Gene expression involves the transcription of DNA into mRNA and the translation of mRNA into protein. In prokaryotes, genes are often organized into operons such as the lac operon, which coordinates the expression of genes required for lactose metabolism. The lac operon is regulated by the binding of repressor proteins in the absence of lactose and activator proteins in the presence of lactose. In eukaryotes, gene expression is controlled at the DNA, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels through regulatory proteins, signals, and environmental factors.
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the mechanism by which a cell transports proteins to the appropriate positions in the cell or outside of it.
Protein transport from ER to Golgi complex
Protein transport into Mitochondria
Transport of protein-protein translocators in mitochondrial membrane
Membrane protein of mitochondria
Component required for protein transport
Protein turnover is a balance between protein resynthesis and protein degradation.
Protein synthesis is done by translation that is dynamic process that involves the interaction of enzymes, tRNA, ribosomes and rRNAs, translation factors and mRNA.
Faulty or damaged proteins are recognized and degraded within cells, by eliminating the mistakes made during protein synthesis.
Proteins are constantly being degraded and resynthesized.
Location of protein degradation:
Proteins from diet are hydrolyzed in the digestive tract.
Proteins within each cell are broken down within that cell in a proteasome.
In eukaryotic cells two major pathways for degradation:
Ubiquitin proteasome pathway
Lysosomal proteolysis mediate protein degradation
Ubiquitin is a marker, 76 amino acid polypeptide conserved in all eukaryotic.
Proteolysis- protein is broken down partially into peptides or completely into acid by proteolytic enzyme.
Proteasome is major degradation machinery that carry out hydrolysis of protein.
Enzymes used- E1(ubiquitin activating enzyme), E2(ubiquitin conjugation enzyme), E3(ubiquitin ligase).
Proteins are marked for degradation by the attachment of ubiquitin to amino group of side chain of lysine residue.
Additional ubiquitin are then added to form multiubiquitin chain. Such polyubiquitinated proteins are recognized and degraded by large, multi subunit protease complex called proteasomes.
Ubiquitin is released in process, so that it can be reused in another cycle.
Attachment of ubiquitin and degradation of marked proteins require energy in form of ATP.
First ubiquitin is activated by being attached to enzyme E1.
The ubiquitin is then transferred to a second enzyme E2.
The final transfer of ubiquitin to target protein is then mediated by third enzyme E3. which is responsible for selective recognition of appropriate substrate protein.
Different members of E2, E3 families recognize different substrate proteins and specificity of these enzyme is selectively targets cellular proteins for degradation by ubiquitin proteasome pathway.
The other major pathway of protein degradation in eukaryotic cells involves the uptake of proteins by lysosomes.
The containment of proteases and other digestive enzyme within lysosomes prevents uncontrolled degradation of content of cell
Therefore in order to be degraded by lysosomal proteolysis cellular proteins must first be taken up by lysosomes.
One pathway for this uptake of cellular proteins, autophagy –involves formation of vesicles in which cytoplasmic organelles are enclosed in membrane derived from endoplasmic reticulum.
These vesicles then fuse with lysosomes, and degradative lysosomal enzymes digest their contents.
The uptake of protein into autophagosomes appears to be non selective so it results in slow degradation of long lived cytoplasmic proteins.
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the mechanism by which a cell transports proteins to the appropriate positions in the cell or outside of it.
Protein transport from ER to Golgi complex
Protein transport into Mitochondria
Transport of protein-protein translocators in mitochondrial membrane
Membrane protein of mitochondria
Component required for protein transport
Protein turnover is a balance between protein resynthesis and protein degradation.
Protein synthesis is done by translation that is dynamic process that involves the interaction of enzymes, tRNA, ribosomes and rRNAs, translation factors and mRNA.
Faulty or damaged proteins are recognized and degraded within cells, by eliminating the mistakes made during protein synthesis.
Proteins are constantly being degraded and resynthesized.
Location of protein degradation:
Proteins from diet are hydrolyzed in the digestive tract.
Proteins within each cell are broken down within that cell in a proteasome.
In eukaryotic cells two major pathways for degradation:
Ubiquitin proteasome pathway
Lysosomal proteolysis mediate protein degradation
Ubiquitin is a marker, 76 amino acid polypeptide conserved in all eukaryotic.
Proteolysis- protein is broken down partially into peptides or completely into acid by proteolytic enzyme.
Proteasome is major degradation machinery that carry out hydrolysis of protein.
Enzymes used- E1(ubiquitin activating enzyme), E2(ubiquitin conjugation enzyme), E3(ubiquitin ligase).
Proteins are marked for degradation by the attachment of ubiquitin to amino group of side chain of lysine residue.
Additional ubiquitin are then added to form multiubiquitin chain. Such polyubiquitinated proteins are recognized and degraded by large, multi subunit protease complex called proteasomes.
Ubiquitin is released in process, so that it can be reused in another cycle.
Attachment of ubiquitin and degradation of marked proteins require energy in form of ATP.
First ubiquitin is activated by being attached to enzyme E1.
The ubiquitin is then transferred to a second enzyme E2.
The final transfer of ubiquitin to target protein is then mediated by third enzyme E3. which is responsible for selective recognition of appropriate substrate protein.
Different members of E2, E3 families recognize different substrate proteins and specificity of these enzyme is selectively targets cellular proteins for degradation by ubiquitin proteasome pathway.
The other major pathway of protein degradation in eukaryotic cells involves the uptake of proteins by lysosomes.
The containment of proteases and other digestive enzyme within lysosomes prevents uncontrolled degradation of content of cell
Therefore in order to be degraded by lysosomal proteolysis cellular proteins must first be taken up by lysosomes.
One pathway for this uptake of cellular proteins, autophagy –involves formation of vesicles in which cytoplasmic organelles are enclosed in membrane derived from endoplasmic reticulum.
These vesicles then fuse with lysosomes, and degradative lysosomal enzymes digest their contents.
The uptake of protein into autophagosomes appears to be non selective so it results in slow degradation of long lived cytoplasmic proteins.
Oxidative phosphorylation or electron transport-linked phosphorylation)- the metabolic pathway in which cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients, thereby releasing the chemical energy stored within in order to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
every detail is available @biOlOgy BINGE-insight learning
Each cell in the human contains all the genetic material for the growth and development of a human
Some of these genes will be need to be expressed all the time
These are the genes that are involved in of vital biochemical processes such as respiration
Other genes are not expressed all the time
They are switched on an off at need
A series of metabolic reactions by which many different organism utilise fats for the synthesis of carbohydrate
Another Process Involving Glycolytic Enzymes and Metabolites
Anabolic metabolic pathway occurring in plants, and several
microorganisms , fungi not animals.
Occurs in glyoxysome
The enzymes common to the TCA cycle and the glyoxysomes are isoenzymes, one specific to mitochondria and the other to glyoxysomes.
The glyoxylate cycle allows plants to use acetyl-CoA derived from β-oxidation of fatty acids for carbohydrate synthesis (use fats for the synthesis of carbohydrates).
The glyoxylate cycle is a cyclic pathway that result in conversion of 2 carbon fragment of Acetyl CoA TO 4 carbon compound succinate then succinate is covert to oxaloacetate and then glucose involving the reaction of gluconeogenesis
microbial energetics. heat shock responses by the gram negative and gram positive bacteria by the protein synthesis mechanism, by those bacteria which are mesophiles in the nature and can survive onlyb at room tempertature.
Oxidative phosphorylation or electron transport-linked phosphorylation)- the metabolic pathway in which cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients, thereby releasing the chemical energy stored within in order to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
every detail is available @biOlOgy BINGE-insight learning
Each cell in the human contains all the genetic material for the growth and development of a human
Some of these genes will be need to be expressed all the time
These are the genes that are involved in of vital biochemical processes such as respiration
Other genes are not expressed all the time
They are switched on an off at need
A series of metabolic reactions by which many different organism utilise fats for the synthesis of carbohydrate
Another Process Involving Glycolytic Enzymes and Metabolites
Anabolic metabolic pathway occurring in plants, and several
microorganisms , fungi not animals.
Occurs in glyoxysome
The enzymes common to the TCA cycle and the glyoxysomes are isoenzymes, one specific to mitochondria and the other to glyoxysomes.
The glyoxylate cycle allows plants to use acetyl-CoA derived from β-oxidation of fatty acids for carbohydrate synthesis (use fats for the synthesis of carbohydrates).
The glyoxylate cycle is a cyclic pathway that result in conversion of 2 carbon fragment of Acetyl CoA TO 4 carbon compound succinate then succinate is covert to oxaloacetate and then glucose involving the reaction of gluconeogenesis
microbial energetics. heat shock responses by the gram negative and gram positive bacteria by the protein synthesis mechanism, by those bacteria which are mesophiles in the nature and can survive onlyb at room tempertature.
Gene regulation can be defined as any kind of alteration in the gene to give rise to a different expression which might result in a change in the synthesized amino acid sequence.”
Gene expression is basically the synthesis of the polypeptide chain encoded by a particular gene.
Therefore the expression of the gene can be quantified in terms of the amount of protein synthesised by the genes.
Regulation of gene expression.
It can be helpful for the students of Biotechnology, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Microbiology and othe Biology related courses.
If you've got any queries, you can directly mail me to pratimasingdan@gmail.com.
I hope this will help you a lot.
Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes finalICHHA PURAK
The power point presentation explains about regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes by means of Inducible and repressible operons with the help of Lactose(lac) operon and Tryptophan (trp)
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
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Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
2. Understand the concept of gene expression
Describe basic mechanism of regulation of gene
expression in prokaryotes and describe lac operon
concept and its regulation
Describe basic mechanism of regulation of gene
expression in eukaryotes
Understand the concept of gene expression
Describe basic mechanism of regulation of gene
expression in prokaryotes and describe lac operon
concept and its regulation
Describe basic mechanism of regulation of gene
expression in eukaryotes
3. Gene expression is the combined process of the transcription
of a gene into mRNA and its translation into protein.
Genetic mutation alter the regulation or expression of gene
and results in dysfunc- tional or non
-functional protein
synthesis
Information, encoded in DNA, is transcribed into RNA and
then translated into protein. It is called the gene expression.
Thus, gene is expressed in terms of synthesis of protein.
Gene expression is the combined process of the transcription
of a gene into mRNA and its translation into protein.
Genetic mutation alter the regulation or expression of gene
and results in dysfunc- tional or non
-functional protein
synthesis
Information, encoded in DNA, is transcribed into RNA and
then translated into protein. It is called the gene expression.
Thus, gene is expressed in terms of synthesis of protein.
5. The regulation of gene expression is essential for
metabolic functions, growth and development and
differentiation of tissues.
The rate of expression of prokaryotic genes is
control- led mainly at the level oftranscription, mRNA
synthesis.
Eukaryotes, however have a much larger and more
complex genome than prokaryotes. Gene expression in
eukaryotes is controlled by many ways.
The regulation of gene expression is essential for
metabolic functions, growth and development and
differentiation of tissues.
The rate of expression of prokaryotic genes is
control- led mainly at the level oftranscription, mRNA
synthesis.
Eukaryotes, however have a much larger and more
complex genome than prokaryotes. Gene expression in
eukaryotes is controlled by many ways.
6. Types of Gene Regulation
There are two types of gene regulation:
Positive regulation
Negative regulation
Types of Gene Regulation
There are two types of gene regulation:
Positive regulation
Negative regulation
7. Positive Regulation
When the expression of genetic information is increased
by the presence of a specific regulatory element,
regulation is said to be positive. The element or molecule
mediating the positive regulation is said to be an
activator or inducer.
Positive Regulation
When the expression of genetic information is increased
by the presence of a specific regulatory element,
regulation is said to be positive. The element or molecule
mediating the positive regulation is said to be an
activator or inducer.
8. Negative Regulation
When the expression of genetic information is diminished
by the presence of a specific regulatory element,
regula- tion is said to benegative and element mediating
negative regulation is said to be a repressor.
Negative Regulation
When the expression of genetic information is diminished
by the presence of a specific regulatory element,
regula- tion is said to benegative and element mediating
negative regulation is said to be a repressor.
9. Types of Genes
There are two types of genes:
Inducible gene
Constitutive gene.
Types of Genes
There are two types of genes:
Inducible gene
Constitutive gene.
10. Inducible Gene
Inducible genes are expressed only when an inducer is present, e.g.
Production of the enzyme β- galac- tosidaseis induced by the
presence of lactose in the prokaryotes
Insulin is an inducer of the gene glucokinase of glycolysis in
human beings.
Constitutive Gene
Constitutive genes refer to genes whose expression is not regulated.
They are expressed at a constant rate. These are often referred to as
housekeeping genes.
Inducible Gene
Inducible genes are expressed only when an inducer is present, e.g.
Production of the enzyme β- galac- tosidaseis induced by the
presence of lactose in the prokaryotes
Insulin is an inducer of the gene glucokinase of glycolysis in
human beings.
Constitutive Gene
Constitutive genes refer to genes whose expression is not regulated.
They are expressed at a constant rate. These are often referred to as
housekeeping genes.
11. REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION IN
PROKARYOTES
In prokaryotes, the genes involved in a metabolic pathway
are often present in a linear fashion, called an operon. For
example:
Lactose operon (Lac operon for regulation of
lactose metabolism)
REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION IN
PROKARYOTES
In prokaryotes, the genes involved in a metabolic pathway
are often present in a linear fashion, called an operon. For
example:
Lactose operon (Lac operon for regulation of
lactose metabolism)
12. LACTOSE OPERON OR LAC OPERON
Model for the regulation of lactose metabolism by
E. coli.
Definition of Lac Operon
Lac operon is a coordinated unit of gene expression
to make the enzymes necessary to metabolize
lactose.
LACTOSE OPERON OR LAC OPERON
Model for the regulation of lactose metabolism by
E. coli.
Definition of Lac Operon
Lac operon is a coordinated unit of gene expression
to make the enzymes necessary to metabolize
lactose.
13. Structure of the Lac Operon
1. Regulatory gene (lac i) produces a repressor protein
2. A promoter site (P) for the binding of RNA
poly- merase
. Promoter site contains two specific
regions:
Catabolite activator protein binding site (CAP site)
RNA polymerase entry site, to which RNA
polymerase first becomes bound.
Structure of the Lac Operon
1. Regulatory gene (lac i) produces a repressor protein
2. A promoter site (P) for the binding of RNA
poly- merase
. Promoter site contains two specific
regions:
Catabolite activator protein binding site (CAP site)
RNA polymerase entry site, to which RNA
polymerase first becomes bound.
14. 3. An operator site (O), a regulatory protein called the lac
repressor protein binds to this site and blocks initiation of
transcription.
4. Three structural genes, Z, Y and A, that code for β-
galactosidase, galactoside permease and trans- acetylase
respectively, required for lactose metabolism.
3. An operator site (O), a regulatory protein called the lac
repressor protein binds to this site and blocks initiation of
transcription.
4. Three structural genes, Z, Y and A, that code for β-
galactosidase, galactoside permease and trans- acetylase
respectively, required for lactose metabolism.
15. Regulation of Lac Operon
Lac operon is regulated by following mechanism:
1.Regulation in absence of lactose and presence of glucose.
2. Regulation in presence of lactose and absence of glucose.
3. Regulation in presence of both glucose and lactose.
Regulation of Lac Operon
Lac operon is regulated by following mechanism:
1.Regulation in absence of lactose and presence of glucose.
2. Regulation in presence of lactose and absence of glucose.
3. Regulation in presence of both glucose and lactose.
20. Gene expression in eukaryotes starts at DNA level and
ends with an enzyme catalyzing a particular chemical
reaction, or with structural/metabolic protein.
Signal molecules, environmental signals, and regulatory
proteins affect gene expression in eukaryotes.
Gene expression in eukaryotes starts at DNA level and
ends with an enzyme catalyzing a particular chemical
reaction, or with structural/metabolic protein.
Signal molecules, environmental signals, and regulatory
proteins affect gene expression in eukaryotes.
21. Gene expression in eukaryotes is controlled at five levels
1. DNA level (Replicational)
2. Transcriptional
3. Post-transcriptional
4. Translational
5. Post-translational.
Gene expression in eukaryotes is controlled at five levels
1. DNA level (Replicational)
2. Transcriptional
3. Post-transcriptional
4. Translational
5. Post-translational.
22. Five levels of regulation of expression of gene in eukaryotes.
