The document discusses reference and inference in language. It explains that referring expressions like proper nouns, noun phrases, and pronouns are used to refer to entities or people. Inference is needed to understand vague expressions. Referring expressions get their meaning from the context and co-text surrounding them. Co-text refers to the words surrounding a referring expression that help identify its referent. Both context and co-text are important for understanding reference.

1. Reference and inference
Reference *People refer
*Words
Referring expressions
* Poper nouns
*Noun phrases (definite/indefinite)
*Pronouns
Inference
* Entities = words
Vague expressions *Invent names
*”Mister aftershave is late today”

2. Referential and attributive uses
Indefinite noun phrases
a. There´s a man waiting for you
b. He wants to marry a woman with lots of money
c. We´d love to find a nine- foott- tall basketball player

3. Example b
“ (…)a woman with lots of money.”
Attributive use Referential use

4. “There was no sign of the killer”
Attributive use Referential use

5. “Expressions themselves
cannot be treated as having
reference but they are
“invested” with referential
function in the context by the
speaker or writer”
(Yule, 1996)

6. Names and Referents
 The version of reference being presented
here is one in which there is a basic ‘
intention -to-identify ‘ and a ‘recognition - of –
intention’ collaboration at work .This process
need not only work between one speaker
and one listener , it appears to work , in terms
of convention ,between all members of a
community who share a common language
culture.

7. THE ROLE OF CO-TEXT
THE CHEESE SANDWICH LEFT WITHOUT
PAYING.

8. 1. WHERE DOES THE SENTENCE TAKE
PLACE? HOW DO YOU KNOW IT?
2. WHICH IS THE SUBJECT OF THE
SENTENCE?
3. DOES IT REFER TO A REAL SANDWICH?
4. IS IT SYNTAXLY CORRECT?
5. IS IT SEMANTICALLY CORRECT?
6. IS IT PRAGMATICALLY CORRECT?
7. HOW DO YOU KNOW THAT IT REFERS
TO A PERSON? CAN A SANDWICH PAY A
BILL?

9. SHAKESPEARE IS ON THE SECOND
SHELF.

10. 1. WHERE DOES THE SENTENCE
TAKE PLACE? HOW DO YOU KNOW
IT?
2. WHICH IS THE SUBJECT OF THE
SENTENCE?
3. DOES IT REFER TO THE WRITER
OR WHAT?
4. IS IT SYNTAXLY CORRECT?
5. IS IT SEMANTICALLY CORRECT?
6. IS IT PRAGMATICALLY CORRECT?

11.  ALL THE WORDS WHICH SURROUND THE
REFERRING EXPRESSION HELP US TO INFERER THE
MEANING. THIS IS CALLED CO-TEXT.
 IT ACCOMPANIES THE REFERRING EXPRESSION AS
IN “BRAZIL WINS WORLD CUP”, WHERE BRAZIL IS A
REFERRING EXPRESSION AND WINS WORLD CUP IS
PART OF THE CO-TEXT.
 THE REFERRING EXPRESSION PROVIDES A RANGE
OF REFERENCE BUT THE CO-TEXT LIMITS IT.
 IT HELPS US TO REDUCE ONLY ONE POSSIBILITY. 
CO-TEXT IS JUST A LINGUISTIC PART OF THE
ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH A REFERRING EXPRESSION
IS
USED BUT THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT IS CALLED
CONTEXT. SO, THE WORLD AROUND US, THE
SITUATION IN WHICH A PIECE OF DISCURSE
HAPPENS IS THE CONTEXT

12. CAN WE ANALYSE THIS EXAMPLE?
THE HEART- ATTACK MUSTN´T BE
MOVED.
1. WHICH IS THE CONTEXT HERE?
2. WHICH IS THE REFERRING
EXPRESSION IN THE SENTENCE?
3. WHICH IS THE CO-TEXT HERE?

13. * REFERENCE DEPENDS ON LOCAL
CONTEXT AND THE LOCAL
KNOWLEDGE OF THE PARTICIPANTS.
* REFERENCE IS A SOCIAL ACT IN
WHICH THE SPEAKER ASSUMES
THAT THE WORD OR PHRASE
CHOSEN TO
IDENTIFY AND OBJECT OR PERSON
WILL BE INTERPRETED AS THE
SPEAKER INTENDED.

14. ANAPHORIC
REFERENCE
INITIAL REFERENCE
INTRODUCTORY MENTION
(INDEFINITE)
“A man ……”

15. SUBSEQUENT REFERENCE,
ANAPHORIC REFERENCE or
ANAPHORA (DEFINITE)
“There was a man …..Then
the man….”

16. ZERO ANAPHORA or
ELLIPSIS
“Peel an onion and slice it.
Cook for three minutes”