORMAL
SEASONAL EVENT FOR MANY NONTROPICAL SPECIES, AND IT PROMOTES THE
BEST CONDITIONS FOR REPRODUCTION AND LONGTERM PHYSICAL WELL-BEING.

23. HOUSING(CONT..)
• 3. LIGHTING REQUIREMENTS
• FEEDING BEHAVIOR, ACTIVITY, AND TO A LESSER EXTENT, REPRODUCTION IN
REPTILES ARE IMPROVED WITH FULL-SPECTRUM LIGHT, WHICH HAS QUALITIES
SIMILAR TO NATURAL SUNLIGHT AND INCLUDES ULTRAVIOLET (UV) RAYS.
• FLUORESCENT BULBS THAT PRODUCE UVB WAVELENGTHS IN THE RANGE OF 290
TO 320 NANOMETERS ARE THE MOST APPROPRIATE FOR REPTILE ENCLOSURES.
• MERCURY VAPOR LAMPS ARE THE ONLY NONFLUORESCENT BULBS AVAILABLE
THAT CAN ALSO PROVIDE ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT.

24. HOUSING(CONT..)
4. WATER AND HUMIDITY
• SEMIAQUATIC REPTILES, THOSE THAT NATURALLY LIVE AND GROW NEAR AND IN WATER,
MUST BE ABLE TO SUBMERGE THEMSELVES COMPLETELY IN WATER
• FILTERING AND AERATING THE WATER HELPS LOWER THE LEVEL OF TOXIC ORGANIC WASTES
AND DISEASE-CAUSING ORGANISMS.
• AQUATIC AND SEMIAQUATIC REPTILES NEED MORE WATER, WHILE SPECIES FROM DRIER
ENVIRONMENTS TEND TO CONSERVE WATER.
• THE HUMIDITY SHOULD MIMIC THAT OF THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE REPTILE.
EXCESSIVELY LOW HUMIDITY (LESS THAN 35%) CAN RESULT IN DRY SKIN AND ABNORMAL SKIN
SHEDDING. EXCESSIVELY HIGH HUMIDITY (GREATER THAN 70%) CAN RESULT IN SKIN
INFECTIONS.

25. HOUSING(CONT..)
5. SANITATION
• CLEANLINESS IS ESSENTIAL FOR SUCCESSFUL LONGTERM MAINTENANCE OF
REPTILES.
• CAGES SHOULD BE KEPT FREE OF ANY URINE OR ANIMAL DROPPINGS, AND
UNEATEN FOOD SHOULD BE REMOVED AND DISPOSED OF DAILY.
• INTERNAL PARASITES ARE ONE OF THE MOST COMMON HEALTH PROBLEMS
SEEN IN REPTILES IN CAPTIVITY; THESE PARASITES OFTEN NEED ONLY ONE HOST,
THE REPTILE
• ALL SUBSTRATES SHOULD BE COMPLETELY REPLACED AT LEAST EVERY 3
MONTHS

26. TABLE. REPTILE HOUSING REQUIREMENTS
Temperature :
Tropical species 80 to 100°F (27 to 38°C)
Temperate species 68 to 95°F (27 to 38°C)
Semiaquatic turtlesSlightly lower range
Humidity :
All species Varies by species; in general anything below 35% or
above 70% may cause problems

27. TABLE. REPTILE HOUSING REQUIREMENTS
Photoperiod :
Subtropical and tropical
species
10 hours (winter) to 14 hours (summer)
Temperate species 8 hours (winter) to 16 hours (summer)
Light :
All species UV and UVB: 290 to 320 nanometers
Basking light: 50 to 75 watts at least 18 inches from
basking area

28. RESTRAINING
• SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED LIZARD, TURTLE, CAIMAN MAY BE MANUALLY
RESTRAINED.
• MANY NONPOISONOUS SNAKES ARE ALSO EASILY HANDLED MANUALLY .
• CAIMAN CAN ALSO BE CONTROLLED BY A SNARE OR PARTIALLY PINNING ITS
HEAD
Figure. Controlling a small
cainman with a snare
Figure. Controlling a small
caiman by partially pinning its
head.
Figure. Proper support of a
medium-sized snake

29. RESTRAINING (CONT..)
• STRAP SNAKE LOOP AND PLASTIC SHIELD ARE USED TO APPROACH AND CAPTURE AN
AGGRESSIVE NONPOISONOUS SNAKE .
• SNAKE HOOK AND TUBES ARE ALSO USED FOR POISONOUS SNAKES .
Figure. Strap snake loop-used
at the San Diego Zoo.
.
. Figure. Restraining tool-
snake tube.
Figure. Restraining tool-
snake hook.

30. BLOOD COLLECTION
• SMALL AMOUNTS OF BLOOD MAY BE COLLECTED FROM A LIZARD OR TURTLE BY
CLIPPING A TOENAIL OR FROM THE RETROBULBAR VENOUS PLEXUS IN A LIZARD
FOLLOWING PROCEDURES USED IN COLLECTING BLOOD FROM LABORATORY
RODENTS.
• BLOOD FROM THE JUGULAR VEIN OF TORTOISE CAN EASILY BE COLLECTED .
• BLOOD CAN ALSO BE OBTAINED FROM THE JUGULAR VEIN OR DORSAL TAIL
VEIN OF TURTLES AND FROM THE VENTRAL VESSELS OF THE TAIL IN LIZARDS
AND SNAKES.
• THE VENTRAL VEIN, ALSO KNOWN AS THE CAUDAL TAIL VEIN OR COCCYGEAL
VEIN, IS USED FOR LARGER SNAKES .

31. BLOOD COLLECTION(CONT..)
Figure. Jugular venipuncture in a
sedated tortoise. The vein on the
animal’s right side may be larger
Figure. The ventral vein, also
known as the caudal tail vein or
coccygeal vein, is used in larger
snakes for collection of blood
Figure. Blood taking from
the ventral tail vein of
izard

32. MEDICATION
• A STOMACH TUBE CAN BE USED TO ADMINISTER MEDICATION AND NUTRIENTS
TO REPTILES THAT WILL NOT OTHERWISE ACCEPT FOOD.
Figure. Force feeding of a snake Figure. Feeding of a snake.

33. MEDICATION(CONT..)
• PROPOFOL CAN BE ADMINISTERED IN THE JUGULAR VEIN IN DESERT TORTOISE
(GOPHERUS AGASSIZII) FOR INDUCTION OF ANESTHESIA. ISOFLURANCE
ANESTHESIA IS ALSO POSSIBLE FOR TORTOISE .
Figure. Administration of propofol in
the jugular vein in a desert tortoise
(Gopherus agassizii) for induction of
anesthesia
Figure. Galapagos tortoise (Geochelone
elephantopus) under isoflurance anesthesia

34. MEDICATION(CONT..)
• THE TRACHEAL OPENING IS READILY VISUALIZED IN THE MOUTH OF MOST
REPTILES AND CAN BE EASILY AVOIDED WHEN INSERTING A STOMACH TUBE.
Figure. Green tree python (Chondropython
viridis) after placement of an endotracheal
tube

35. MEDICATION(CONT..)
• SUITABLE SITES FOR INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTION ARE THE MUSCLES ON EITHER
SIDE OF THE LUMBAR SPINE IN LIZARDS AND SNAKES AND THE TRICEPS MUSCLES
IN CHELONIANS AND LIZARDS. INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTIONS IN THE TAIL AND
HIND LEGS SHOULD BE AVOIDED IF POSSIBLE. AN INJECTION SHOULD BE GIVEN
BETWEEN SCALES RATHER THAN DIRECTLY THROUGH A SCALE IN SNAKES
Figure. Collecting intracardial
blood sample from a tortoise.s

36. FEEDING PRACTICES
Figure. In addition to rodents, snakes consume a wide
variety of species that humans often consider as pests, such
as grasshoppers, slugs, spiders, and centipedes. This
behavior works for, not against, human economies
Figure. Box turtle with serious ear infection or
warble fly – fly larve inside the swollen lump,
arrow marked.

37. FEEDING PRACTICES(CONT..)
Figure. Feeding of turtle Figure. Feeding of tuatara. Figure. A nile crocodile
with prey.
Figure. American
alligator eating a catfish.

38. NUTRITION AND NUTRITIONAL DISEASES
1. ANOREXIA AND STARVATION
2. VOMITING AND REGURGITATION
3. CONSTIPATION
4. METABOLIC BONE DISEASE
5. HYPOVITAMINOSIS A
6. THIAMINE DEFICIENCY
7. HYPOVITAMINOSIS E
8. GOUT
9. HYPOGLYCEMIA

39. ENVIRONMENTAL DISEASES
1. TRAUMA
NASAL OR ROSTRAL ABRASIONS RESULT FROM PRESSING AGAINST WIRE OR GLASS
SURFACES IN ATTEMPTING TO ESCAPE.
2. EXCESS HEAT
THERMAL BURNS MAY RESULT FROM CONTACT WITH HEAT SOURCES SUCH AS
LAMP BULBS.
Figure. Thermal burn in turtle

40. ENVIRONMENTAL DISEASES(CONT..)
3. BLISTER DISEASE
BLISTER DISEASE IS A FORM OF CUTANEOUS
INFECTION BEGINNING AS DERMAL VESICLES
THAT BECOME CASEOUS AS THE DISEASE
PROGRESSES.
4. SHELL PLATE SLOUGHING
IN CAPTIVE TERRESTRIAL CHELONIANS THE
HORNY SHELL PLATE MAY BE LOOSENED FROM
THE BONY BED FOLLOWING EXPOSURE TO A
DAMP ENVIRONMENT FOR LONG PERIODS .
BACTERIA AND ALGAE GAIN ENTRANCE AND
MAY CONTRIBUTE TO FURTHER LIFTING OF THE
SHELL PLATE
Figure. Various stages of white shell
disease in turtle.

41. BACTERIAL DISEASES
1. INFECTIOUS STOMATITIS
INFECTIOUS STOMATITIS ALSO REFERRED
TO AS MOUTH ROT AND ULCERATIVE
STOMATITIS IS MOST FREQUENTLY SEEN IN
CAPTIVE SNAKES BUT ALSO OCCURS IN
LIZARDS AND CHELONIANS. AEROMONAS
HYDROPHILA IS THE ETIOLOGIC AGENT .
Figure. Infectious stomatitis
(mouth rot) in a snake.

42. BACTERIAL DISEASES(CONT.)
2. PNEUMONIA
IN REPTILES, PNEUMONIA MAY BE CAUSED BY A. HYDROPHILA AND A NUMBER OF
OTHER BACTERIA. CLINICAL SIGNS INCLUDE NASAL DISCHARGE, OPEN MOUTH
BREATHING, AND WHEEZING.
3. SEPTICEMIC CUTANEOUS ULCERATIVE DISEASE (SCUD)
SEPTICEMIC CUTANEOUS ULCERATIVE DISEASE (SCUD) IS A DISEASE OF TURTLES
CHARACTERIZED BY LETHARGY, ANOREXIA, AND CUTANEOUS ULCERATION WITH BOTH
SHELL AND SKIN INVOLVEMENT. MORTALITY IS HIGH IN UNTREATED CASES.
CITROBACTER FREUNDII HAS BEEN INCRIMINATED AS THE ETIOLOGIC AGENT.

43. BACTERIAL DISEASES(CONT.)
4. ABSCESSES
ABSCESSES ARE COMMON IN CAPTIVE REPTILES
AND MAY OCCUR IN SUBCUTANEOUS
LOCATIONS, IN INTERNAL ORGANS, IN THE
MIDDLE EAR (TURTLES), OR UNDER THE OCULAR
SPECTACLE SHIELD. A GREAT VARIETY OF
MICROORGANISMS HAVE BEEN ISOLATED FROM
REPTILIAN ABSCESSES. TREATMENT CONSISTS OF
INCISION AND REMOVAL OF ABSCESS
CONTENTS, FLUSHING WITH HYDROGEN
PEROXIDE OR POVIDONE-IODINE SOLUTION,
AND PACKING WITH A WATER SOLUBLE
ANTIBIOTIC OINTMENT SUCH AS FURACIN.
PARENTERAL ANTIBIOTICS MAY ALSO BE
ADMINISTERED.
Figure. Elbow abscess in a green iguana.

44. BACTERIAL DISEASES(CONT.)
5. ULCERATIVE SHELL DISEASE
SHELL ROT AND SHELL "FUNGUS"
ARE OTHER TERMS FOR THIS
COMMON DISORDER OF AQUATIC
CHELONIANS. BENECKEA
CHITINOVORA HAS BEEN
INCRIMINATED AS THE ETIOLOGIC
AGENT, BUT OTHER
MICROORGANISMS ARE OFTEN
ISOLATED FROM THE SHELL LESIONS
Figure. Bacteria often cause shell disease in
turtles (left) and scale rot in lizards and snakes
(right

45. BACTERIAL DISEASES(CONT.)
6. DERMATOPHILOSIS
DERMATOPHILOSIS IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE PRESENCE OF HYPERKERATOTIC NODULES ON THE HEAD,
BODY, AND EXTREMITIES OF SOME SPECIES OF LIZARDS. THE ETIOLOGIC AGENT IS DERMATOPHILUS
CONGOLENSIS.
7. SALMONELLOSIS
NUMEROUS SEROTYPES OF SALMONELLA HAVE BEEN ISOLATED FROM REPTILES. CHLORAMPHENICOL
MAY BE SUCCESSFUL, EUTHANASIA IS USUALLY A MORE PRUDENT COURSE TO FOLLOW.
8. MYCOBACTERIAL INFECTIONS
MYCOBACTERIAL INFECTIONS ARE FAIRLY COMMON IN CAPTIVE REPTILES. THE INFECTIONS CAUSE
GRANULOMATOUS LESIONS IN THE SKIN AND INTERNAL ORGANS, LEADING TO A CHRONIC,
DEBILITATING, AND EVENTUALLY FATAL DISEASE. A ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL EXISTS -WITH SOME SPECIES
OF MYCOBACTERIA. GENTAMICIN IS REPORTEDLY EFFECTIVE IN SOME CASES.

46. VIRAL DISEASES
1. ADENOVIRUSES
ADENOVIRUSES MAY CAUSE FATAL LIVER OR GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES IN
CERTAIN SNAKES (GABOON VIPERS, BALL PYTHONS, BOA CONSTRICTORS, ROSY
BOAS, AND RAT SNAKES) AND LIZARDS (JACKSON'S CHAMELEONS, SAVANNAH
MONITORS, AND BEARDED DRAGONS).
2. PARAMYXOVIRUS
PARAMYXOVIRUS INFECTIONS ARE MORE COMMON IN VIPER SNAKES, BUT HAVE
BEEN REPORTED IN NONVENOMOUS SNAKES AS WELL.

47. VIRAL DISEASES(CONT.)
3. HERPESVIRUSES
4. INCLUSION BODY DISEASE OF BOID SNAKES
5. FIBROPAPILLOMATOSIS
SKIN LESIONS ARE INITIALLY PAPULAR BUT
EVENTUALLY COALESCE INTO PATCHES. ONE OF THE
MOST COMMON DISEASES THAT AFFECT GREEN SEA
TURTLES IS FIBROPAPILLOMATOSIS .
FIBROPAPILLOMATOSIS IS A DEBILITATING SKIN
DISEASE THAT AFFECTS SEA TURTLES ALL OVER THE
WORLD. SCIENTISTS ALSO THINK THAT THIS COULD
BE A VIRUS BECAUSE HERPES WAS FOUND IN 95% OF
ALL FLORIDA CASES.
6. CAIMAN POX
Figure. Green sea turtle showing signs of
fibropapillomatosis.

48. PARASITIC DISEASES
1. PROTOZOA
AMEBIASIS IS MOST COMMONLY SEEN IN SNAKES AND LIZARDS. OTHER PROTOZOAN PARASITES
REPORTED INCLUDE SPECIES OF CRYPTOSPORIDIA, COCCIDIA, TRICHOMONAS, AND HEXAMITA
2. TREMATODES
3. CESTODES
4. NEMATODES
5. MITES
THE MOST IMPORTANT MITE OF REPTILES IS OPHIONYSSUS NATRICIS, WHICH IS SEEN MOST
FREQUENTLY IN SNAKES AND OCCASIONALLY IN LIZARDS.
6.TICKS

49. MYCOTIC DISEASES
• FUNGAL INFECTIONS MAY BE SEEN IN THE FORM OF PNEUMONIA, ENTERITIS,
STOMACH ULCERS, KERATITIS, DERMATITIS, AND GRANULOMAS OF CONNECTIVE
TISSUE AND INTERNAL ORGANS. NONE OF THESE DISEASES SEEM TO BE OF MAJOR
EPIZOOTIOLOGIC IMPORTANCE.
• TOPICAL APPLICATIONS OF ORGANIC IODINE OINTMENTS AND 1% TOLNAFATE
CREAM HAVE REPORTEDLY BEEN EFFECTIVE IN TREATMENT OF SEVERAL CASES.
AMPHOTERICIN HAS ALSO BEEN USEFUL

50. MISCELLANEOUS CONDITIONS
1. HORMONAL DISORDERS
2. EYE ABSCESSES AND CONJUNCTIVITIS
ABSCESSES CAN OCCUR BELOW THE
CLEAR COVERING OVER THE EYES IN
SNAKES, AND CONJUNCTIVITIS OCCURS IN
OTHER REPTILES. THE SEVERITY OF THIS
CONDITION RANGES FROM MILD
INFLAMMATION TO INFLAMMATION
INVOLVING ALL THE TISSUES OF THE
EYEBALL.
Figure. Snakes most commonly have round pupils,
horizontal pupils, or vertical pupils. Vertical pupils can
dilate to the point that they almost appear to be round.
Snake vision may be inhibited before shedding (having
blue eyes) or by cataracts.

51. MISCELLANEOUS CONDITIONS(CONT..)
3. EAR INFECTIONS
EAR INFECTIONS OCCUR IN TURTLES, MOST
OFTEN IN BOX TURTLE AND AQUATIC
TURTLES. SWELLING MAY BE SEEN AT THE
EARDRUM, AND FIRM, DRY DISEASED TISSUE
IS PRESENT.
4. STAR-GAZING
Figure. Box turtle with serious ear infection .

52. MISCELLANEOUS CONDITIONS(CONT..)
5. ABNORMAL BEAK GROWTH
ABNORMAL BEAK GROWTH, WHICH INTERFERES
WITH FEEDING, OCCURS IN TURTLES AND
TORTOISES IT IS OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH POOR
NUTRITION, A DEFICIENCY OF CALCIUM, OR
BOTH. A CALCIUM DEFICIENCY MAY CAUSE THE
SKULL TO BECOME DISTORTED AS IT DEVELOPS.
FEEDING EXCESSIVE AMOUNTS OF DOG FOOD OR
MONKEY CHOW MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THIS
CONDITION. TREATMENT CONSISTS OF TRIMMING
OR GRINDING THE MOUTHPARTS INTO A MORE
NORMAL SHAPE.
Figure. Abnormal beak growth in a
turtle

53. MISCELLANEOUS CONDITIONS(CONT..)
6. DYSECDYSIS
DYSECDYSIS REFERS TO AN INCOMPLETE OR
ABNORMAL SHEDDING OF SKIN . LOW HUMIDITY
AND OTHER STRESSES, INCLUDING DECREASED
THYROID FUNCTION, SKIN PARASITES,
NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES, INFECTIOUS
DISEASES, AND LACK OF SUITABLE ABRASIVE
SURFACES, MAY ALL CONTRIBUTE TO AN
ABNORMAL SHED. EYECAPS ARE BEST TREATED
BY APPLYING AN OINTMENT MADE ESPECIALLY
FOR THE EYE AREA TWICE A DAY FOR SEVERAL
DAYS UNTIL THE REMAINING SKIN EITHER FALLS
OFF OR CAN BE GRASPED WITH A PAIR OF FINE
FORCEPS AND REMOVED.
Figure. Incomplete shedding (dysecdysis)
in a snake may lead to retention of the eye
cap

54. MISCELLANEOUS CONDITIONS(CONT..)
7. LEECHES
8. SKIN MAGGOTS
TURTLES FREQUENTLY HAVE SKIN MAGGOTS.
BOTFLIES CREATE A SKIN WOUND IN WHICH TO
LAY THEIR EGGS. THESE HATCH INTO BOTS THAT
LIVE IN THEIR CYST-LIKE STRUCTURES UNTIL
THEY ARE MATURE ENOUGH TO LEAVE THE
WOUND . Figure. Box turtle with serious ear infection
or warble fly – fly larve inside the swollen
lump, arrow marked

55. MISCELLANEOUS CONDITIONS(CONT..)
9.SCALE ROT
SCALE ROT (ULCERATIVE OR NECROTIC
DERMATITIS) IS SEEN IN SNAKES AND LIZARDS
. HUMIDITY AND UNCLEAN ENVIRONMENTS
APPEAR TO BE THE MAIN FACTORS THAT
CAUSE THIS CONDITION. MOIST, UNCLEAN
BEDDING ALLOWS BACTERIA AND FUNGI TO
MULTIPLY AND SECONDARY INFECTION WITH
OTHER BACTERIA MAY RESULT IN SEPTICEMIA
AND DEATH IF UNTREATED.
Figure. In addition to rodents, snakes consume
a wide variety of species that humans often
consider as pests, such as grasshoppers, slugs,
spiders, and centipedes. This behavior works
for, not against, human economies.

56. MISCELLANEOUS CONDITIONS(CONT..)
10. INFECTIOUS CLOACITIS
11. CRUSH INJURIES
12. NEOPLASMS
13.RETROVIRUSES
14. PAPILLOMAS

57. INTERISTING FACTS
Figure. Snakes of Bangladesh

58. INTERESTING FACTS(CONT..)
Figure. Various senses of this northern brown snake
(Storeria dekayi dekayi) are labeled, emphasizing its
eye, nostril, mouth, forked tongue, and lack of an
external
Figure. A prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis viridis)
using its front-fangs to inject venom into the neck of an
already dead tree lizard (Urosaurus ornatus). The snake's
eye, heat-sensing pit, front-fangs, and trachea are
emphasized

59. INTERESTING FACTS(CONT..)
Figure. A night snake (Hypsiglena
torquata) using its rear-fangs to inject
venom into the body of a live pinkie
house mouse (Mus musculus). The
snake's dilated vertical pupil, rear-fang,
and stretched skin are emphasized
Figure. A 5' long, 7 lb ball python (Python regius) laying down
next to a 3.5' tall, 42 lb, 5.5 year-old, sleeping child to get
warm. Snakes don't "size up" prey by lying next to them,
whether in captivity or in the wild. Pic of Jadyn M. Smith.

60. INTERESTING FACTS(CONT..)
Figure. Snakes possess many of the same vital organs that humans
have, with a couple of important exceptions.
Snakes have elongated organs, 3-chambered
hearts, and lack a diaphragm. This is a
female ~2.5' long Garter Snake (genus Thamnophis).