Reference words
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Reference words are used in writing to refer to people, objects, or ideas that have been mentioned previously to avoid repetition. They include pronouns like it, this, and they as well as words like those, former, and latter. Reference words allow the writer to substitute these referring terms for nouns and phrases mentioned earlier in the text for a clearer, more cohesive flow. The document then provides examples of specific reference words and their meanings and functions in writing.
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Reference words
Reference words are used to replace nouns or phrases that have been mentioned earlier in the text to avoid repetition. There are two types of reference words: anaphoric words refer back to something mentioned earlier, while cataphoric words refer forward to something mentioned later. Common reference words include pronouns like it/they/them as well as this/that/these/those. The former/latter are used to refer to the first or second of two items. Who/which/that distinguish between people and things. One/ones can replace a previously stated noun. Such refers to things similar to those already mentioned. Reference words help writers communicate clearly and concisely.
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Deixis
Deixis refers to expressions like pronouns and demonstratives whose meaning depends on the context of the utterance. There are several types of deixis: person deixis refers to pronouns like I, you, he; place or spatial deixis includes terms like here, there; temporal or time deixis involves expressions of time like now, then. Discourse deixis refers to expressions used within a conversation or discourse. Social deixis encodes social information about status. Deixis helps situate speakers and addressees in relation to each other and the surrounding context through indexical expressions.
Prefixes over ,under-, sub-, super-17
The document discusses prefixes that are added to words without changing the base word's spelling or pronunciation. Some of the prefixes discussed are over-, under-, sub-, super-, and out-. Examples are given of words using these prefixes and their meanings, such as overlook, underline, subway, and others. The prefixes can be added to words to indicate location, quantity, or position relative to something else.
English Tenses
This document provides an overview of English verb tenses and their uses. It discusses the simple present, past, and future tenses. It also covers the present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses. Additionally, it explains the present progressive, past progressive, and future progressive tenses. Finally, it discusses combinations of tenses like the present perfect progressive and future perfect progressive. Examples and forms are provided for each tense.
Transitive and intransitive verbs
This document discusses transitive and intransitive verbs. A transitive verb denotes an action that passes from the subject to an object, and can be converted to passive voice. Examples include "She made pizza" and "The boy cut his hand." An intransitive verb denotes an action without an object and cannot be converted to passive voice. Examples include "The sun shines" and "The train stopped." To identify verb types, check if the sentence has an object or can be made passive. This helps determine if the verb is transitive or intransitive.
Cohesion: Reference Words
Reference words are used to avoid repeating words and refer back to people, objects, or ideas mentioned earlier or refer forward to those mentioned later. Common reference words include it/they/them, this/that/these/those, the former/the latter, who/which/that, one/ones, and such. These reference words help writers streamline their writing and prevent redundancy.
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Reference words
Reference words are used to replace nouns or phrases that have been mentioned earlier in the text to avoid repetition. There are two types of reference words: anaphoric words refer back to something mentioned earlier, while cataphoric words refer forward to something mentioned later. Common reference words include pronouns like it/they/them as well as this/that/these/those. The former/latter are used to refer to the first or second of two items. Who/which/that distinguish between people and things. One/ones can replace a previously stated noun. Such refers to things similar to those already mentioned. Reference words help writers communicate clearly and concisely.
Understanding adverbs
Adverbs in English communication is the key to make a correct, accurate, and meaningful #communication. This will help the #students #brandmanagers #corporate #executives #presenter to have a more meaningful communication
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Deixis refers to expressions like pronouns and demonstratives whose meaning depends on the context of the utterance. There are several types of deixis: person deixis refers to pronouns like I, you, he; place or spatial deixis includes terms like here, there; temporal or time deixis involves expressions of time like now, then. Discourse deixis refers to expressions used within a conversation or discourse. Social deixis encodes social information about status. Deixis helps situate speakers and addressees in relation to each other and the surrounding context through indexical expressions.
Prefixes over ,under-, sub-, super-17
The document discusses prefixes that are added to words without changing the base word's spelling or pronunciation. Some of the prefixes discussed are over-, under-, sub-, super-, and out-. Examples are given of words using these prefixes and their meanings, such as overlook, underline, subway, and others. The prefixes can be added to words to indicate location, quantity, or position relative to something else.
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This document discusses transitive and intransitive verbs. A transitive verb denotes an action that passes from the subject to an object, and can be converted to passive voice. Examples include "She made pizza" and "The boy cut his hand." An intransitive verb denotes an action without an object and cannot be converted to passive voice. Examples include "The sun shines" and "The train stopped." To identify verb types, check if the sentence has an object or can be made passive. This helps determine if the verb is transitive or intransitive.
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Reference words are used to avoid repeating words and refer back to people, objects, or ideas mentioned earlier or refer forward to those mentioned later. Common reference words include it/they/them, this/that/these/those, the former/the latter, who/which/that, one/ones, and such. These reference words help writers streamline their writing and prevent redundancy.
Reflexive and emphatic_pronouns
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Past perfect tense
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Pronoun
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The Simple Past Tense
The document discusses the simple past tense in English. It explains that regular verbs are made past tense by adding "-ed" or "-d", while irregular verbs have unique past forms that must be memorized. It provides examples of common irregular verbs. The simple past can be used to talk about completed actions at a specific time in the past or habitual actions that are no longer occurring. It also covers forming negative and interrogative sentences in the past tense.
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The indefinite article
The document discusses the indefinite article in English. It notes that there are two forms: "a" and "an", with "a" used before consonant sounds and "an" before vowel sounds. It provides several exceptions to this rule and examples of the indefinite article used before occupations, titles, quantities, and in certain expressions. The document concludes with a short quiz testing the use of the indefinite article in different contexts.
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2. Adjective clauses can be formed by combining two sentences with a repeated noun into one sentence, replacing the repeated noun with a relative pronoun.
3. Common relative pronouns used in adjective clauses include who, whom, which, that, whose, when, and where. Restrictive adjective clauses are essential to identify the noun, while nonrestrictive clauses provide extra information.
Determiner and its types
Here is the passage with articles added where needed:
John lives in the apartment with his mom, dad and sister Katy. The apartment has
three bedrooms, a kitchen, a bathroom and a living room. John’s mom works in an
office and his dad stays at home and looks after the apartment. He spends much of
his time in the kitchen, preparing meals. John and Katy help their dad with the
housework. John likes using the vacuum cleaner.
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The document discusses direct and indirect speech. Direct speech uses exact words from a speaker and uses quotation marks, while indirect speech does not use the exact words and does not use quotation marks. When changing from direct to indirect speech, pronouns, tenses, adverbs of time and place may need to change according to reporting formulas. Verb tenses only change if the reporting verb is in the past tense.
Past perfect tense
The past perfect tense refers to an action that was completed before something else in the past. It is formed using the past tense of the auxiliary verb "have" and the past participle of the main verb. It is used to talk about events that occurred prior to something in the past or to indicate that something started in the past and continued up until another past event. Specific time expressions can be used with the past perfect tense but are not always necessary.
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Pronouns are words used instead of nouns that have already been mentioned. Some common pronouns are he, she, it, I, we, they, you. Pronouns can be used as subjects or objects. There are different types of pronouns including personal pronouns that refer to the speaker, person spoken to, or person spoken about. Other pronoun types are possessive, reflexive, emphatic, interrogative, demonstrative, relative, distributive, reciprocal, and indefinite pronouns. An example is provided to illustrate the different pronoun types.
Homophones
Homophones are words that sound the same but are spelled differently and have different meanings. Understanding homophones can help increase your vocabulary. Examples are blew/blue, foul/fowl, ball/bawl, read/reed, rain/rein, bough/bow. A worksheet provides sentences using some of the homophones to practice distinguishing their meanings. The document relates to language arts and technology objectives about increasing sight words, using reference materials, and using multimedia tools to present ideas.
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This document defines and provides examples of different types of pronouns in English. It discusses personal pronouns and their cases, compound personal pronouns like myself and yourselves, interrogative pronouns like who and what, demonstrative pronouns like this and that, indefinite pronouns like some and many, numerical pronouns like one and first, reciprocal pronouns like each other, and relative pronouns like who and that. Pronouns are used instead of repeating nouns and can display different cases depending on their function in a sentence.
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This document provides information on the different types of articles in English - indefinite articles (a/an), definite articles (the), and zero articles (no article). It discusses the rules for using each type of article and provides examples. Key points include how a/an is used with singular countable nouns, the is used when the identity of the noun is clear from the context, and the zero article is used with plural and uncountable nouns. Exercises are included for the reader to practice applying the article rules.
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The document discusses different ways to report what someone else has said, including using direct versus indirect speech. It explains how to change verbs, pronouns, places and times when converting direct speech to indirect speech. Reporting questions and requests are also covered, as well as verbs used to report offers, suggestions and other speech acts.
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This document discusses relative clauses and relative pronouns in English. It explains that relative clauses add information about a noun and begin with a relative pronoun like who, which, that. Defining relative clauses identify the noun, while non-defining clauses add extra information. Who refers to people, which and that refer to things, and whose is used to talk about possession. The document provides examples and guidelines for using relative pronouns correctly in different contexts.
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This document provides examples and explanations for using the definite and indefinite articles "the", "a", and "an" in English. It explains that "the" is used for things that are specific or already mentioned, while "a/an" is used for general or non-specific things. It gives examples of when to use each, such as "the sky" but "a star". It also lists cases when no article is used, such as with countries, languages, meals, professions and years. The document concludes with a quiz testing the use of articles.
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The document discusses the differences between using "will" and "be going to" to express future tense in English. It explains that "will" is used for voluntary actions or promises, while "be going to" expresses planned actions. Both can also be used to make predictions about events outside of one's control. Examples are provided to illustrate the proper usage of each form.
Phrasal Verbs And Prepositional Verbs
Phrasal verbs are multi-word verbs made up of a verb and another word, such as an adverb. They can be intransitive, with no direct object, or transitive, with a direct object. Examples of phrasal verbs provided are "get up", "break down", "put off", and "turn down". Prepositional verbs are also multi-word verbs consisting of a verb and preposition, and they always take a direct object. Examples given are "believe in", "look after", and "wait for". Unlike phrasal verbs, the parts of prepositional verbs cannot be separated and must be used together.
Embedded questions
The document discusses how to ask questions more politely and formally in English. It provides examples of embedding questions using introductory phrases like "Could you tell me" and changing the word order. Additional introductory phrases are suggested for asking questions politely, such as "Do you know", "Can you tell me", and "Do you have any idea".
The Simple Past Tense
The document discusses the simple past tense in English. It explains that regular verbs are made past tense by adding "-ed" or "-d", while irregular verbs have unique past forms that must be memorized. It provides examples of common irregular verbs. The simple past can be used to talk about completed actions at a specific time in the past or habitual actions that are no longer occurring. It also covers forming negative and interrogative sentences in the past tense.
Adverbs
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The indefinite article
The document discusses the indefinite article in English. It notes that there are two forms: "a" and "an", with "a" used before consonant sounds and "an" before vowel sounds. It provides several exceptions to this rule and examples of the indefinite article used before occupations, titles, quantities, and in certain expressions. The document concludes with a short quiz testing the use of the indefinite article in different contexts.
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Articles in English (A, and, the, and the zero article)
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Similar to Reference words
Adjective clauses
1. Adjective clauses modify nouns and provide additional information about the noun, like adjectives. They contain both a subject and predicate and always follow the noun they modify.
2. Adjective clauses can be formed by combining two sentences with a repeated noun into one sentence, replacing the repeated noun with a relative pronoun.
3. Common relative pronouns used in adjective clauses include who, whom, which, that, whose, when, and where. Restrictive adjective clauses are essential to identify the noun, while nonrestrictive clauses provide extra information.
Determiner and its types
Here is the passage with articles added where needed:
John lives in the apartment with his mom, dad and sister Katy. The apartment has
three bedrooms, a kitchen, a bathroom and a living room. John’s mom works in an
office and his dad stays at home and looks after the apartment. He spends much of
his time in the kitchen, preparing meals. John and Katy help their dad with the
housework. John likes using the vacuum cleaner.
Deixis presentation
Deixis refers to linguistic expressions that can only be interpreted based on contextual information about who is speaking, where, and when. Deixis includes pronouns like I, you, and demonstratives like this and that. The meaning of deictic expressions depends on the deictic center, which is the speaker's point of view in terms of person, place, and time. There are different types of deixis, including person deixis referring to speakers and addressees, place deixis indicating locations, and time deixis referring to moments in time. Deixis is a fundamental aspect of language that allows speakers to anchor meanings to the immediate context of an utterance.
Uvod u morfosintaksu, lecture 01, 12 13
Traditional definitions of parts of speech based on meaning are criticized by linguists. Notional definitions assume a direct link between grammatical form and semantic meaning, but the relationship is complex. For example, "rejection" and "rejected" have similar meanings but different grammatical functions. Satisfactory definitions must identify grammatical properties that distinguish parts of speech. Words are classified according to their properties in phrases and clauses, not their meanings. Parts of speech fall into closed classes that are finite and stable, or open classes that constantly change.
Referential theory of meaning
The referential theory of meaning holds that (1) words function as labels that stand for or refer to objects, people, and states of affairs in the real world, and (2) the meaning of a sentence is determined by the individual references of its components and how they are combined. However, this theory faces four key problems: (1) some words like "nobody" don't refer to real objects, (2) words can have different meanings despite referring to the same thing, (3) the objects words refer to are constantly changing, and (4) people's semantic expertise, or ability to identify referents, varies.
Recognizing and interpreting cohesive devices
This document discusses cohesive devices, which are words or phrases that link different parts of a text together and help guide the reader's understanding. It provides examples of various types of cohesive devices like conjunctions, pronouns, and ellipses. Conjunctions link sentences or clauses and express logical relationships, while pronouns and ellipses help avoid repetition. Cohesive devices help create a unified whole and improve comprehension by signaling relationships between ideas.
Phrase and sentence meaning
This document discusses the concepts of phrase and sentence meaning, extension and intension, and sense and reference.
It explains that the meaning of phrases and sentences depends on both the meaning of the individual words as well as how those words are structurally combined. It also describes intension as the internal content or formal definition of a term, while extension refers to the range of objects to which a term applies. Finally, it distinguishes sense, which deals with relationships within language, from reference, which involves the relationship between language and real-world objects. Sense is the place of an expression within a system of semantic relationships, while reference can be either variable, applying to different types of objects, or constant, referring to the same
REFERENCE
1. Definition of referents and referring expression.
2. example of referents and referring expression
3. Extension and Intension
4. Some different kinds of referents
4.1 unique and non unique referents
4.2 concrete and abstract
4.3 countable and uncountable
5. Different ways of referring
5.1 Generic and non-generic reference
5.2 Specific and non-specific reference
5.3 Definite and indefinite reference
6. Deixis
7. Example of deixis
8. Anaphora
9. Shifts in ways of referring
10. referential ambiguity
#Semantic#
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It analyzes the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. There are two main types of meaning - conceptual meaning, which is the basic meaning conveyed by a word's literal use, and associative meaning, which refers to connotations a word carries. Semantics also studies semantic roles that indicate the relationship between words in a sentence, such as agent, theme, and instrument. Synonyms are words with closely related meanings, while antonyms are words with opposite meanings.
Cohesion, Coherence and Textuality
Cohesion and coherence are essential properties of written texts that aid readability and communication of ideas. Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical links between elements of a text, while coherence is the semantic unity between ideas. Some techniques that create cohesion and coherence include reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctions, and lexical repetition. Together, cohesion and coherence allow readers to understand a text as a unified whole rather than a disjointed set of sentences.
An Introduction to Semantics
This document provides an overview of semantics and the different types and components of meaning. It discusses the following:
- The major branches of linguistics including semantics, which is concerned with the study of meanings.
- Components of lexical meaning including designation (basic meaning), connotation (additional information or attributes), and range of application (restrictions on a word's use).
- Ogden and Richards' meaning triangle which shows the relationship between words, concepts, and referents.
- Geoffrey Leech's seven types of meaning: conceptual, connotative, social, affective, reflected, collocative, and thematic.
- Examples are provided to illustrate designation, connotation, range
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Silly grammar mistakes can really make one look dumb. Though a person might be very good at the subject being addressed, grammar mistakes can be a big turn off for the reader. Look at some of the common grammarly mistakes-
Pronouns
The document discusses different types of pronouns in English including personal pronouns, indefinite pronouns, reflexive pronouns, relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns. For each type, it provides examples to illustrate their grammatical functions and forms. Personal pronouns change form based on number and subject/object position. Indefinite pronouns do not refer to specific people or things. Reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis or as objects/after prepositions. Relative pronouns introduce subordinate clauses. Interrogative pronouns ask questions. Demonstrative pronouns refer to things being pointed to and have singular/plural forms.
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Semantics is the study of meaning. It characterizes meaning through reference, sense, denotation, and connotation. Reference associates expressions with real-world objects, but sense provides the constant meaning when referents change. Denotation classifies objects that an expression can refer to, while connotation involves secondary implied meanings beyond literal denotation.
Cohesion And Coherence
The document discusses various concepts related to coherence and cohesion in language. It defines coherence as the connections between ideas, statements, or parts of a text that make them fit together in a reasonable way. Cohesion refers to grammatical or lexical connections between different parts of a sentence or larger text. The document outlines various types of cohesive devices like reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. It provides examples to illustrate how these different devices create links within texts.
Discourse Analysis and grammar
This document discusses various grammatical concepts related to discourse analysis and cohesion between clauses. It defines key terms like theme, rheme, reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. It provides examples and explanations of different types of reference like anaphoric, cataphoric, exophoric, and homophoric reference. It also distinguishes between substitution, ellipsis, and the different types of conjunctions like additive, adversative, temporal, and causal conjunctions. The document serves to link grammar concepts to discourse analysis and explain how grammar creates cohesion and textuality in both spoken and written language.
Reported speech
There are two ways to report what someone has said: direct speech and indirect speech. Direct speech uses the exact words of the speaker, while indirect speech conveys the meaning without using the exact words. When changing direct speech to indirect speech, certain changes must be made, such as changing verb tenses, pronouns, adverbs of time and place, and question forms. Different reporting verbs are used depending on whether a statement, question, command, or other structure is being reported.
Reported speech
Reported speech, also known as indirect speech, refers to conveying the words spoken by someone else without using their exact words. There are two main types: direct speech, which uses quotation marks to indicate someone's exact words, and indirect (reported) speech, which changes pronouns, tenses, and other aspects of the original statement. In reported speech, the word "that" is often used to introduce the statement, quotation marks are not used, and pronouns and verb tenses are changed according to rules such as changing "now" to "then" and present to past tense if the reporting verb is in the past. The second part of an indirect speech statement is specifically called the reported speech.
Writing Elements A Quick Guide to Grammar and Usag.docx
Writing Elements
A Quick Guide to Grammar and Usage
Timothy P. Goss and Sabrina M. Goss
1
Using this Guide
Before we get started, you should note that this guide is, in no way, a comprehensive exploration
of grammar and usage. Many guides are available that will provide a much richer and fuller
understanding of the components of language usage. Instead, this guide has been designed to
help you, in a quick and efficient way, avoid some of the more common errors people make in
their writing.
It is a good idea to review this entire guide several times until the information becomes second-
nature. Having a good grasp on the basic rules of grammar and usage will make a big difference
in how your writing will be received in your academic and professional careers. It may even help
your love life, but probably not really help you teach your dog how to say, “Fiddlesticks” (every
piece of writing has its limitations).
Enjoy this journey.
2
Table of Contents
Clarity and Style:
1. Parts of Speech 3
2. Verbs and Verbals 4
3. Commonly Misused Words 5
4. Point of View: First, Second, and Third Person 6
5. Past and Present Tenses 6
6. Clichés 7
7. Sexist Language 7
8. Slang/Jargon 8
Grammar:
1. Subject/Verb Agreement 8
2. Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement 9
3. Sentence Fragments 9
4. Run-On Sentences 10
Punctuation:
1. Commas 11
2. Semicolons 12
Mechanics:
1. Abbreviations 12
2. Numbers 12
General Advice 13
3
Parts of Speech
All words in the English language have a particular duty to perform in a sentence or clause.
These parts work in concert with one another to create meaning. We can look at the way words
work in a sentence by either their function or by their form or definition.
By Function:
1. Verbs: These words determine the action that is being related (all sentences/clauses must
do something).
2. Nouns and Pronouns: These words serve as the thing doing the action (subject), or the
thing having the action done to it (object).
3. Modifiers (Adjectives and Adverbs): These words describe another word to help
distinguish or clarify the meaning being related.
4. Prepositions: These words shows how one word or phrase relates to another
5. Articles: These words are connected to nouns and determine the vagueness of specificity
of the noun.
6. Conjunctions: These words join clauses together.
7. Interjections: These words serve to express strong emotion.
By Form or Definition:
1. Verb: An action word. For example: Speak, run, fight, asked, claimed, and rocked.
2. Noun: A part of speech that stands for a person, place, thing, or idea. For example:
Truck, house, loss, ring, air, and sandwich.
3. Pronoun: Takes the place of a noun. For example: I, he, she, we, i.
Parts of Speech
The document defines and provides examples of the eight parts of speech in English: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, preposition, and interjection. It discusses each part of speech in more detail, defining their purpose and providing types and examples. For nouns, it defines common, proper, concrete, abstract, and collective nouns. For pronouns, it defines personal pronouns and their categories. For adjectives, it discusses degrees of adjectives. For verbs, it notes they show action and have tenses. It then defines adverbs and their kinds. Finally, it briefly defines conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections and provides examples of each.
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Reference words
- 2. Reference words are : • Involves using certain words or phrases to replace other words or phrases such as pronouns and nouns.
- 3. Reference words are used to: • refer back to people, objects and ideas that have been mentioned earlier, or • refer forward to people, objects and ideas that will be mentioned later. These words allow the writer to avoid repeating words, paragraphs, and sometimes whole sentences.
- 4. Reference words include: • it/they/them • this/that • these/those • the former/the latter/respectively • who/which/that • one/ones • such
- 5. ‘It’, ‘they’ and ‘them’ are used to replace subjects or ideas that have been mentioned previously. ‘This’ and ‘these’ are used to refer to objects or ideas that are near in place or time. ‘That’ and ‘those’ are used to refer to objects or ideas that are more remote in place or time. ‘The Former’ which refers to the first mentioned of two items ‘The Latter’ which refers to the second mentioned of two items ‘Respectively’ which refers to each of the items in the order in which they were written, the
- 6. ‘Who’ refers only to people. ‘Which’ refers to things or ideas. ‘That’ refers to people, things or ideas, and can be used instead of who and which. Note:‘Which’ can be used with ‘all of’, ‘some of’ or ‘none of’ to qualify the amount or number of things being referred to. ‘One’ (singular) or ‘ones’ (plural) can be used as a substitute for a noun that has previously been mentioned. ‘One of which’ can be used to refer to one item from a number of previously mentioned items. ‘One of whom’ can be used to refer to one person from a number of previously mentioned people.
- 7. Reference & Subtitutions Reference is a relation between the meaning of a word and its environment, where the environment can be the text or the real world. Substitution is a relation between words such ad as one replaces another word or phrase. This means that there is no such thing as ‘situation substitution’ or to put more concretely.
- 8. Personal Pronouns The most common reference words are the personal pronouns such I, you, he, she, it, we and they. I you he me your him Object forms Mine yours his Possessive forms
- 9. Comparative Constructions 1. General Comparison Two things are said to be same or different. 2. Specific Comparison Two things are compared with respect to a specific property.
- 10. 1. Relocating the research facility to Osaka would seem sensible. It would save the company a considerable amount of money each year. 2. The Prime minister was accused in the press of wishing to increase taxation. That is not the policy of the government, however, and the press reports are incorrect. 3. There are many problems to overcome, one of which is the security issue. 4. There are two relevant laws. The most important one refers to the rates of tax applicable.