Both regularization and compression are important issues in image processing and have been widely
approached in the literature. The usual procedure to obtain the compression of an image given through a
noisy blur requires two steps: first a deblurring step of the image and then a factorization step of the
regularized image to get an approximation in terms of low rank nonnegative factors. We examine here the
possibility of swapping the two steps by deblurring directly the noisy factors or partially denoised factors.
The experimentation shows that in this way images with comparable regularized compression can be
obtained with a lower computational cost.
Illustration Clamor Echelon Evaluation via Prime Piece PsychotherapyIJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) covers all the fields of engineering and science: Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Thermodynamics, Structural Engineering, Control Engineering, Robotics, Mechatronics, Fluid Mechanics, Nanotechnology, Simulators, Web-based Learning, Remote Laboratories, Engineering Design Methods, Education Research, Students' Satisfaction and Motivation, Global Projects, and Assessment…. And many more.
Fractional pseudo-Newton method and its use in the solution of a nonlinear sy...mathsjournal
The following document presents a possible solution and a brief stability analysis for a nonlinear system,
which is obtained by studying the possibility of building a hybrid solar receiver; It is necessary to mention that
the solution of the aforementioned system is relatively difficult to obtain through iterative methods since the
system is apparently unstable. To find this possible solution is used a novel numerical method valid for one and
several variables, which using the fractional derivative, allows us to find solutions for some nonlinear systems in
the complex space using real initial conditions, this method is also valid for linear systems. The method described
above has an order of convergence (at least) linear, but it is easy to implement and it is not necessary to invert
some matrix for solving nonlinear systems and linear systems.
Comparative Study of the Effect of Different Collocation Points on Legendre-C...IOSR Journals
We seek to explore the effects of three basic types of Collocation points namely points at zeros of Legendre polynomials, equally-spaced points with boundary points inclusive and equally-spaced points with boundary point non-inclusive. Established in literature is the fact that type of collocation point influences to a large extent the results produced via collocation method (using orthogonal polynomials as basis function). We
analyse the effect of these points on the accuracy of collocation method of solving second order BVP. For equally-spaced points we further consider the effect of including the boundary points as collocation points. Numerical results are presented to depict the effect of these points and the nature of problem that is best handled by each.
Computer Science
Active and Programmable Networks
Active safety systems
Ad Hoc & Sensor Network
Ad hoc networks for pervasive communications
Adaptive, autonomic and context-aware computing
Advance Computing technology and their application
Advanced Computing Architectures and New Programming Models
Advanced control and measurement
Aeronautical Engineering,
Agent-based middleware
Alert applications
Automotive, marine and aero-space control and all other control applications
Autonomic and self-managing middleware
Autonomous vehicle
Biochemistry
Bioinformatics
BioTechnology(Chemistry, Mathematics, Statistics, Geology)
Broadband and intelligent networks
Broadband wireless technologies
CAD/CAM/CAT/CIM
Call admission and flow/congestion control
Capacity planning and dimensioning
Changing Access to Patient Information
Channel capacity modelling and analysis
Civil Engineering,
Cloud Computing and Applications
Collaborative applications
Communication application
Communication architectures for pervasive computing
Communication systems
Computational intelligence
Computer and microprocessor-based control
Computer Architecture and Embedded Systems
Computer Business
Computer Sciences and Applications
Computer Vision
Computer-based information systems in health care
Computing Ethics
Computing Practices & Applications
Congestion and/or Flow Control
Content Distribution
Context-awareness and middleware
Creativity in Internet management and retailing
Cross-layer design and Physical layer based issue
Cryptography
Data Base Management
Data fusion
Data Mining
Data retrieval
Data Storage Management
Decision analysis methods
Decision making
Digital Economy and Digital Divide
Digital signal processing theory
Distributed Sensor Networks
Drives automation
Drug Design,
Drug Development
DSP implementation
E-Business
E-Commerce
E-Government
Electronic transceiver device for Retail Marketing Industries
Electronics Engineering,
Embeded Computer System
Emerging advances in business and its applications
Emerging signal processing areas
Enabling technologies for pervasive systems
Energy-efficient and green pervasive computing
Environmental Engineering,
Estimation and identification techniques
Evaluation techniques for middleware solutions
Event-based, publish/subscribe, and message-oriented middleware
Evolutionary computing and intelligent systems
Expert approaches
Facilities planning and management
Flexible manufacturing systems
Formal methods and tools for designing
Fuzzy algorithms
Fuzzy logics
GPS and location-based app
Sparse data formats and efficient numerical methods for uncertainties in nume...Alexander Litvinenko
Description of methodologies and overview of numerical methods, which we used for modeling and quantification of uncertainties in numerical aerodynamics
This document contains notes on signal processing topics including random variables, probability density functions, joint and conditional densities, Bayes' rule, random signal models, maximum likelihood estimation, and more. It introduces common models for random signals including the moving average model and autoregressive moving average model. It also discusses estimating the parameters of models such as the autoregressive model using the maximum likelihood method.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
FITTED OPERATOR FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD FOR SINGULARLY PERTURBED PARABOLIC C...ieijjournal
In this paper, we study the numerical solution of singularly perturbed parabolic convection-diffusion type
with boundary layers at the right side. To solve this problem, the backward-Euler with Richardson
extrapolation method is applied on the time direction and the fitted operator finite difference method on the
spatial direction is used, on the uniform grids. The stability and consistency of the method were established
very well to guarantee the convergence of the method. Numerical experimentation is carried out on model
examples, and the results are presented both in tables and graphs. Further, the present method gives a more
accurate solution than some existing methods reported in the literature.
Illustration Clamor Echelon Evaluation via Prime Piece PsychotherapyIJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) covers all the fields of engineering and science: Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Thermodynamics, Structural Engineering, Control Engineering, Robotics, Mechatronics, Fluid Mechanics, Nanotechnology, Simulators, Web-based Learning, Remote Laboratories, Engineering Design Methods, Education Research, Students' Satisfaction and Motivation, Global Projects, and Assessment…. And many more.
Fractional pseudo-Newton method and its use in the solution of a nonlinear sy...mathsjournal
The following document presents a possible solution and a brief stability analysis for a nonlinear system,
which is obtained by studying the possibility of building a hybrid solar receiver; It is necessary to mention that
the solution of the aforementioned system is relatively difficult to obtain through iterative methods since the
system is apparently unstable. To find this possible solution is used a novel numerical method valid for one and
several variables, which using the fractional derivative, allows us to find solutions for some nonlinear systems in
the complex space using real initial conditions, this method is also valid for linear systems. The method described
above has an order of convergence (at least) linear, but it is easy to implement and it is not necessary to invert
some matrix for solving nonlinear systems and linear systems.
Comparative Study of the Effect of Different Collocation Points on Legendre-C...IOSR Journals
We seek to explore the effects of three basic types of Collocation points namely points at zeros of Legendre polynomials, equally-spaced points with boundary points inclusive and equally-spaced points with boundary point non-inclusive. Established in literature is the fact that type of collocation point influences to a large extent the results produced via collocation method (using orthogonal polynomials as basis function). We
analyse the effect of these points on the accuracy of collocation method of solving second order BVP. For equally-spaced points we further consider the effect of including the boundary points as collocation points. Numerical results are presented to depict the effect of these points and the nature of problem that is best handled by each.
Computer Science
Active and Programmable Networks
Active safety systems
Ad Hoc & Sensor Network
Ad hoc networks for pervasive communications
Adaptive, autonomic and context-aware computing
Advance Computing technology and their application
Advanced Computing Architectures and New Programming Models
Advanced control and measurement
Aeronautical Engineering,
Agent-based middleware
Alert applications
Automotive, marine and aero-space control and all other control applications
Autonomic and self-managing middleware
Autonomous vehicle
Biochemistry
Bioinformatics
BioTechnology(Chemistry, Mathematics, Statistics, Geology)
Broadband and intelligent networks
Broadband wireless technologies
CAD/CAM/CAT/CIM
Call admission and flow/congestion control
Capacity planning and dimensioning
Changing Access to Patient Information
Channel capacity modelling and analysis
Civil Engineering,
Cloud Computing and Applications
Collaborative applications
Communication application
Communication architectures for pervasive computing
Communication systems
Computational intelligence
Computer and microprocessor-based control
Computer Architecture and Embedded Systems
Computer Business
Computer Sciences and Applications
Computer Vision
Computer-based information systems in health care
Computing Ethics
Computing Practices & Applications
Congestion and/or Flow Control
Content Distribution
Context-awareness and middleware
Creativity in Internet management and retailing
Cross-layer design and Physical layer based issue
Cryptography
Data Base Management
Data fusion
Data Mining
Data retrieval
Data Storage Management
Decision analysis methods
Decision making
Digital Economy and Digital Divide
Digital signal processing theory
Distributed Sensor Networks
Drives automation
Drug Design,
Drug Development
DSP implementation
E-Business
E-Commerce
E-Government
Electronic transceiver device for Retail Marketing Industries
Electronics Engineering,
Embeded Computer System
Emerging advances in business and its applications
Emerging signal processing areas
Enabling technologies for pervasive systems
Energy-efficient and green pervasive computing
Environmental Engineering,
Estimation and identification techniques
Evaluation techniques for middleware solutions
Event-based, publish/subscribe, and message-oriented middleware
Evolutionary computing and intelligent systems
Expert approaches
Facilities planning and management
Flexible manufacturing systems
Formal methods and tools for designing
Fuzzy algorithms
Fuzzy logics
GPS and location-based app
Sparse data formats and efficient numerical methods for uncertainties in nume...Alexander Litvinenko
Description of methodologies and overview of numerical methods, which we used for modeling and quantification of uncertainties in numerical aerodynamics
This document contains notes on signal processing topics including random variables, probability density functions, joint and conditional densities, Bayes' rule, random signal models, maximum likelihood estimation, and more. It introduces common models for random signals including the moving average model and autoregressive moving average model. It also discusses estimating the parameters of models such as the autoregressive model using the maximum likelihood method.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
FITTED OPERATOR FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD FOR SINGULARLY PERTURBED PARABOLIC C...ieijjournal
In this paper, we study the numerical solution of singularly perturbed parabolic convection-diffusion type
with boundary layers at the right side. To solve this problem, the backward-Euler with Richardson
extrapolation method is applied on the time direction and the fitted operator finite difference method on the
spatial direction is used, on the uniform grids. The stability and consistency of the method were established
very well to guarantee the convergence of the method. Numerical experimentation is carried out on model
examples, and the results are presented both in tables and graphs. Further, the present method gives a more
accurate solution than some existing methods reported in the literature.
Exact Matrix Completion via Convex Optimization Slide (PPT)Joonyoung Yi
Slide of the paper "Exact Matrix Completion via Convex Optimization" of Emmanuel J. Candès and Benjamin Recht. We presented this slide in KAIST CS592 Class, April 2018.
- Code: https://github.com/JoonyoungYi/MCCO-numpy
- Abstract of the paper: We consider a problem of considerable practical interest: the recovery of a data matrix from a sampling of its entries. Suppose that we observe m entries selected uniformly at random from a matrix M. Can we complete the matrix and recover the entries that we have not seen? We show that one can perfectly recover most low-rank matrices from what appears to be an incomplete set of entries. We prove that if the number m of sampled entries obeys
𝑚≥𝐶𝑛1.2𝑟log𝑛
for some positive numerical constant C, then with very high probability, most n×n matrices of rank r can be perfectly recovered by solving a simple convex optimization program. This program finds the matrix with minimum nuclear norm that fits the data. The condition above assumes that the rank is not too large. However, if one replaces the 1.2 exponent with 1.25, then the result holds for all values of the rank. Similar results hold for arbitrary rectangular matrices as well. Our results are connected with the recent literature on compressed sensing, and show that objects other than signals and images can be perfectly reconstructed from very limited information.
The document describes sparse matrix reconstruction using a matrix completion algorithm. It begins with an overview of the matrix completion problem and formulation. It then describes the algorithm which uses soft-thresholding to impose a low-rank constraint and iteratively finds the matrix that agrees with the observed entries. The algorithm is proven to converge to the desired solution. Extensions to noisy data and generalized constraints are also discussed.
Mixed Spectra for Stable Signals from Discrete Observationssipij
This paper concerns the continuous-time stable alpha symmetric processes which are inivitable in the modeling of certain signals with indefinitely increasing variance. Particularly the case where the spectral measurement is mixed: sum of a continuous measurement and a discrete measurement. Our goal is to estimate the spectral density of the continuous part by observing the signal in a discrete way. For that, we propose a method which consists in sampling the signal at periodic instants. We use Jackson's polynomial kernel to build a periodogram which we then smooth by two spectral windows taking into account the width of the interval where the spectral density is non-zero. Thus, we bypass the phenomenon of aliasing often encountered in the case of estimation from discrete observations of a continuous time process.
This document summarizes a directed research report on using singular value decomposition (SVD) to reconstruct images with missing pixel values. It describes how images can be represented as matrices and SVD is commonly used for matrix completion problems. The report explores using an alternating least squares (ALS) algorithm based on SVD to fill in missing pixel values by finding feature matrices that approximate the rank k reconstruction of an image matrix. The ALS algorithm works by alternating between optimizing one feature matrix while holding the other fixed, minimizing the reconstruction error between the known pixel values and predicted values from multiplying the feature matrices.
Linear algebra has many applications including understanding networks and graphs, modeling complex systems like bridges and molecules, quantum computing, chaos theory, coding and error correction, data compression, and solving systems of equations. It can be used to analyze vibrations, study dynamical systems, and efficiently solve Lagrange multiplier systems.
11.solution of a subclass of singular second orderAlexander Decker
This document presents a method for solving a subclass of singular second order differential equations of Lane-Emden type using Taylor series. The method identifies conditions where the equations can be solved analytically as a polynomial function. Several examples from literature are provided and solved using the proposed Taylor series method to demonstrate its effectiveness. The method produces exact solutions in polynomial form and is shown to perform well on both linear and nonlinear boundary value problems.
This document discusses using the Taylor series method to solve a subclass of singular second order differential equations of Lane-Emden type.
The method is applied to solve boundary value problems that arise from modeling physical phenomena. The Taylor series method produces an analytic solution in the form of a polynomial function.
Several examples from literature are considered to demonstrate the suitability and viability of the Taylor series method for solving these types of differential equations.
The numerical solution of Huxley equation by the use of two finite difference methods is done. The first one is the explicit scheme and the second one is the Crank-Nicholson scheme. The comparison between the two methods showed that the explicit scheme is easier and has faster convergence while the Crank-Nicholson scheme is more accurate. In addition, the stability analysis using Fourier (von Neumann) method of two schemes is investigated. The resulting analysis showed that the first scheme
is conditionally stable if, r ≤ 2 − aβ∆t , ∆t ≤ 2(∆x)2 and the second
scheme is unconditionally stable.
This document proposes a dynamic formulation of the pattern recognition problem that accounts for non-stationary properties in the data universe over time. It considers the training problem when the discriminant hyperplane parameters (direction vector and threshold) change slowly over time. The training data then becomes a time series where each data point has a time marker. The training criterion aims to estimate a smooth sequence of discriminant hyperplanes over time to classify the time series data. An algorithm is developed that solves this problem with computational complexity proportional to the length of the time series.
GREY LEVEL CO-OCCURRENCE MATRICES: GENERALISATION AND SOME NEW FEATURESijcseit
Grey Level Co-occurrence Matrices (GLCM) are one of the earliest techniques used for image texture
analysis. In this paper we defined a new feature called trace extracted from the GLCM and its implications
in texture analysis are discussed in the context of Content Based Image Retrieval (CBIR). The theoretical
extension of GLCM to n-dimensional gray scale images are also discussed. The results indicate that trace
features outperform Haralick features when applied to CBIR.
This document provides an introduction to blind source separation and non-negative matrix factorization. It describes blind source separation as a method to estimate original signals from observed mixed signals. Non-negative matrix factorization is introduced as a constraint-based approach to solving blind source separation using non-negativity. The alternating least squares algorithm is described for solving the non-negative matrix factorization problem. Experiments applying these methods to artificial and real image data are presented and discussed.
Covariance matrices are central to many adaptive filtering and optimisation problems. In practice, they have to be estimated from a finite number of samples; on this, I will review some known results from spectrum estimation and multiple-input multiple-output communications systems, and how properties that are assumed to be inherent in covariance and power spectral densities can easily be lost in the estimation process. I will discuss new results on space-time covariance estimation, and how the estimation from finite sample sets will impact on factorisations such as the eigenvalue decomposition, which is often key to solving the introductory optimisation problems. The purpose of the presentation is to give you some insight into estimating statistics as well as to provide a glimpse on classical signal processing challenges such as the separation of sources from a mixture of signals.
The document summarizes key points about equality constrained minimization problems and Newton's method for solving them. It discusses:
1) Equality constrained minimization problems and their equivalent forms via eliminating constraints or using the dual problem.
2) Newton's method extended to include equality constraints, where the Newton step is defined to satisfy the linearized optimality conditions and ensures feasible descent.
3) An infeasible start Newton method that computes steps to reduce the primal-dual residual norm, ensuring iterates become feasible within a finite number of steps.
Conventional tools in array signal processing have traditionally relied on the availability of a large number of samples acquired at each sensor or array element (antenna, hydrophone, microphone, etc.). Large sample size assumptions typically guarantee the consistency of estimators, detectors, classifiers and multiple other widely used signal processing procedures. However, practical scenario and array mobility conditions, together with the need for low latency and reduced scanning times, impose strong limits on the total number of observations that can be effectively processed. When the number of collected samples per sensor is small, conventional large sample asymptotic approaches are not relevant anymore. Recently, large random matrix theory tools have been proposed in order to address the small sample support problem in array signal processing. In fact, it has been shown that the most important and longstanding problems in this field can be reformulated and studied according to this asymptotic paradigm. By exploiting the latest advances in large random matrix theory and high dimensional statistics, a novel and unconventional methodology can be established, which provides an unprecedented treatment of the finite sample-per-sensor regime. In this talk, we will see that random matrix theory establishes a unifying framework for the study of array signal processing techniques under the constraint of a small number of observations per sensor, which has radically changed the way in which array processing methodologies have been traditionally established. We will show how this unconventional way of revisiting classical array processing has lead to major advances in the design and analysis of signal processing techniques for multidimensional observations.
This document summarizes a novel algorithm for fast sparse image reconstruction from compressed sensing measurements. The algorithm uses adaptive nonlinear filtering strategies in an iterative framework. It formulates the image reconstruction problem using total variation minimization and solves it using a two-step iterative scheme. Numerical experiments show that the algorithm is efficient, stable, and fast compared to state-of-the-art methods, as it can reconstruct images from highly incomplete samples in just a few seconds with competitive performance.
The document discusses calculating and plotting the allocation of entropy for bipartite and tripartite quantum systems. It provides tables of entropy calculations for a bipartite system of |0> and |1> states, and checks that the results satisfy the subadditivity inequality. It also outlines the methodology to perform similar calculations and plots for other systems to visualize the convex cones of entropy allocation.
A derivative free high ordered hybrid equation solverZac Darcy
Generally a range of equation solvers for estimating the solution of an equation contain the derivative of
first or higher order. Such solvers are difficult to apply in the instances of complicated functional
relationship. The equation solver proposed in this paper meant to solve many of the involved complicated
problems and establishing a process tending towards a higher ordered by alloying the already proved
conventional methods like Newton-Raphson method (N-R), Regula Falsi method (R-F) & Bisection method
(BIS). The present method is good to solve those nonlinear and transcendental equations that cannot be
solved by the basic algebra. Comparative analysis are also made with the other racing formulas of this
group and the result shows that present method is faster than all such methods of the class.
The document discusses detecting unknown insider threat scenarios. It proposes an ensemble-based, unsupervised technique to robustly detect potential insider threats, including scenarios not previously identified. The approach uses a variety of individual detectors combined using anomaly detection ensemble techniques. It explores factors like the number and variety of detectors, and incorporating existing knowledge from scenario-based detectors. The technique is evaluated on its ability to detect unknown scenarios in real data. Several new insider threat scenarios and solutions are presented, such as wearable technologies, outsourced systems, knowing detection methods, and activity outside work.
Literature Survey on Buliding Confidential and Efficient Query Processing Usi...paperpublications3
Abstract: Hosting data query services with the deployed cloud computing infrastructure increase the scalability and high performance evaluations with low cost. However, some data owners might not be interested to the save their in the cloud environment because of data confidentiality and query processing privacy should be guaranteed by the cloud service providers. Secured Query should able to provide very high efficient of query processing and also should reduce in – house workload. In this paper we proposed RASP data perturbation techniques combines various objectives like random noise injection, dimensionality expansion, efficient encryption and random projection, henceforth RASP methodology are also used to preserves multidimensional ranges. KNN – R algorithm used to work with RASP range for processing KNN queries. The experimental result of our project carried out to define realistic security and threat model approaches for improved efficient and security.
Tribuz interiors is the best interior designers & decorator In Delhi NCR. Tribuz interiors are specialized in residential, commercial & hospitality turnkey projects. Tribuz interiors not only help with designs but also to restructure the dream homes.
Exact Matrix Completion via Convex Optimization Slide (PPT)Joonyoung Yi
Slide of the paper "Exact Matrix Completion via Convex Optimization" of Emmanuel J. Candès and Benjamin Recht. We presented this slide in KAIST CS592 Class, April 2018.
- Code: https://github.com/JoonyoungYi/MCCO-numpy
- Abstract of the paper: We consider a problem of considerable practical interest: the recovery of a data matrix from a sampling of its entries. Suppose that we observe m entries selected uniformly at random from a matrix M. Can we complete the matrix and recover the entries that we have not seen? We show that one can perfectly recover most low-rank matrices from what appears to be an incomplete set of entries. We prove that if the number m of sampled entries obeys
𝑚≥𝐶𝑛1.2𝑟log𝑛
for some positive numerical constant C, then with very high probability, most n×n matrices of rank r can be perfectly recovered by solving a simple convex optimization program. This program finds the matrix with minimum nuclear norm that fits the data. The condition above assumes that the rank is not too large. However, if one replaces the 1.2 exponent with 1.25, then the result holds for all values of the rank. Similar results hold for arbitrary rectangular matrices as well. Our results are connected with the recent literature on compressed sensing, and show that objects other than signals and images can be perfectly reconstructed from very limited information.
The document describes sparse matrix reconstruction using a matrix completion algorithm. It begins with an overview of the matrix completion problem and formulation. It then describes the algorithm which uses soft-thresholding to impose a low-rank constraint and iteratively finds the matrix that agrees with the observed entries. The algorithm is proven to converge to the desired solution. Extensions to noisy data and generalized constraints are also discussed.
Mixed Spectra for Stable Signals from Discrete Observationssipij
This paper concerns the continuous-time stable alpha symmetric processes which are inivitable in the modeling of certain signals with indefinitely increasing variance. Particularly the case where the spectral measurement is mixed: sum of a continuous measurement and a discrete measurement. Our goal is to estimate the spectral density of the continuous part by observing the signal in a discrete way. For that, we propose a method which consists in sampling the signal at periodic instants. We use Jackson's polynomial kernel to build a periodogram which we then smooth by two spectral windows taking into account the width of the interval where the spectral density is non-zero. Thus, we bypass the phenomenon of aliasing often encountered in the case of estimation from discrete observations of a continuous time process.
This document summarizes a directed research report on using singular value decomposition (SVD) to reconstruct images with missing pixel values. It describes how images can be represented as matrices and SVD is commonly used for matrix completion problems. The report explores using an alternating least squares (ALS) algorithm based on SVD to fill in missing pixel values by finding feature matrices that approximate the rank k reconstruction of an image matrix. The ALS algorithm works by alternating between optimizing one feature matrix while holding the other fixed, minimizing the reconstruction error between the known pixel values and predicted values from multiplying the feature matrices.
Linear algebra has many applications including understanding networks and graphs, modeling complex systems like bridges and molecules, quantum computing, chaos theory, coding and error correction, data compression, and solving systems of equations. It can be used to analyze vibrations, study dynamical systems, and efficiently solve Lagrange multiplier systems.
11.solution of a subclass of singular second orderAlexander Decker
This document presents a method for solving a subclass of singular second order differential equations of Lane-Emden type using Taylor series. The method identifies conditions where the equations can be solved analytically as a polynomial function. Several examples from literature are provided and solved using the proposed Taylor series method to demonstrate its effectiveness. The method produces exact solutions in polynomial form and is shown to perform well on both linear and nonlinear boundary value problems.
This document discusses using the Taylor series method to solve a subclass of singular second order differential equations of Lane-Emden type.
The method is applied to solve boundary value problems that arise from modeling physical phenomena. The Taylor series method produces an analytic solution in the form of a polynomial function.
Several examples from literature are considered to demonstrate the suitability and viability of the Taylor series method for solving these types of differential equations.
The numerical solution of Huxley equation by the use of two finite difference methods is done. The first one is the explicit scheme and the second one is the Crank-Nicholson scheme. The comparison between the two methods showed that the explicit scheme is easier and has faster convergence while the Crank-Nicholson scheme is more accurate. In addition, the stability analysis using Fourier (von Neumann) method of two schemes is investigated. The resulting analysis showed that the first scheme
is conditionally stable if, r ≤ 2 − aβ∆t , ∆t ≤ 2(∆x)2 and the second
scheme is unconditionally stable.
This document proposes a dynamic formulation of the pattern recognition problem that accounts for non-stationary properties in the data universe over time. It considers the training problem when the discriminant hyperplane parameters (direction vector and threshold) change slowly over time. The training data then becomes a time series where each data point has a time marker. The training criterion aims to estimate a smooth sequence of discriminant hyperplanes over time to classify the time series data. An algorithm is developed that solves this problem with computational complexity proportional to the length of the time series.
GREY LEVEL CO-OCCURRENCE MATRICES: GENERALISATION AND SOME NEW FEATURESijcseit
Grey Level Co-occurrence Matrices (GLCM) are one of the earliest techniques used for image texture
analysis. In this paper we defined a new feature called trace extracted from the GLCM and its implications
in texture analysis are discussed in the context of Content Based Image Retrieval (CBIR). The theoretical
extension of GLCM to n-dimensional gray scale images are also discussed. The results indicate that trace
features outperform Haralick features when applied to CBIR.
This document provides an introduction to blind source separation and non-negative matrix factorization. It describes blind source separation as a method to estimate original signals from observed mixed signals. Non-negative matrix factorization is introduced as a constraint-based approach to solving blind source separation using non-negativity. The alternating least squares algorithm is described for solving the non-negative matrix factorization problem. Experiments applying these methods to artificial and real image data are presented and discussed.
Covariance matrices are central to many adaptive filtering and optimisation problems. In practice, they have to be estimated from a finite number of samples; on this, I will review some known results from spectrum estimation and multiple-input multiple-output communications systems, and how properties that are assumed to be inherent in covariance and power spectral densities can easily be lost in the estimation process. I will discuss new results on space-time covariance estimation, and how the estimation from finite sample sets will impact on factorisations such as the eigenvalue decomposition, which is often key to solving the introductory optimisation problems. The purpose of the presentation is to give you some insight into estimating statistics as well as to provide a glimpse on classical signal processing challenges such as the separation of sources from a mixture of signals.
The document summarizes key points about equality constrained minimization problems and Newton's method for solving them. It discusses:
1) Equality constrained minimization problems and their equivalent forms via eliminating constraints or using the dual problem.
2) Newton's method extended to include equality constraints, where the Newton step is defined to satisfy the linearized optimality conditions and ensures feasible descent.
3) An infeasible start Newton method that computes steps to reduce the primal-dual residual norm, ensuring iterates become feasible within a finite number of steps.
Conventional tools in array signal processing have traditionally relied on the availability of a large number of samples acquired at each sensor or array element (antenna, hydrophone, microphone, etc.). Large sample size assumptions typically guarantee the consistency of estimators, detectors, classifiers and multiple other widely used signal processing procedures. However, practical scenario and array mobility conditions, together with the need for low latency and reduced scanning times, impose strong limits on the total number of observations that can be effectively processed. When the number of collected samples per sensor is small, conventional large sample asymptotic approaches are not relevant anymore. Recently, large random matrix theory tools have been proposed in order to address the small sample support problem in array signal processing. In fact, it has been shown that the most important and longstanding problems in this field can be reformulated and studied according to this asymptotic paradigm. By exploiting the latest advances in large random matrix theory and high dimensional statistics, a novel and unconventional methodology can be established, which provides an unprecedented treatment of the finite sample-per-sensor regime. In this talk, we will see that random matrix theory establishes a unifying framework for the study of array signal processing techniques under the constraint of a small number of observations per sensor, which has radically changed the way in which array processing methodologies have been traditionally established. We will show how this unconventional way of revisiting classical array processing has lead to major advances in the design and analysis of signal processing techniques for multidimensional observations.
This document summarizes a novel algorithm for fast sparse image reconstruction from compressed sensing measurements. The algorithm uses adaptive nonlinear filtering strategies in an iterative framework. It formulates the image reconstruction problem using total variation minimization and solves it using a two-step iterative scheme. Numerical experiments show that the algorithm is efficient, stable, and fast compared to state-of-the-art methods, as it can reconstruct images from highly incomplete samples in just a few seconds with competitive performance.
The document discusses calculating and plotting the allocation of entropy for bipartite and tripartite quantum systems. It provides tables of entropy calculations for a bipartite system of |0> and |1> states, and checks that the results satisfy the subadditivity inequality. It also outlines the methodology to perform similar calculations and plots for other systems to visualize the convex cones of entropy allocation.
A derivative free high ordered hybrid equation solverZac Darcy
Generally a range of equation solvers for estimating the solution of an equation contain the derivative of
first or higher order. Such solvers are difficult to apply in the instances of complicated functional
relationship. The equation solver proposed in this paper meant to solve many of the involved complicated
problems and establishing a process tending towards a higher ordered by alloying the already proved
conventional methods like Newton-Raphson method (N-R), Regula Falsi method (R-F) & Bisection method
(BIS). The present method is good to solve those nonlinear and transcendental equations that cannot be
solved by the basic algebra. Comparative analysis are also made with the other racing formulas of this
group and the result shows that present method is faster than all such methods of the class.
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Literature Survey on Buliding Confidential and Efficient Query Processing Usi...paperpublications3
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- Sandeep Mathur has over 20 years of experience in freight forwarding, warehousing, distribution, and logistics management. He has worked in various managerial roles at several companies.
- His most recent roles were as Regional Manager and consultant for setting up operations in India for a freight forwarding company from 2015-2016.
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first or higher order. Such solvers are difficult to apply in the instances of complicated functional
relationship. The equation solver proposed in this paper meant to solve many of the involved complicated
problems and establishing a process tending towards a higher ordered by alloying the already proved
conventional methods like Newton-Raphson method (N-R), Regula Falsi method (R-F) & Bisection method
(BIS). The present method is good to solve those nonlinear and transcendental equations that cannot be
solved by the basic algebra. Comparative analysis are also made with the other racing formulas of this
group and the result shows that present method is faster than all such methods of the class.
A Derivative Free High Ordered Hybrid Equation Solver Zac Darcy
Generally a range of equation solvers for estimating the solution of an equation contain the derivative of
first or higher order. Such solvers are difficult to apply in the instances of complicated functional
relationship. The equation solver proposed in this paper meant to solve many of the involved complicated
problems and establishing a process tending towards a higher ordered by alloying the already proved
conventional methods like Newton-Raphson method (N-R), Regula Falsi method (R-F) & Bisection method
(BIS). The present method is good to solve those nonlinear and transcendental equations that cannot be
solved by the basic algebra. Comparative analysis are also made with the other racing formulas of this
group and the result shows that present method is faster than all such methods of the class.
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Abstract: In this work, the fuzzy nonlinear programming problem (FNLPP) has been developed and their result have also discussed. The numerical solutions of crisp problems and have been compared and the fuzzy solution and its effectiveness have also been presented and discussed. The penalty function method has been developed and mixed with Nelder and Mend’s algorithm of direct optimization problem solutionhave been used together to solve this FNLPP.Keyword:Fuzzy set theory, fuzzy numbers, decision making, nonlinear programming, Nelder and Mend’s algorithm, penalty function method.
Title:Penalty Function Method For Solving Fuzzy Nonlinear Programming Problem
Author:A.F.Jameel, Radhi.A.Z
International Journal of Recent Research in Mathematics Computer Science and Information Technology (IJRRMCSIT)
Paper Publications
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This document provides examples of how linear algebra is useful across many domains:
1) Linear algebra can be used to represent and analyze networks and graphs through adjacency matrices.
2) Differential equations describing complex systems like bridges and molecules can be understood through matrix representations and eigenvalues.
3) Quantum computing uses linear algebra operations like matrix multiplication to represent computations on quantum bits.
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Computing Maximum Entropy Densities: A Hybrid ApproachCSCJournals
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This document discusses numerical methods for solving differential and partial differential equations. It begins by providing some historical context on the development of numerical analysis. It then discusses several common numerical methods including Lagrangian interpolation, finite difference methods, finite element methods, spectral methods, and finite volume methods. For each method, it provides a brief overview of the approach and discusses aspects like discretization, accuracy, computational cost, and common applications. Overall, the document serves as an introduction to various numerical techniques for approximating solutions to differential equations.
Penalty Function Method For Solving Fuzzy Nonlinear Programming Problempaperpublications3
Abstract: In this work, the fuzzy nonlinear programming problem (FNLPP) has been developed and their result have also discussed. The numerical solutions of crisp problems and have been compared and the fuzzy solution and its effectiveness have also been presented and discussed. The penalty function method has been developed and mixed with Nelder and Mend’s algorithm of direct optimization problem solutionhave been used together to solve this FNLPP.
Keyword:Fuzzy set theory, fuzzy numbers, decision making, nonlinear programming, Nelder and Mend’s algorithm, penalty function method.
An efficient approach to wavelet image Denoisingijcsit
This document proposes an efficient approach to wavelet image denoising based on minimizing mean squared error. It uses Stein's unbiased risk estimate (SURE), which provides an accurate estimate of mean squared error without needing the original noiseless image. The key idea is to express the thresholding function as a linear combination of thresholds, allowing the minimization problem to be solved via a simple linear system rather than a nonlinear optimization. Experimental results show the proposed method achieves superior image quality compared to other techniques like BayesShrink and VisuShrink.
This document compares three image restoration techniques - Iterated Geometric Harmonics, Markov Random Fields, and Wavelet Decomposition - for removing noise from images. It describes each technique and the process used to test them. Noise was artificially added to images using different noise generation functions. Wavelet Decomposition and Markov Random Fields were then used to detect the noise locations. These noise locations were then used to create versions of the noisy images suitable for reconstruction via Iterated Geometric Harmonics. The reconstructed images were then compared to the original to evaluate the performance of each technique.
Maximum likelihood estimation of regularisation parameters in inverse problem...Valentin De Bortoli
This document discusses an empirical Bayesian approach for estimating regularization parameters in inverse problems using maximum likelihood estimation. It proposes the Stochastic Optimization with Unadjusted Langevin (SOUL) algorithm, which uses Markov chain sampling to approximate gradients in a stochastic projected gradient descent scheme for optimizing the regularization parameter. The algorithm is shown to converge to the maximum likelihood estimate under certain conditions on the log-likelihood and prior distributions.
International Journal of Mathematics and Statistics Invention (IJMSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJMSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Mathematics and Statistics, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
CHN and Swap Heuristic to Solve the Maximum Independent Set ProblemIJECEIAES
We describe a new approach to solve the problem to find the maximum independent set in a given Graph, known also as Max-Stable set problem (MSSP). In this paper, we show how Max-Stable problem can be reformulated into a linear problem under quadratic constraints, and then we resolve the QP result by a hybrid approach based Continuous Hopfeild Neural Network (CHN) and Local Search. In a manner that the solution given by the CHN will be the starting point of the local search. The new approach showed a good performance than the original one which executes a suite of CHN runs, at each execution a new leaner constraint is added into the resolved model. To prove the efficiency of our approach, we present some computational experiments of solving random generated problem and typical MSSP instances of real life problem.
In this paper person identification is done based on sets of facial images. Each facial image is considered as the scattered point of logistic regression. The vertical distance of scattered point of facial image and the regression line is considered as the parameter to determine whether the image is of same person or not. The ratio of Euclidian distance (in terms of number of pixel of gray scale image based on ‘imtool’ of Matlab 13.0) between nasal and eye points are determined. The variance of the ration is considered another parameter to identify a facial image. The concept is combined with ghost image of Principal Component Analysis; where the mean square error and signal to noise ratio (SNR) in dB is considered as the parameters of detection. The combination of three methods, enhance the degree of accuracy compared to individual one.
The document reports on the results of three image processing projects. The first project implemented Lloyd-Max quantization to reduce image file sizes and Retinex theory to compensate for uneven illumination. The second project used principal component analysis to compute eigenfaces for face recognition. The third project performed linear discriminant analysis and tensor-based linear discriminant analysis for binary classification and visual object recognition. Illumination compensation subtracted an estimated illumination plane from image intensities to reduce shadows. Eigenfaces were the principal components of a training set of face images. Tensor-based linear discriminant analysis treated images as higher-order tensors to outperform conventional LDA.
Similar to Regularized Compression of A Noisy Blurred Image (20)
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Monitoring and Managing Anomaly Detection on OpenShift
Overview
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Key Topics Covered
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Monitoring and Managing Anomaly Detection on OpenShift.pdf
Regularized Compression of A Noisy Blurred Image
1. International Journal on Computational Science & Applications (IJCSA) Vol.6, No. 5/6, December 2016
DOI:10.5121/ijcsa.2016.6601 1
REGULARIZED COMPRESSION OF A NOISY
BLURRED IMAGE
Paola Favati1
, Grazia Lotti2
, Ornella Menchi3
and Francesco Romani4
1
IIT-CNR, Pisa, Italy
2,3,4
Dipartimento di Matematica, Università di Parma, Parma, Italy
ABSTRACT
Both regularization and compression are important issues in image processing and have been widely
approached in the literature. The usual procedure to obtain the compression of an image given through a
noisy blur requires two steps: first a deblurring step of the image and then a factorization step of the
regularized image to get an approximation in terms of low rank nonnegative factors. We examine here the
possibility of swapping the two steps by deblurring directly the noisy factors or partially denoised factors.
The experimentation shows that in this way images with comparable regularized compression can be
obtained with a lower computational cost.
KEYWORDS
Image Regularization, Image Compression, Nonnegative Matrix Factorization
1. INTRODUCTION
Let X* be an n×n matrix whose entries represent an image and let B* represent the corresponding
blurred image generated by an imaging system. Denoting by x*=vec(X*) and b*=vec(B*) the N-
vectors (with N=n2
) which store columnwise the pixels of X* and B*, the imaging system is
represented by an N×N matrix A such that
Ax* = b*. (1)
In general, the vector b* is not exactly known because it is affected by noise due to the
fluctuations in the counting process of the acquisition of the image, which obeys to Poisson
statistics, and to the readout imperfections of the recording device, which are Gaussian
distributed. Hence we assume that the available recorded image is B with vec(B)=b=b*+ηηηη. The
noise ηηηη is obviously unknown, even if in general its level η=||ηηηη||2/||b||2 can be roughly estimated.
Model (1) so becomes
Ax = b. (2)
Reconstructing x* given b is an ill-posed problem, because A may be severely ill-conditioned.
This kind of problem arises for example in the reconstruction of astronomical images taken by a
telescope and of medical and microscopy images, where the entry ai,j of A measures the fraction
of the light intensity of the ith pixel of x* which arrives at the jth pixel of b*. The quantities
involved in the problem, i.e. A, x*, b* and b, are assumed componentwise nonnegative and it is
reasonable to expect a nonnegative approximation of x* when solving (2). This is obtained by
imposing nonnegativity constraints, looking for a constrained least squares approximation of x*
given by
2. International Journal on Computational Science & Applications (IJCSA) Vol.6, No. 5/6, December 2016
2
xls = argminφ(x), under x ≥ 0, where φ(x) =
1
2
b − Ax 2
2
Because of the ill-conditioning of A and of the presence of the noise, when system (2) has a large
dimension the solution xls may be quite different from x*, and a regularization method must be
employed.
Iterative methods, coupled with suitable strategies for enforcing non negativity, may be used as
regularization methods if they enjoy the semi convergence property. According to this property,
the vectors computed in the first iterations are minimally affected by the noise and move toward
the solution x* but, going on with the iterations, the computed vectors are progressively
contaminated by the noise and move away from x* toward xls. A vector which is close to x* is
assumed as the regularized solution xreg of (2). A good terminating procedure is hence needed to
detect the correct index where to stop the iteration.
Once a regularized solution xreg has been found, one can apply a compression technique to the
n×n matrix Xreg obtained by partitioning column wise xreg, in order to reduce the storage required
for saving it. This second step can be accomplished by using a dimensional reduction technique,
for example by computing a low rank nonnegative approximation of Xreg. Since nonnegativity is
an essential issue in our problem, we refer here to the Nonnegative Matrix Factorization (NMF)
which computes an approximation of a nonnegative matrix in the form of the product of two low
rank nonnegative factors W and H, i.e. Xreg ≈ W H.
Besides this two steps procedure, other approaches can be followed to get low rank factorized
approximations of X*. A simple one that we consider here proceeds directly with the data A and b
without first computing Xreg and combines regularization and factorization steps. Another one,
that we also take into consideration following [1], factorizes B with penalty constraints in order to
obtain partially denoised factors, which are successively refined involving the action of the
blurring matrix.
In this paper we formalize these three procedures with the aim of testing and comparing their
ability to produce acceptable regularized compressed approximations of X*. The outline of the
paper is the following: some preliminaries on NMF applied to a general matrix are given in
Section 2. Then in Section 3 the procedures are described, with details on the use of FFT to
perform the matrix by vector products and to implement the generalized cross validation (GCV)
for the stopping rules when the blurring matrix has circulant structure. Finally, Section 4 presents
and analyzes the results of the numerical experiments.
2.NOTATION
For a given n1×n2 matrix M, we denote by m=vec(M) the vector of n1 n2 components which stores
columnwise the elements of M, by m(j)
, j=1, …, n2 the jth column of M and by
mi,j = (M)i,j = m(j)
i = (m)r
the (i,j)th entry of M, with r=(j-1)n1+i. Moreover we denote m′′′′=vec(MT
). In the following the
pointwise multiplication and division between vectors will be denoted with ×. and /. respectively.
With ei we denote the ith canonical vector of suitable length.
3. International Journal on Computational Science & Applications (IJCSA) Vol.6, No. 5/6, December 2016
3
2.1 THE NONNEGATIVE MATRIX FACTORIZATION (NMF)
Before dealing with our problem, it is useful to furnish some generalities on the problem of the
nonnegative matrix factorization.
The best factorization of a matrix X in terms of the Frobenius norm is achieved by the Singular
Value Decomposition (SVD) X=UΣVT
. The best k-rank approximation of X is computed by
suitably truncating the SVD, but the factors so obtained have in general negative components
even if X is nonnegative. Hence a different approach must be followed when non negativity is
required.
To fulfil the non negativity requirement, a Nonnegative Matrix Factorization (NMF) can be
applied. Originally NMF was first proposed in [2] as a dimensional reduction technique for data
analysis and from then on it has received much attention.
Let R+
n
be the n-dimensional space of vectors with nonnegative components. Given a matrix X of
n columns x(i)
∈ R+
n
, for i=1, …, n and an integer k << n, NMF looks for two low-rank matrices
W ∈ R+
n×k
and H ∈ R+
k×n
which solve the problem
minψ(W, H ), under W,H ≥ 0, with ψ(W,H ) =
1
2
X −WH F
2
(3)
where F denotes the Frobenius norm. In this way, each column x(i)
is approximated by the linear
combination with nonnegative coefficients hr,i of the vectors w(r)
for r=1, …, k. Problem (3) is non
convex and finding its global minimum is NP-hard, so one only looks for local minima. Most non
convex optimization algorithms, like for example standard gradient methods, guarantee the
stationarity of the limit points but suffer from slow convergence. Newton-like algorithms have a
better rate of convergence but are more expensive.
The following alternating nonnegative least squares (ANLS) approach, which belongs to the
block coordinate descent framework [3] of nonlinear optimization, has shown to be very efficient.
Its scheme is very simple: one of the factors, say W, is initialized to an initial matrix W0 with
nonnegative entries and the matrix H ∈ R+
k×n
which realizes the min X −W0H F
2
is computed.
The matrix so obtained is assumed as H1 and a new matrix W1 ∈ R+
n×k
which attains
the min X −WH1 F
2
is computed, and so on, updating W and H alternatively.
In practice the algorithm computes
Hν+1 = argminψ(Wν ,H ) , under H ≥ 0, given Wν
Wν+1 = argminψ(W,Hν+1), under W ≥ 0, given Hν+1
(4)
for ν=0,1, …, until a suitable condition verifies that a local minimum of the object function
ψ(W,H) of (3) has been sufficiently well approximated. The iteration stops when
εν −εν+1
εν
< tol where εν =
X −Wν Hν F
X F
(5)
for a pre assigned tolerance tol.
The choice of the initial matrix W0 may be critical, due to the fact that only a local minimum is
expected, which obviously depends on this choice. Typically, the algorithm is run several times
4. International Journal on Computational Science & Applications (IJCSA) Vol.6, No. 5/6, December 2016
4
with different initial random matrices and the run with the lowest error εν is chosen. Both
problems (4) can be cast in the following form
minϕ(Z), under Z ≥ 0, where ϕ(Z) =
1
2
U −VZ F
2
(6)
where U ∈ R+
n×n
and V ∈ R+
n×k
are given and Z ∈ R+
k×n
has to be computed. Specifically, U=X,
V=Wν, Z=H for the first problem of (4) and U=XT
, V=HT
ν+1, Z=WT
for the second problem of (4).
The gradient and the Hessian of ϕ are
G(Z) =VT
VZ −VT
U and Q =VT
V.
Although the original problem (3) is non convex, problem (6) is convex and can be easily dealt
with by applying any procedure for constrained quadratic optimization, for example an Active-
Set-like method [4, 5]. According to [6], the requirement that the non negativity constraints are
exactly satisfied at each step is necessary for convergence but makes the algorithm rather slow at
large dimensions. Moreover, in our context where the presence of the noise must be accounted
for, computing the exact solution of problems (4) is not worthwhile.
Faster algorithms have been suggested to compute iteratively approximate solutions with inexact
methods like gradient descent, Newton-type methods modified to satisfy the non negativity
constraints and coordinate descent methods. In the experimentation we have used the Greedy
Coordinate Descent method (GCD) specifically designed in [7] for solving problems of the form
(6) which proceeds as follows. Starting with an initial matrix Z0 (a possible choice is Z0 = O,
which ensures that G(Z0) ≤ O), the matrices Zµ µ=0,1, …, are computed iteratively with
Zµ+1 = Zµ + si,j
i∈I( j)
∑
j=1
n
∑ eiej
T
where the indices i in the set I(i) and their order are not defined a-priori, but are determined by
running conditions. The coefficients si,j are determined by minimizing function ϕ on the dyad
eiej
T
. For any j the indices i are chosen according to a maximal decrease criterium applied to ϕ.
The code for GCD can be found as Algorithm 1 in [7].
The dominant part of the computational cost of solving each problem (6) using GCD is given by
the cost of updating the gradient, in particular by the cost γkn =k n2
of computing the product VZ.
Hence the cost of computing the NMF factorization of the matrix X is γfac = 2 γkn itfac, where itfac
is the number of iterations required to satisfy (5).
3. THE PROBLEM
The problem we consider is the following: find a compressed approximation of the original n×n
image X* by solving in a regularizing way the system
Ax =b. (7)
By the term “compression” we mean an approximation given by the product of two k-rank
matrices, with k an integer such that k << n. Write the N×N given matrix A, with N=n2
, in block
form
5. International Journal on Computational Science & Applications (IJCSA) Vol.6, No. 5/6, December 2016
5
A =
A1,1 A1,2 L A1,n
A2,1 A2,2 K A2,n
M M O M
An,1 An,2 L An,n
, with Ai,j ∈ R+
n×n
System (7) becomes
Ai,j
j=1
n
∑ x( j)
= b(i)
, i =1,K ,n (8)
Due to the generally large size of the problem, some structure must be assumed for A. When the
problem is modeled by a Fredholm integral equation defined by a point spread function (PSF)
invariant with respect to translations on a bounded support, A is a 2-level Toeplitz matrix, i.e.
( ) ( ) ,, 1,1,,,1,1, −−−− == srjisrjijiji AAAA
Moreover, if periodic boundary conditions can be safely imposed, A becomes a 2-level circulant
matrix. Hence Ai,1 = Ai−1,nfor any i and the same structure holds internally for each block.
We assume as regularized solution xreg an approximation of the least squares solution xls obtained
by minimizing the function
φ(x) =
1
2
b − Ax 2
2
(9)
under nonnegativity constraints. The gradient and the Hessian of φ(x) are
gradxφ(x) = AT
Ax − AT
b, Hess φ(x)( )= AT
A (10)
Since the Hessian is positive semidefinite, φ(x) is convex. Its minimum points solve the system
gradxφ(x) = 0, i.e. the so-called normal equations AT
Ax = AT
b . The minimizer of φ(x) under
nonnegativity constraints can be approximated by any method for constrained quadratic
optimization. We suggest to use an iterative semiconvergent method to ensure the regularization
of the solution with starting point AT
b. The number of performed iterations is denoted by itsol.
3.1. THE FACTORIZING SYSTEMS
Let X be the n×n matrix obtained by partitioning columnwise x and set X=WH, with W ∈ R+
n×k
and H ∈ R+
k×n
. Replacing the relation x( j)
=Wh( j)
, j =1,K ,n, in (8) we get the system
Ai,j
j=1
n
∑ Wh( j)
= b(i)
, i =1,K ,n (11)
which in components is written as
Ai,j( )r,s
ws,t
s=1
n
∑
t=1
k
∑ ht,j
j=1
n
∑ = br,i, r,i =1,K ,n (12)
and equivalently
A(In ⊗W )h = b (13)
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6
System (13) allows computing the columns of H if W is assigned.
We now perform a permutation of A using the N×N matrix Π with blocks of the form Πi,j = ejei
T
.
The element A'r,s( )i,j
of the matrix A′′′′=ΠAΠT
is equal to Ai,j( )r,s
. System (12) becomes
A'r,s( )i,j
j=1
n
∑ ht,j
t=1
k
∑
s=1
n
∑ ws,t = br,i, i,r =1,K ,n (14)
and equivalently
A'(In ⊗ HT
)w'= b' (15)
System (15) allows computing the rows of W if H is assigned. The constrained least squares
solutions of the two systems (13) and (15) are
hls = argminφh (W,h), under h ≥ 0, where φh (W,h) =
1
2
b − A(In ⊗W )h 2
2
(16)
and
wls = argminφw (H,w), under w ≥ 0, where φw (H,w) =
1
2
b'−A'(In ⊗ HT
)w' 2
2
(17)
Problems (16) and (17) can be inserted into an ANLS scheme. In the first step of this alternating
inner-outer method we assume that W has been fixed and solve with respect to H, in the second
step H is fixed and W is obtained. Thus, starting with initial (W0, H0), a sequence (Wν, Hν),
ν=0,1, … is computed iteratively, with wν = vec(Wν), hν = vec(Hν) and
hν+1 = argminφh (Wν ,h), under h ≥ 0,
wν+1 = argminφw (Hν+1,w), under w ≥ 0,
(18)
Both problems (18) can be cast in the form
minϕ(z), under z ≥ 0, with ϕ(z) =
1
2
Mz −u 2
2
(19)
where M = A(In ⊗Wν ), z = h, u = b for the first problem of (18) and M = A'(In ⊗ Hν+1
T
), z
= w′′′′, u = b′′′′ for the second problem of (18). Problem (19) can be non negatively solved by any
procedure for constrained quadratic optimization. As starting point we choose (W0, H0) a rough
nonnegative factorization of the n×n matrix obtained by partitioning column wise bT
A .Two
stopping conditions should be set: one for the method used for solving the inner problem (19) and
one for the whole ANLS scheme. The total number of inner iterations performed when solving
the ANLS scheme is denoted by itsol.
3.2. THE PROCEDURES
We formalize now three procedures that we take into consideration for obtaining a compressed
approximation of the original image X* in the form of a k-rank factorization. • Procedure P1:
solve (8) with a method which enjoys the semi convergence property, starting with initial
approximation AT
b. Partition the solution xreg by column into the n×n matrix Xreg and apply
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7
NMF to obtain the factorization W(1)
H(1)
≈ Xreg using (5) with tolerance tol as a stopping condition
(in the experiments we set tol = 10-3
since lower factorization errors in the compressed images are
not remarkable at a visual inspection). For solving (8) we use (for comparison purpose) two
semiconvergent methods which enjoy nonnegativity feature: Expectation-Maximization (EM) [8]
and a scaled gradient projection method especially designed for nonnegative regularization (SGP)
[9].
• Procedure P2: apply the ANLS scheme to (18). Two initial matrices W0 and H0 are computed
through an incomplete NMF of the n×n matrix obtained by partitioning columnwise AT
b, i.e. an
NMF run for few iterations (in the experiments for only 5 iterations). Both problems (18) are
solved using the semiconvergent methods already used for procedure P1. The matrices computed
at the end of procedure P2 are denoted W(2)
and H(2)
.
• Procedure P3: include a penalty term in the function ψ(W, H) of (3) with the aim of balancing
the trade-off between the approximation error and the influence of the noise by enhancing the
smoothness of the factors. Since in general the noise acts in producing solutions of (8) of very
large magnitude, the function to minimize becomes
ψ(W,H ) =
1
2
B −WH F
2
+ λ W F
2
+ H F
2
( )[ ]
where λ is a scalar regularization parameter. Then apply NMF factorization to B. The mean of the
elements of B is considered a good choice for λ. The penalized factors Wp and Hp so computed
must be further treated to cope with the blurring. So the vector w'0 = vec(Wp
T
) is taken as starting
point for solving problem (17) with matrix Hp i.e.
min
1
2
b'−A'(In ⊗ H p
T
)w'
2
2
, under w ≥ 0 (20)
The matrix computed by solving (20), denoted W(3)
, is assumed as first final factor, the second
factor being H(3)
= Hp. The semi convergent methods already used for procedure P1 are used also
here.
The stopping condition used for these procedures is the generalized cross validation (GCV) (see
Section 3.5) with a tolerance θ which can be tuned according to the aims of the various
procedures.
3.3. COMPUTATIONAL COST
Apart the cost of computing the NMF factorizations which has been examined at the end of
Section 2, the main part of the computational cost of the procedures is due to matrix by vector
products. Denoting by γmxv the cost of this product, a procedure which runs for itsol iterations has
a computational cost of order itsol γmxv. Both the methods we use (EM and SGP) require two
matrix by vector products per iteration, but to this cost we must add the cost γsto for the test of the
stopping condition. Denoting by γA the cost of computing Ax, where A is an n2
×n2
matrix, for
system (8) it is γmxv = γA, while for system (13) (and equivalently for system (15)) γmxv is the cost
of computing A(In ⊗W )h, which is typically performed by A vec(WH). Then in this case γmxv =
γA + γkn where γkn is defined at the end of Section 2.
Procedure P1 consists of a reconstruction phase where system (8) is solved, followed by a
factorization phase. The corresponding iteration numbers are itsol and itfac. Also procedure P2
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8
consists of two phases, but in this case the factorization phase precedes the direct solution of the
systems of the ANLS scheme (18). The corresponding iteration numbers are itfac = 5 and itsol.
Analogously, for procedure P3 the two phases are a factorization and the direct solution of (20).
The corresponding iteration numbers are itfac and itsol.
The total cost results to be of order
itsol (2γA+γsto) + 2 itfac γkn for P1
itsol (2γA+γsto) + (10 + 2 itsol) γkn for P2 (21)
itsol (2γA+γsto) + 2(itfac+ itsol) γkn for P3
3.4. CIRCULANT MATRICES
The procedures described in Section 3.2 can be applied to matrices A of any form. In the case of
non sparse unstructured matrices the cost γA of the matrix by vector product can be as high as n4
.
We consider here the case of circulant matrices for which the product of A and AT
by a vector can
be performed using a low cost algorithm based on the fast Fourier transform (FFT).
A circulant matrix A of size N = n2
is diagonalized by the Fourier matrix F, whose elements are
fr,s =
1
n
ωrs
, r,s = 0,K n2
−1, with ω = exp(2πi /n2
)
Denoting by a
T
the first row of A, it holds A = F diag(Fa) F*, where F* is the inverse (i.e.
transpose conjugate) of F. Hence the product z=Av, where v and z are n2
vector, can be so
computed
a"= Fa, v"= F*
v, z = F(a"×.v") (22)
To obtain the product z=AT
v it is sufficient to take the first column of A as a or to replace a″″″″ by its
conjugate a″″″″* and z=AT
A v is computed by z = F(a″″″″* ×. a″″″″×. v″″″″). The multiplications by F or F*
can be efficiently computed by calling an FFT routine, which has a computational cost γft of
order n2
log n. Then the cost of performing a matrix by vector product when A has a circulant
structure is γmxv = 2 γft.
3.5. GENERALIZED CROSS VALIDATION (GCV)
The execution flow of iterative algorithms is ruled by stopping conditions. In our case, it is not
worthwhile to solve problems (18) too accurately. We suggest to use the Generalized Cross
Validation method (GCV) described in [10, 11]. The performance of GCV has been tested in [12,
13], and it resulted that GCV is more effective than other stopping rules when information about
the entity of the noise is not available. Given a sequence xν generated by an iterative method to
approximate the solution of the system Ax = b, the GCV functional is defined by
Vν =
N b − Axν 2
2
N − trace(Aν )( )
2 (23)
where the influence matrix Aν is such that Aνb = Axν. The minimizer of Vν gives a good
indication of the index where the iteration should be stopped, but in some cases this indication
can be misleading because of the almost flat behavior of Vν near the minimum, so it is suggested
to stop the iteration when
(Vν −Vν+1 )/Vν <θ
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9
where θ is a pre assigned tolerance. The larger the tolerance θ, the more anticipated the stop.
To apply (23) an estimate of the trace of Aν must be provided. When the method is applied to a
matrix A which has a 2-level circulant structure, it is reasonable to look for an estimate computed
through a 2-level circulant approximation Tν of Aν such that Axν≈Tνb. Denoting by tν
T
the first
row of Tν, we have Tνb = F diag(F tν) F*b, hence
tν ≈ F * F *(Axν )/. F *b( ) and trace(Aν ) ≈ (tν )
i
∑ i
(24)
Different ways to estimate the trace of Aν can be found in [14]. The estimate given in (24) is very
simple, but lays open the question of which method can exploit it. A preliminary ad-hoc
experimentation on the problems considered in the next section, whose exact solution x* is
known, showed that the index found using (24) was acceptable for both EM and SGP as long as
matrix A was circulant. The indices so obtained were only slightly smaller than the ones
corresponding to the minimum error and led to an anticipated stop. Since this outcome is
considered favorable in a regularizing context where a too long computation may produce bad
solutions, (24) has been used, together with an upper limitation on the number of allowed
iterations.
Using (24), the cost of applying GCV is γsto = 2 γft. Replacing γsto and γA = 2 γft in (21) we have
that the computational cost of the three procedures is
c1 γft + c2 γkn (25)
with c1 = 6 itsol, and c2 = 2 itfac for P1, c2 = (10+2 itsol) for P2, c2 = 2(itfac + itsol) for P3.
4. NUMERICAL EXPERIMENTS
The numerical experimentation has been conducted with double precision arithmetic. We
consider two reference objects X*, the satellite image [15] and a Hoffman phantom [16], widely
used in the literature for testing image deconvolution algorithms. For both images n=256 and
k=10. The compressed 10-rank approximations W*H* of X* are generated by means of NMF.
The compression errors of the images have been preliminarily measured by
ε* =
X *−W * H * F
X * F
and are ε*=33% for the satellite and ε*=40% for the phantom. The quantity ε* can be considered
a lower bound for the compression errors obtainable by applying any procedure to the noisy
blurred image with any noise level.
The matrix A which performs the blur is a 2-level circulant matrix generated by a positive space
invariant band limited PSF with a bandwidth τ=8, normalized in such a way that the sum of the
elements is equal to 1. For the astronomical image we consider a motion-type PSF, which
simulates the one corresponding to a ground-based telescope, represented by the following mask:
mi,j = exp(-α (i+j)2
-β (i-j)2
), -τ ≤ i,j ≤ τ, α=0.19, β=0.17.
For the image of medical interest we consider a Gaussian PSF represented by the following
mask:
mi,j = exp(-α i2
-β j2
), -τ ≤ i,j ≤ τ, α= β=0.1.
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For each problem, two noisy blurred images b (one with a small noise level and one with a large
noise level) are generated from the vector b* = Ax* by adding white Gaussian noises of different
variance. The obtained noise levels are η=5.6% and η=28% for the satellite, η=4% and η=21%
for the phantom. Figure 1 shows the original images X*, the compressed 10-rank approximations
W*H* and the noisy blurred images with the large noise level.
Figure 1. The original image X* (left), the compressed 10-rank approximation W*H* (middle) and the
noisy blurred image B with large noise level (right) for the satellite (upper row) and the phantom (lower
row).
The regularized compressed images are computed using the procedures P1, P2 and P3 described
in Section 3.2. In the case of procedure P1, the denoising is performed in the first phase and this
suggests to use in this phase a small value for θ, so we set θ = 10-4
. In the case of procedure P2
two possibly different tolerances could be considered for the inner and the outer steps. Anyway,
due to the alternating nature of the procedure, a tight convergence is not required and large
tolerance values can be set. The same value θ = 10-2
for both the steps has been found efficacious.
Also for the second phase of procedure P3, there is no need to fix a too small tolerance value so
we set θ = 10-2
.
Procedure P1 computes the regularized image Xreg and the factorization W(1)
H(1)
≈ Xreg with the
errors
εsol =
X *−Xreg F
X * F
, ε(1)
=
X *−W (1)
H (1)
F
X * F
.
Procedure P2 computes the initial factorization W0H0 by an incomplete NMF and the
factorization W
(2)
H
(2)
by solving directly problems (18) with the errors
εfac =
X *−W0H0 F
X * F
, ε(2)
=
X *−W (2)
H (2)
F
X * F
.
Procedure P3 computes the initial factorization WpHp using penalized NMF and the factorization
W(3)
H(3)
by solving problem (20) with the errors
εfac =
X *−WpHp F
X * F
, ε(3)
=
X *−W (3)
H (3)
F
X * F
.
11. International Journal on Computational Science & Applications (IJCSA) Vol.6, No. 5/6, December 2016
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For procedures P2 and P3 the error εfac is obviously the same for both methods EM and SGP.
Table 1 for the satellite image and Table 2 for the phantom image list
• the errors,
• the total iteration number, given in the form it = itsol+ itfac ,
• the coefficients c1 of γft and c2 of γkn in (25)
for both small and large noise levels.
Actually in a practical context, when k and log2 n are not too different (as in our experiments) γft
and γkn could be assimilated and the sum C = c1 + c2 would give a simpler idea of the cost.
Table 1. Results of procedures P1, P2 and P3 for satellite.
proc. met. small noise level large noise level
εsol ε
(1) it c1 c2 εsol ε
(1) it c1 c2
P1 EM 27% 35% 131+25 786 50 32% 36% 37+30 222 60
SGP 27% 34% 34+36 204 72 32% 36% 11+29 66 58
εfac ε
(2) it c1 c2 εfac ε
(2) it c1 c2
P2 EM 44% 41% 21+5 126 52 45% 41% 16+5 96 42
SGP 44% 38% 30+5 180 70 45% 40% 14+5 84 38
εfac ε
(3) it c1 c2 εfac ε
(3) it c1 c2
P3 EM 40% 38% 8+20 48 56 41% 40% 5+18 30 46
SGP 40% 38% 7+20 42 54 41% 39% 5+18 30 46
Table 2. Results of procedures P1, P2 and P3 for phantom.
proc. met. small noise level large noise level
εsol ε
(1) it c1 c2 εsol ε
(1) it c1 c2
P1 EM 33% 42% 185+15 1110 30 35% 43% 29+23 174 46
SGP 32% 42% 36+20 216 40 35% 43% 11+23 66 46
εfac ε
(2) it c1 c2 εfac ε
(2) it c1 c2
P2 EM 50% 48% 14+5 84 38 51% 49% 8+5 48 26
SGP 50% 47% 15+5 90 40 51% 48% 11+5 66 32
εfac ε
(3) it c1 c2 εfac ε
(3) it c1 c2
P3 EM 46% 45% 6+20 36 52 47% 46% 3+18 18 42
SGP 46% 44% 6+20 36 52 47% 45% 5+18 30 46
By comparing the performances of EM and SGP, we see that for what concerns the final errors
they have a comparable behaviour in nearly all the cases, but their computational costs vary.
SGP, which has often a better convergence rate, appears to be preferable.
More important are the differences among the procedures. Naturally, one expects that the earlier
we get rid of the noise, the best the final result. In fact, procedure P1, which acts on an already
regularized image, outperforms from the error point of view (but with a higher cost) the two other
procedures which act on only partially denoised images. Procedure P3, which acts on a better
denoised image than P2, outperforms it. For what concerns the computational cost, procedure P3
is clearly preferable.
12. International Journal on Computational Science & Applications (IJCSA) Vol.6, No. 5/6, December 2016
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Anyway, in spite of the numerical differences, the compressed images obtained from the final
products WH are hardly visually distinguishable, as it can be seen in Figure 2 (to be compared
with the intermediate image in the bottom row of Figure 1 which refers to the compressed
approximation of the original image).
Figure 2. Compressed images from the final products WH obtained by procedure P1 (left), P2 (middle) and
P3 (right) for the phantom (lower row).
5. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper three different procedures have been examined and tested to perform the regularized
compression of an image in the form of product of two low rank nonnegative factors. Such an
approximation can be obtained by applying first a regularizing step to the given noisy blurred
image and then a factorization step (procedure P1), or by combining regularization and
factorization steps in an alternating scheme (procedure P2), or by first factorizing the given image
with a denoising penalty condition and then applying a deblurring step (procedure P3).
In Figure 3 the trade-off between the final error and the computational cost is shown for the
satellite and phantom problems in the case of large noise level. It is self evident that procedure P1
allows computing a better approximation with a higher cost, but acceptable approximations can
be obtained with a significantly reduction of the cost with procedure P3.
Figure 3. Trade-off between the final errors ε(i)
and the quantity C = c1+c2 for large noise level, method EM
(solid line), method SGP (dashed line).
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