Do you think nature and nurture are equally important in all aspects of development? Piagot’s theory of cognitive development, Freud’s psychoanalytical & Erickson’s psychosocial theory

1. WOLAITA SODO UNIVERSITY
POSTGRADUATE DEPLOMA OF TEACHING
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
FOUNDATION OF PSYCOLOGICAL LEARNING
ASSIGNMENTS
PREPARED BY:-
1. ABENEZER WENDIMU (BIOLOGY)
2. ABINET TAKELE (BIOLOGY)
3. ABERTO TOJA (BIOLOGY)
4. BIRTUKAN BERGINE (BIOLOGY)
5. MERKIN BORSAMO (BIOLOGY)
Submitted to: Adinew Y. (MA)
Submission date: 26/12/2019

2. i | P a g e
Table of contents
Contents Page
Table of contents................................................................................................................................ i
ASSIGNMENT ONE........................................................................................................................ 1
1. Piagot’s theory of cognitive development....................................................................................... 1
2. Freud’s psychoanalytical theory..................................................................................................... 3
3. Erickson’s psychosocial theory...................................................................................................... 4
ASSIGNMENT TWO ....................................................................................................................... 9
1. Do you think nature and nurture are equally important in all aspects of development?.................... 9
1.1 Nature...................................................................................................................................... 9
1.2 Nurture.................................................................................................................................... 9
2. What is the main aim of guidance and counselling? ..................................................................... 10
Goal One: Academic Achievement ............................................................................................. 11
Goal Two: Personal and Social Development.............................................................................. 11
Goal three: Workplace Readiness/Career Awareness:.................................................................. 11
3. Explain the different approaches of counselling. .......................................................................... 11
3.1 Psychodynamic Approach to Counselling .............................................................................. 12
3.2 Humanistic Approach to Counselling ..................................................................................... 13
3.3 Client-Centred Counselling.................................................................................................... 13
3.4 Behavioural Approach to Counselling.................................................................................... 14
References....................................................................................................................................... 15

3. 1 | P a g e
ASSIGNMENT ONE
1. Piagot’s theory of cognitive development
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th century's most influential researchers in the area
of developmental psychology. He was originally trained in the areas of biology and
philosophy and considered himself a "Genetic Epistemologist". Piaget wanted to know how
children learned through their development in the study of knowledge. He administered
Binet's IQ test in Paris and observed that children's answers were qualitatively different.
Piaget's theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive structures. He
believes that the child's cognitive structure increases with the development. Piaget's theory of
infant development was based on his observations of his own three children.
The term cognition is derived from the latin word "cognoscere" which means "to know" or
"to recognise" or "to conceptualise". Cognition is "the mental action or process of acquiring
knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses."
Cognitive Development is the emergence of the ability to think and understand. The
acquisition of the ability to think, reason and problem solve. It is the process by which
people's thinking changes across the life span. Piaget studied Cognitive Development by
observing children in particular, to examine how their thought processes changed with age. It
is the growing apprehension and adaptation to the physical and social environment.
Cognitive Development is gradual and orderly changes by which mental process becomes
more complex and sophisticated. The essential development of cognition is the establishment
of new schemes. Assimilation and Accommodation are both the processes of the ways of
Cognitive Development. The equilibration is the symbol of a new stage of the Cognitive
Development.
Key Concepts in his theory
 Schema: Schema is an internal representation of the world. It helps an individual
understand the world they inhabit. They are cognitive structures that represent a
certain aspect of the world, and can be seen as categories which have certain pre-
conceived ideas in them. For example, my schema for Christmas includes: Christmas
trees, presents, giving, money, green, red, gold, winter, Santa Claus etc. Someone else
may have an entirely different schema, such as Jesus, birth, Church, holiday,
Christianity etc.
 Assimilation: It is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
Here, the learner fits the new idea into what he already knows. In Assimilation, the
schema is not changed, it is only modified. Example: A 2 year old child sees a man
who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s
horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown”
 Accommodation: This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not
work and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation. In
Accommodation, the schema is altered; a new schema may be developed. Example :
In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a
clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny
costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh. • With this new

4. 2 | P a g e
knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit
better to a standard concept of “clown”.
 Equilibration: Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a
steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibrium occurs when a child's
schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. As a child
progresses through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a
balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behaviour
to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibrium helps explain how
children are able to move from one stage of thought to the next.
Stages of Intellectual Development:
Sensorimotor stage (0 - 2 years)
This is the first stage of Piaget’s theory. He suggested that children learn by using their
senses and through actions. Infants learn through using their reflexes and, according to
Piaget, these are important for the development of schemas. Children learn that objects still
exist even when out of sight (object permanence) from around 7-8 months of age. If a parent
hides a toy and a child looks for it, this indicates that the child has object permanence.
Pre-operational stage (2 - 7 years)
During the pre-operational stage, the child is unable to use logic to problem solve. Children
are unable to see situations from the perspective of others. Piaget referred to this as
egocentrism. Although children are unable to see situations from the perspective of others,
this is not the same as selfishness. The egocentric child assumes that the other person thinks
and experiences situations in the same way that they do.
Concrete operational stage (7 - 11 years)
During the concrete operational stage, the child has learned to think logically if the concepts
are familiar to them. Children can start to problem solve and often learn new logic through
discovery learning. During this stage children also learn to conserve quantities.
Conservation refers to the ability to think logically to determine that a particular quantity will
remain the same, even if there is a change in shape or size.
Formal operations (11+ years)
This is the final stage of Piaget’s theory. Children can now think abstractly, and can problem
solve and reason using hypothetical thought.
Educational Implications:
Emphasis on discovery approach in learning.
Curriculum should provide specific educational experience based on children's
developmental level.
Arrange classroom activities so that they assist and encourage self-learning.

5. 3 | P a g e
Social interactions have a great educational value for Piaget. Positive social actions,
therefore should be encouraged.
Instruction should be geared to the level of the child. As the level of the child changes
at each stage, the level of instruction or exploratory activities should also change.
Simple to Complex and Project method of teaching.
Co-curricular activities have equal importance as that of curricular experiences in the
cognitive development of children.
Major Goals of education according to Piaget are critical and creative thinking.
Contribution to Education
Piaget's theory helped educators, parents and investigators to comprehend the
capacity of children in their different stages.
He made us conscious with the way children and adults think.
A lot of school programs have been redesigned taking as base Piaget's discoveries.
Piaget made a revolution with the developmental psychology concentrating all his
attention to the mental process and his role with behaviour.
2. Freud’s psychoanalytical theory
Psychoanalysis as a system or school of Psychology was the brainchild of Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939), a Viennese physician. This school put forward altogether different views, quite
contrary to Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviourism or Gestaltism to explain human
behaviour. For the first time, this system presented a beautiful blend of theory and practice.
On the theoretical side it presented a theory to conduct and explain the human psyche and on
the practical side it provided a method known as ‘Psychoanalysis’ for the study of human
behaviour, and also as a therapy for treating the mentally ill.
Psychoanalysis now represents a school of psychology which consciously enough had its
origin in the medical practice of Freud rather than in any previous School of Psychology. It
revolts against all other schools, especially those representing the academic psychology
which lay emphasis on learning, perception and thinking – Structuralism, Associationism and
the Gestalt school. It regards all these schools and even Purposivism as abstract and
intellectualistic dealing with surface mental phenomena. It claims for itself the unique
position of ‘delving deep, beneath and beyond into the real roots and springs of human
action’ and of ‘unravelling’ for us the natural history of mental growth and thus placing
within our ken, the means for its conscious direction and control. Its founder, Freud therefore,
can be easily ranked with those scientists who have tried to correct our conception of
ourselves, the scientists like Galileo and Darwin.
Meaning of psychoanalysis: The term ‘Psychoanalysis’ has two accepted meanings:
 Firstly, it means a method of treatment designed by Freud for the cure of certain of
nervous disorders through a technique for investigating deep layers of the mind.
 Secondly, it represents a system or school of psychology which has grown and has
crystallised itself into a series of important and systematised theories as a result of
using ‘Psychoanalytical Therapy’.

6. 4 | P a g e
In this paper we shall use the term ‘psychoanalysis’ in the second sense alone. We shall
restrict ourselves to the theory alone and its educational implications. Sigmund Freud’s
Psychoanalytic Theory is divided into three parts, viz. the Structure of the Psyche which
includes The Topographical Model and The Structural Model, the Theory of Instincts and
Libido, and the Theory of Psycho-Sexual Development.
STRUCTURE OF THE PSYCHE OR MIND:
Freud, while explaining the structure of the human psyche or mind, divide it in two different
parts, First by arranging it in three layers as the Conscious, the Pre-Conscious or Sub-
Conscious and the Unconscious, and Second, by postulating three other components, viz. Id,
the Ego and the Superego.
a) The Conscious, the Pre-Conscious and the Unconscious Mind (The topographical
model):
Freud compared the human mind to an iceberg (Figure. 1). The small part that shows above
the surface of the water consists of the Conscious- 0ur awareness- and the Preconscious, all
the information that is not currently on ‘our mind’ but that we could bring to consciousness if
called upon to do so (for example, the name of the President of France). The much larger
mass of storehouse of impulses, wishes, and inaccessible memories that affect our thoughts
and behaviour.
Figure 1 Freud’s structural model of the mind. In Freud’s ‘iceberg’ model of the mind, all of
‘id’ and most of the ‘ego’ and ‘superego’ are submerged in the unconscious. Small parts of
the ‘ego’ and ‘superego’ are either in the conscious or in the preconscious.
Conscious Mind: The Conscious Mind lies just above the surface of the water like the tip of
an iceberg and occupies only one-tenth of our total mental life. The ideas, thoughts and
images that we are aware of at any moment of our mental life are said to lie within this upper
layer of our mind.
Preconscious: Just beneath the Conscious layer lies the Preconscious or the Subconscious
mind. This middle portion of our mind stores all types of information just beneath the surface
of awareness dormant or untapped which can be easily brought to the level of consciousness
at a moment’s notice whenever required. Thus in the middle bed or layer of the human mind

7. 5 | P a g e
there lie all experiences or knowledge which have been gained or learned by an individual
through various types of experiences or training.
Unconscious: Below the Preconscious mind lies the Unconscious, the most important part of
our mind. It is related to the vast part of our mental life which is hidden and usually
inaccessible to the conscious. It contains all the repressed wishes, desires, feelings, drives and
motives, many of which relate to sex and aggression. All these repressed and forbidden
desires and ideas are not destined to lie permanently in the unconscious. They usually strive
and agitate to come up to the preconscious or the conscious layers of the mind, sometimes in
disguised forms, in dreams and in reveries. This hidden treasure of mental life belonging to
the unconscious is thus responsible for most of our behaviour and in fact, as Freud asserts,
‘What we do and how we behave is always determined by the forces residing in our
unconscious and not by the choices of the conscious.’
b) The concept of the id, the ego and the superego
Freud discovered that his ‘Topographical Model’ or the concept of Conscious, Preconscious
and Unconscious mind was too simple to describe the human personality so he went on to
develop the ‘Structural Model,’ which divided personality into three psychic apparatus that
interact to govern human behaviour: the Id, the Ego and the Superego . According to this
model of the psyche, the id is the set of uncoordinated instinctual trends; the super-ego plays
the critical and moralizing role; and the ego is the organised, realistic part that mediates
between the desires of the id and the super-ego. The super-ego can stop one from doing
certain things that one’s id may want to do. Although the model is structural and makes
reference to an apparatus, the id, ego and the super-ego are purely symbolic concepts about
the mind and do not correspond to actual (somatic) structures of the brain such as the kind
dealt with by neuroscience.
The Id: According to Freud, the id (Latin for “it”) is the most primitive part of the
personality- and the only component that is present from birth- from which the ego and the
super-ego later develops. The id is the unorganised part of the personality structure that
contains a human’s basic, instinctual drives. It is the source of our bodily needs, desires, and
impulses, particularly our sexual and aggressive drives. The id contains the libido (sexual
desire), which is the primary source of institutional force that is unresponsive to the demands
of reality. It consists of such ambitions, desires, tendencies and aptitude as are guided by the
pleasure principle. It is inborn and its main function is the discharge of psychic energy which
when pent up produces tension through the personality system.
The id is present in the new born infant and consists of the most basic biological impulses, or
desires: the need to eat, to drink, to eliminate wastes, to avoid pain, and to gain sexual
(sensual) pleasure. Freud believed that aggression is also a basic biological drive. In fact, he
believed that the sexual and aggressive drives were the most important instinctual
determinants of personality throughout life.
It is completely unconscious and is dominated by ‘hedonism’ or the pleasure principle. It has
no idea of time or reality, it has no idea of time or reality, it has no foresight of consequences
and its strivings, originally impulsive and uncontrolled, are controlled by the course of

8. 6 | P a g e
development, like a young child it continuously strives to attain pleasure and to avoid pain
regardless of the external circumstances.
If the striving originating in the id were not controlled by reality and society, we would
become neither adult-like nor civilized but live in a timeless world of immediate sensory
satisfaction or discomfort.
The Ego: Children soon learn that their impulses cannot always be gratified immediately.
Hunger will not be alleviated until someone provides food. Relief of bladder or bowel
pressure must be delayed until the bathroom is reached. Certain impulses- playing with one’s
genitals or hitting someone- may be punished. A new part of personality, the ego (Latin “I”)
develops as the young child learns to consider the demands of reality. The ego acts according
the reality principle, i.e. it seeks to please the id’s drive in realistic ways that will benefit in
the long term rather than bring grief. It functions, as a policeman to check the unlawful
activities of the id. The reality principle that operates the ego is a regulating mechanism that
enables the individual to delay gratifying immediate needs and function effectively. An
example would be to resist the urge to grab other people’s belongings, but instead to purchase
those items.
The ego is the organised part of the personality structure that includes defensive, perpetual,
intellectual-cognitive, and executive functions. Originally, Freud used the word ego to mean
a sense of self, but later revised it to mean a set of psychic functions such as judgement,
tolerance, reality testing, control, planning, and defence, synthesis of information, intellectual
functioning, and memory.
The Super-ego: The third part of the personality is the super-ego (German: Uber-Ich; “Over
I” or “I above), which judges whether actions are right or wrong. It is the agency which
internalizes the parental influences and ideals of society through early childhood experiences.
It is the individual’s conscience, as well as his/her image or the morally ideal person (called
the ego ideal). It represents the i deal rather than the real and strives for perfection. It works
in accordance with the moral standards authorised by the agents of society.
The super-ego works in contradiction to id. The super-ego strives to act in a socially
appropriate manner, whereas the id just wants instant self- gratification. The super-ego
controls our sense of right and wrong and guilt. It helps us fit into society getting us to act in
socially acceptable ways.
The super-ego develops in the child at the age of five in response to parental rewards and
punishments. Initially, parents control children’s behaviour directly through reward and
punishment. By incorporating parental standards into the super-ego, children bring behaviour
under their own control. Children no longer need anyone to tell them it is wrong to steal; their
super-ego tells them. By violating the super-ego’s standards, or even the impulse to do so,
produces anxiety-beginning with anxiety over loss of parental love. According to Freud, this
anxiety is largely unconscious but may be experienced as guilt. If parental standards are
overly rigid, the individual may be guilt-ridden, and inhibit all aggressive or sexual impulses.
In contrast, an individual who fails to incorporate any standards for acceptable social
behaviour will feel few behavioural constraints and may engage in excessively self-indulgent
or criminal behaviour. Such a person is said to have a weak super-ego.

9. 1 | P a g e
THE THEORY OF INSTINCTS AND LIBIDO:
A. Life and death instincts:
Freud believed in the role of instinct in driving human behaviour. He postulated two main
instincts namely the life and the death instinct, as a source of all psyche energy available in
man.
Eros, the love and the self-preservation or the life instinct: One’s life instinct is engaged in
the service of one’s life and its main aims are survival and propagation of the species. It is
manifested through sex and love. Freud gave the name ‘libido’ to the driving force of the life
instinct and made it synonymous with sex urge and sexuality of human beings. The libido
believes in the pleasure principle. Since all physical pleasure, aroused from any of the organs
in the body and through any functions, as advocated by Freud, is ultimately sexual in nature,
the sex urge or sex motive may be regarded as the dynamic force and centre of all human
behaviour at all ages.
B. The flow of libido:
The libido, in Freud’s system, represents that life maintaining energy which aims to seek
pleasure through sexual gratification. It can be equated to a river and its flow determines the
type of behaviour or personality make-up of an individual.
If its flow is outward, causing satisfactory sexual gratification and pleasurable sensations
from outside objects, the behaviour tends to be quite normal.
If its flow is inward, it can develop in the inculcation of a spirit of ‘self-love’ leading to self-
indulgence and narcissism.
If its path is blocked, then it may become stagnant. In such cases the libido may be said to
have been arrested or fixed on an object or stage of development. For example, if a child does
not get enough stimulation and pleasure by sucking etc., at the Oral Stage, his libido may get
fixed at this stage and consequently in later years of his life he may be seen excessively
interested in eating, drinking or stimulating the mouth in any manner.
THE THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT:
According to Freud, sex is the life urge or fundamental motive in life. All physical pleasures
arising from any of the organs or any of the functions are ultimately sexual in nature.
Sexuality is not the characteristic only of the adults. Children from the very beginning have
sexual desires also. This, he termed as ‘infantile sexuality’. A child passes through the
following different stages with to his psychosexual development.
The Oral Stage: According to Freud, the mouth represents the first sex organ for providing
pleasure to the child. The beginning is made with the pleasure received from the mother’s
nipple or the bottle. Thereafter, the child derives pleasure by putting anything, candy, a stick,
his own thumb, etc. into his mouth. This stage starts at birth and lasts till the child reaches 18
months.

10. 2 | P a g e
Fixation:
If the child is over stimulated in this stage, as an adult he may become dependent or alcohol,
become chatterbox, or derive pleasure from acquiring possessions (collect things).
If the child is under stimulated in this stage, as an adult he will make bitingly sarcastic
remarks or be argumentative.
The Anal Stage: At this stage, the interest of the child shifts from the mouth as the
erogenous zone to the organs of elimination, i.e. the anus or the urethra. He derives pleasure
by holding back or letting go of the body’s waste material through the anus or the urethra.
This stage, generally, ranges from 18 months to 3 years.
Fixation:
If parents were over-emphasising toilet training, the child will develop a retentive character.
He will become obstinate and stingy.
If parents were to neglect about toilet training, the child will develop expulsive trait such as
bad temper, cruelty and messy disorderliness.
The Phallic Stage: This phase starts from the age of 4 years and lasts till 6 years. The child’s
interest shifts from the eliminating organs to the genitals. At this stage children come to note
the biological differences between the sexes and derive pleasure by playing with and
manipulating the genital organs.
Fixation:
Oedipus complex in males and Electra complex in female: the boy will have the desire to
posses his mother and displace his father and the girl will want to posses her father and
displace her mother. Child who had been fixated in this stage will develop a phallic character,
such as reckless, proud and vain.
This conflict can also cause the child to be afraid of close relationship and weak sexual
identity.
The latency Stage: This stage starts from 6 years in the case of girls and 7 to 8 years in case
of boys and extends up to the onset of puberty. At this stage libido interests are suppressed
and are directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This
stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
Fixation:
No fixation occurs as the child’s energy is focused on peer activities and personal mastery of
learning and personal mastery of learning and physical skills.

11. 3 | P a g e
The Genital Stage: Puberty is the starting point of the genital stage. The adolescent boy and
girl now feel a strange feeling of strong sensation in the genitals and attraction towards the
members of the opposition sex. At this stage they may feel pleasure by self-stimulating of the
genitals, may fall in love with their own self by taking interest in beautifying and adoring
their bodies and may be drawn quite close to members of opposite sex.
Fixation:
Fixation in this stage leads to frigidity, impotence, unsatisfactory relationships.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS:
Although as happens with new ideology, is said against the system advocated by Freud, it has
many things on the credit side. Its contribution to education can be summarized as follows:
1. Prior to Freud, behaviour was taken to mean conscious behaviour only. The concept and
scope of the term ‘behaviour’ was thus widened and enlarged with the introduction of
unconscious and preconscious behaviour. Consequently, the sphere and scope of
psychology in general, and educational psychology in particular was expanded with the
introduction of the system of psychoanalysis.
2. Psychoanalysis has changed the conception of Education and widened its aim. Education
is no longer considered as restraint to be achieved by external regulatory means such as
punishment and rewards. The aim of education is no longer the formal training of the
intellect. Psychoanalysis has widened this aim by including in it the development of the
whole personality.
3. Psychoanalysis has laid stress on certain psychological incentives or means in education
which have been recognised by all progressive educationists all the world over.
4. Freud’s psychoanalysis has contributed significantly to providing education for mental
health. By revealing the role of the unconscious, psychosexual development, the role of
early childhood experiences, psychology of conflicts, anxiety or defence mechanisms etc.,
it has led to the diagnosis of mental illness.
5. Psychoanalysis has explained why the act of teaching is sometimes resisted by the child,
in spite of his natural thirst for knowledge. This resistance, in extreme cases takes the
shape of disobedience and refusal to co-operate with the teacher. The child resists because
the act of teaching is consciously or unconsciously taken as constituting a criticism. The
act of teaching is performed in such a way that it implies the child’s previous ignorance
and an effort ‘to remedy’ or ‘to improve’, this wounds the child’s self-love and stimulates
his aggression; hence the opposition.
6. Psychoanalysis brings out the importance of proper environment for the education of
children. The environment in the school and in the home should be such as to reduce the
chances of repression and increases the chances of sublimation.
7. Psychoanalysis has brought the significance of play in the education of children. Play
externalises the internal. It is in an activity which brings to the child psychic equilibrium

12. 4 | P a g e
in the early years by enabling him to express his attitudes, wishes and impulses, fears and
fantasies.
8. Psychoanalysis has given impetus to such movements as “Child Guidance”, “Mental
Hygiene” and “Freedom of the Child” movement. It is the child guidance movement that
has led to the establishment of child guidance clinics which are rendering
3. Erickson’s psychosocial theory
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial theory of
psychosexual development and modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that
the ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills
at each stage of development. This mastery helps children grow into successful, contributing
members of society. During each of Erikson’s eight stages, there is a psychological conflict
that must be successfully overcome in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-
adjusted adult.
Erikson developed his eight stages of psychosocial development based on Freud’s
psychosexual theory.
STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on (and expand upon) Freud’s
psychosexual theory. Erikson proposed that we are motivated by the need to achieve
competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience
eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each
stage there is a crisis or task that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each
developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to
master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.
Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications of development;
certain cultures may need to resolve the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and
survival needs.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs
when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their
caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their
baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place.
Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s need can engender feelings of anxiety,
fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly
or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for
people in the world.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control
their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences

13. 5 | P a g e
for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main
task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish
independence. This is the “I do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of
autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although
her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an
effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she
may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating
activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play.
According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt. By
learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can
master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow
a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These children will
develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this
stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop
feelings of guilt.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs.
inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure
up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports,
social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that
they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative
experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence
and adulthood.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role confusion. According
to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with
questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way,
most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various
roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are
successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their
beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. When adolescents
are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their
parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role
confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who
struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation.
After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with
others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have

14. 6 | P a g e
trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we
must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships.
Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of
loneliness and emotional isolation.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends
to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation.
Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others
through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage,
middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and
caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes
positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel
as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little
connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.
8. Integrity vs. Despair
From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late
adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in
late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure.
People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look
back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage
may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,”
and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness,
depression, and despair.
4. Kohlberg’s moral development theory
Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain
the moral development of children. Kohlberg believed that moral development, like cognitive
development, follows a series of stages. He used the idea of moral dilemmas—stories that
present conflicting ideas about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old boys about
morality and values. The best known moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the “Heinz”
dilemma, which discusses the idea of obeying the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg
emphasized that it is the way an individual reasons about a dilemma that determines positive
moral development.
After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed people’s responses
and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg, an adult is
going from the ability to pre-conventional morality (before age 9) to the ability to
conventional morality (early adolescence) and to the attainment of post-conventional morality
(once Piaget's concept of systematic operational thought has been attained), which only a few
achieve entirely. Each level of morality contains two stages, which provide the basis for
moral development in various contexts.
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

15. 7 | P a g e
Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and
post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral
development.
Level 1: Pre-conventional
Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled.
Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A
child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s
conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external
consequences that certain actions may bring.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example, an
action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the
punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behaviour is defined by
whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a
limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further the individual’s
own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but
rather a “you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An example would be when a
child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the
parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to
their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.
Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s
appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behaviour and people being “nice” to others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and
obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral
reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. If
one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to
uphold laws and rules. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality
is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

16. 8 | P a g e
Level 3: Post-conventional
Throughout the post-conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of
more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should
be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are
separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their
own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles
that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as
useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed without
question. Since post-conventional individuals lift their own moral assessment of a situation
over social conventions, their actions can sometimes be confused with that of pre-
conventional ones, particularly at stage six. Some theorists have speculated that many people
may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are
regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general
welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number
of people. This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic
government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles.
Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as
equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a
commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose the
ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In
this way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because he or she
wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is
previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult
to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.

17. 9 | P a g e
ASSIGNMENT TWO
1. Do you think nature and nurture are equally important in all aspects of
development?
It is important to understand the meaning of the terms nature and nurture before explaining
this question.
1.1 Nature
Nature can be defined as our genetic heritage or the genetic make-up that we inherit from our
mother and father at the time of conception and continue throughout our lives. In recent
years, the human side of the debate has received more prominence, with newly discovered
genes trumpeting almost all behavioral coverage. Nature falls into the fields of biology,
genetics, and culture, while food is considered to be the human development's physical and
sensory environment. Within the complex studies of cells and biogenetics, the environment
may also refer to the cellular environment. This argument is about whether we are ruled by
our environment or our genes. Our thoughts are that they both work for hand and hand
together to shape who we are as individuals. It is both natures working with nurture to
resolute our personality and our lifestyle.
1.2 Nurture
Nurture refers to or has applied to it our childhood. Most of the genetically modified products
differ from age, color of the skin, risk of certain diseases to height, and exceptional skills.
Nature theory thus applies to the bioherited habits and talents that people have and that can be
shown to develop later. The nature of this argument is that because of our DNA, a person
would think we are who we are. We assume that, we have individual genes to see if we are
predisposed to addiction, mental and physical conditions. In contrast, nurture can be defined
as the different environmental factors to which a person is subjected from birth to death. In
recent years, the nature side of the debate has gained more attention, with headlines
trumpeting newly discovered genes for virtually every behavior.
Nature is responsible for the growth of a person from the fetus level until
development into a normal adult. Nature can only assist in the growth of a fetus into a
normal well-developed adult who may have inherited some special talents. Thus it can
be concluded that nature uses the genetic coding to help in the physical development
and does impart some positive or negative traits to an individual. However, it is
nurture which can be utilized to improve positive traits and diminish the effect of
negative traits in a child. Someone could be born with genes to give them a normal
height, but be malnourished in childhood, resulting in stunted growth and a failure to
develop as expected.
Environmental factors involve many dimensions. They include both physical environments (a
good example is a prenatal nutrition) and social environments (such as the neighborhood,
media, and peer pressure.) Also, environmental factors have different levels of impact on
human development as they involve multiple layers of action, ranging from most immediate
(families, friends, and neighborhoods) to bigger societal contexts (school systems and local

18. 10 | P a g e
governments) as well as macro factors such as politics on the international level or say global
warming. These layers are also impacted by other factors outside them. For example,
teenagers are exposed to not just pressure from their peers but also to their parent's thoughts,
community standards, and ethnic views.
Given the evidence in traditional society, most parents encourage their kids to take part in
extracurricular activities like learning music, dance or sports in accordance with the child's
talents and interests. The talents have been given by nature but they can only be developed
into skills through the hard work of nurture.
Nurture in some way or another speeds up an individual's capacity to study and learn
new things. There is the common saying that "PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT."
Therefore, an individual can improve knowledge by practicing to adapt to all
creations in these circumstances or environment.
The part which nurture plays in human development has been demonstrated by psychologists
in experiments in which stepping practice was administered to a cohort of inference for just a
few minutes many times in a day. It was later that these children were able to walk several
days earlier than infants who had not been given stepping practice.
The nature versus nurture debate is about the relative influence of an individual's innate
attributes as opposed to the experiences from the environment one is brought up in, in
determining individual differences in physical and behavioral traits. In recent years, both
types of factors have come to be recognized as playing interacting roles in our human
development. The question of how nature versus nurture influences human development has
been an ongoing debate for a very long time and they both nature (genes) and nurture
(environmental factors) seem to play a vital role in human development. It is understood that
there is an overlap or interplay between the influence of genetics and environment, with
further theory suggesting that nature can actually influence nurture, and nurture can influence
nature. Studies cited by the Surgeon General's report suggest patterns in the brain can change
through circumstances and environmental situations. Animal models have been used as
experimental exercises to detect what happens to brain structure and how the nervous system
functions according to the environment. Further studies assess what happens to brain function
once learning takes place and how this process affects behavior and development.
Developmental systems theory, among other theories, presents an alternative to this debate
that does not require scientists to advocate either for nature or nurture. This is why we feel
that they both work for hand and hand together with our human development growth, so, they
are equally important.
2. What is the main aim of guidance and counselling?
Guidance and counselling is the process of helping individuals discover and develop their
educational, vocational and psychological potentialities and to achieve an optimal level of
personal happiness and social usefulness. It’s also referred to a psychological and educational
support, provided to students in schools and other educational institutions involves:

19. 11 | P a g e
Identifying students’ individual developmental and educational needs and
psychological and physical abilities, and environmental factors which have impact on
their functioning in school or educational institution; and
Addressing the needs identified.
The main aims/goals of guidance and counselling:-
Goal One: Academic Achievement
To enhance student achievement to reach requirements for high school graduation and post-
secondary success; school counsellors will provide individual and/or small group counselling,
classroom guidance, prevention education and student-centred interventions that:
 Objective 1: use site /district data to deliver comprehensive guidance programs.
 Objective 2: contribute to the site/district goals.
 Objective 3: focus on development of knowledge and skills necessary for high school
graduation, the workforce and post-secondary options.
Goal Two: Personal and Social Development
To promote the personal/social development of students in a safe, inclusive learning
environment; school counsellors will provide individual and/or small group counselling,
classroom guidance, prevention education and student–centred interventions that:
 Objective 1: help students thrive in a safe learning environment.
 Objective 2: promote developmental interpersonal skills to build positive relationships
with peers, adults and community around them.
 Objective 3: students recognize their individual strengths and challenges.
Goal three: Workplace Readiness/Career Awareness:
To provide a foundation for students to understand their interests, abilities and challenges;
school counsellors will provide prevention education, individual/small group counselling,
classroom guidance and student-cantered interventions that allow students to:
 Objective 1: develop their personal learning plan for high graduation and their career
pathway.
 Objective 2: link their academic strengths and high school courses to post-secondary
education/training.
 Objective 3: develop productive work habits in the classroom that apply to the
workforce.
3. Explain the different approaches of counselling.
There are a number of different approaches used by professional counsellors. Perhaps the
three main approaches are psychodynamic, humanistic and behavioural. Each of these has a

20. 12 | P a g e
different theory and ideas underpinning it, and the therapists and counsellors using each will
approach problems and issues in different ways.
3.1 Psychodynamic Approach to Counselling
Psychodynamic counselling is based on Freud’s idea that true knowledge of people and their
problems is possible through an understanding of three particular areas of the human mind.
These areas are:
The Conscious: things that we are aware of, including feelings or emotions, such as
anger, sadness, grief, delight, surprise, and happiness.
The Subconscious: these are things that are below our conscious awareness but fairly
easily accessible. They may include, for example, events that we have forgotten, but
will easily remember when asked an appropriate question.
The Unconscious: this is the area of the mind where memories have been suppressed
and is usually very difficult to access. Such memories may include extremely
traumatic events that have been blocked off and require a highly skilled practitioner to
help recover.
Freud's main interest and aim was to bring things from the unconscious into the conscious.
This practice is known as psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is used to encourage the client to
examine childhood or early memory trauma to gain a deeper understanding of events. This in
turn may help the client to release negativities associated with these earlier events.
Psychoanalysis is based upon the assumption that we can only progress psychologically by
becoming aware of earlier dilemmas that have been repressed into our unconscious because
of painful associations.
Freud maintained that the personality consists of three related elements:
The Id is the part of our personality concerned with satisfying instinctual basic needs
of food, comfort and pleasure. It is therefore present from (or possibly before) birth.
The Ego is defined as “the realistic awareness of self”. It is the logical and common
sense side to our personality. Freud believed that the Ego develops as the infant
becomes aware that it is a separate being from its parents.
The Superego develops later in a child’s life, from about the age of three. The
Superego curbs and controls the basic instincts of the Id, which may be socially
unacceptable. It therefore acts as our conscience.
Freud believed that everybody experiences tension and conflict between the three elements of
their personalities. For example, desire for pleasure (from the Id) is restrained by the moral
sense of right and wrong (from the Superego). The Ego balances the tension between the Id
wanting to be satisfied and the Superego being over strict.

21. 13 | P a g e
3.2 Humanistic Approach to Counselling
Humanistic counselling recognises the uniqueness of every individual. It assumes that
everyone has an innate capacity to grow emotionally and psychologically towards the goals
of self-actualisation and personal fulfilment.
Humanistic counsellors work with the belief that problems are not caused by life events
themselves, but how we experience them. Our experience, in turn, will affect and be affected
by how we feel about ourselves, influencing self-esteem and confidence.
The humanistic approach to counselling therefore encourages the client to learn to understand
how negative responses to life events can lead to psychological discomfort. The approach
aims for self-acceptance of both negative and positive aspects of our characters and
personalities.
Humanistic counsellors therefore aim to help clients to explore their own thoughts and
feelings and to work out their own solutions to their problems.
This is very similar to the approach used in coaching, except that coaches are more focused
on the present, and less on the past. In essence, coaching aims to address the issue of ‘how’,
and counselling looks at ‘why’.
3.3 Client-Centred Counselling
The central theme of client-centred counselling is the belief that we all have inherent
resources that enable us to deal with whatever life brings. Client-centred therapy focuses on
the belief that the client and not the counsellor is the expert on their own thoughts, feelings,
experiences and problems. The client is therefore the person most capable of finding
appropriate solutions. The counsellor does not suggest any course of action, make
recommendations, ask probing questions or try to interpret anything the client says. The
responsibility for working out problems rests wholly with the client. When the counsellor
does respond, their aim is to reflect and clarify what the client has been saying.
A trained client-centred counsellor aims to show empathy, warmth and genuineness, which
they believe will enable the client's self-understanding and psychological growth.
 Empathy involves being able to understand the client’s issues from their own frame
of reference. The counsellor should be able to accurately reflect this understanding
back to the client. You may also be interested in our pages: What is
Empathy? and Types of Empathy.
 Warmth is to show the client that they are valued, regardless of anything that happens
during the counselling session. The counsellor must be non-judgmental, accepting
whatever the client says or does, without imposing evaluations.

22. 14 | P a g e
 Genuineness (sometimes termed congruence) refers to the counsellor's ability to be
open and honest and not to act in a superior manner or hide behind a 'professional'
facade. You may be interested in our page on Truthfulness.
3.4 Behavioural Approach to Counselling
The behavioural approach to counselling focuses on the assumption that the environment
determines an individual’s behaviour.
How an individual responds to a given situation is the result of past learning, and usually
behaviour that has been reinforced in the past. For example, suppose that a child picked up a
spider and took it to their mother. If she was frightened of spiders, she might scream. The
child would then learn that spiders are frightening. Next time, instead of picking up the
spider, the child will probably scream and run to their mother, who may say ‘ooh, I hate
spiders, they’re so creepy’, reinforcing the child’s behaviour. As a result, the child may
develop a fear of spiders and run away screaming (response) at the sight of a spider
(stimulus).
Behavioural therapies evolved from psychological research and theories of learning
concerned with observable behaviour, i.e. behaviour that can be objectively viewed and
measured.
Behaviourists believe that that behaviour is ‘learned’ and can therefore be unlearned.
Behaviour therapy focuses on individual behaviour and aims to help people to modify
unwanted behaviours. Unwanted behaviour is defined as an undesired response to something
or someone in the environment. Using this approach, a counsellor would identify the
unwanted behaviour with a client and together they would work to change or adapt the
behaviour.
Problems which respond well to this type of therapy include phobias, anxiety attacks and
eating disorders.
Clients might be taught skills to help them manage their lives more effectively. For example,
they may be taught how to relax in situations that produce an anxiety response. Another
method involves learning desirable behaviour by watching and copying others. In general, the
behavioural approach is concerned with the outcome rather than the process of change.

23. 15 | P a g e
REFERENCES
Study notes, (2018). Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Infancy and Early
Childhood. Health & Social Care, P. 1-6. Retrieved in Wednesday, 04 December 2019 from
https://www.tutor2u.net/hsc/reference/piagets-theory-of-cognitive-development-in-infancy-
and-early-childhood.
Ayushi, G. (2017). Jean Piaget: Theory of Cognitive Development, Education, Retrieved
in Wednesday, 04 December 2019 from https://www.slideshare.net/ayushigupta547/jean-
piaget-theory-of-cognitive-development.
Educational Psychology: Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development, (2019).
Retrieved in Wednesday, 25 December 2019 from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/eriksons-stages-of-
psychosocial-development/
Educational Psychology: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development. Retrieved in
Wednesday, 25 December 2019 from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohlbergs-stages-of-
moral-development/
Tameka, T., Tameka, W. & Daniel, D. (2016) Nature and Nurture Have Equally
Important Roles in Human Development, Keiser University, p. 1-7. Retrieved: Friday,
December 6, 2019
https://www.academia.edu/29201996/Nature_and_Nurture_Have_Equally_Important_Roles_
in_Human_Development
Norman public school, (2002). Guidance and counselling, Retrieved: Wednesday, 25
December 2019 from https://www.normanpublicschools.org/Page/2456
Skills you need, (2019). Approaches to Counselling, Retrieved: Wednesday, 25
December 2019, from https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/counselling-approaches.html