Dyslexia is a learning disability that impairs reading fluency and comprehension accuracy. It is characterized by difficulties with phonological awareness, phonological decoding, orthographic coding, auditory short-term memory, or rapid naming. Dyslexia is not caused by poor vision, hearing, or instruction, but there may be genetic or early childhood hearing factors that contribute. Symptoms include delays in speech and word learning, difficulty with rhyming, and letter reversals. While there is no cure, early intervention and accommodations can help dyslexic individuals learn to read and write.

4. Dissociative identity disorder is a psychiatric
diagnosis and describes a condition in which a
person displays multiple distinct identities
(known as alters or parts), each with its own
pattern of perceiving and interacting with the
environment.
In the International Statistical Classification of
Diseases and Related Health Problems the name
for this diagnosis is multiple personality disorder.
In both systems of terminology, the diagnosis
requires that at least two personalities (one may
be the host) routinely take control of the
individual's behavior with an associated memory
loss that goes beyond normal forgetfulness; in
addition, symptoms cannot be the temporary
effects of drug use or a general medical condition.

6. It has been theorized that severe sexual, physical, or
psychological trauma in childhood by a primary caregiver
predisposes an individual to the development of DID. The
steps in the development of a dissociative identity are
theorized to be as follows:
The child is harmed by a trusted caregiver (often a
parent or guardian) and splits off the awareness and
memory of the traumatic event to survive in the
relationship.
The memories and feelings go into the subconscious and
are experienced later in the form of a separate
personality.
The process happens repeatedly at different times so
that different personalities develop, containing different
memories and performing different functions that are
helpful or destructive. Sometimes this is done
deliberately, as in the case of the more morbid abusive
group practices of various sects, or torture variations.
Dissociation becomes a coping mechanism for the
individual when faced with further stressful situations.

7. Individuals diagnosed with DID demonstrate a variety of symptoms with wide
fluctuations across time; functioning can vary from severe impairment in daily
functioning to normal or high abilities. Symptoms can include:
Multiple mannerisms, attitudes and beliefs which are not similar to each other
Unexplainable headaches and other body pains
Distortion or loss of subjective time
Depersonalization
Derealization
Severe memory loss
Depression
Flashbacks of abuse/trauma
Sudden anger without a justified cause
Frequent panic/anxiety attacks
Unexplainable phobias
Auditory of the parts inside their mind
Patients may experience an extremely broad array of other symptoms such as
pseudo seizures that may appear to resemble epilepsy, schizophrenia, anxiety
disorders, mood disorders, post traumatic stress disorder, personality disorders, and
eating disorders.

8. The proposed diagnostic criteria for DID in the DSM-5 is:
Disruption of identity characterized by two or more distinct
personality states (one can be the host) or an experience of
possession, as evidenced by discontinuities in sense of self, cognition,
behavior, affect, perceptions, and/or memories. This disruption may
be observed by others, or reported by the patient.
Inability to recall important personal information, for everyday events
or traumatic events, that is inconsistent with ordinary forgetfulness.
Causes clinically significant distress and impairment in social,
occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
The disturbance is not a normal part of a broadly accepted cultural or
religious practice and is not due to the direct physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., blackouts or chaotic behavior during alcohol
intoxication) or a general medical condition (e.g., complex partial
seizures).

9. Treatment of DID may attempt to reconnect the identities of disparate alters
into a single functioning identity with all its memories and experiences intact
- functioning much like the normal brain. In addition or instead, treatment
may focus on symptoms, to relieve the distressing aspects of the condition
and ensure the safety of the individual. Treatment methods may include
psychotherapy and medications for comorbid disorders. Some behavior
therapists initially use behavioral treatments such as only responding to a
single identity, and using more traditional therapy once a consistent
response is established.[55] It has been stated that treatment
recommendations that follow from models that do not believe in the
traumatic origins of DID might be harmful due to the fact that they ignore
the posttraumatic symptomatology of people with DID.

11. Schizophrenia is a mental disorder
characterized by a disintegration of thought
processes and of emotional responsiveness.It
most commonly manifests itself as auditory
hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions,
or disorganized speech and thinking, and it is
accompanied by significant social or
occupational dysfunction. A person diagnosed
with schizophrenia may experience
hallucinations (most reported are hearing
voices), delusions (often bizarre or
persecutory in nature), and disorganized
thinking and speech. The latter may range
from loss of train of thought, to sentences
only loosely connected in meaning, to
incoherence known as word salad in severe
cases.

12. Schizophrenia was first described as a distinct syndrome
affecting teenagers and young adults by Bénédict Morel
in 1853, termed démence précoce (literally 'early
dementia'). The term dementia praecox was used in
1891 by Arnold Pick in a case report of a psychotic
disorder. The word schizophrenia—which translates
roughly as "splitting of the mind" and comes from the
Greek roots schizein, "to split") and phrēn, "mind")_term
was coined by Eugen Bleuler in 1908 and was intended
to describe the separation of function between
personality, thinking, memory, and perception. Bleuler
described the main symptoms as 4 A's: flattened Affect,
Autism, impaired Association of ideas and Ambivalence.
Bleuler realized that the illness was not a dementia, as
some of his patients improved rather than deteriorated,
and thus proposed the term schizophrenia instead.

13. Genetic
Estimates of heritability vary because of the difficulty in separating the
effects of genetics and the environment.
Environment
Environmental factors associated with the development of
schizophrenia include the living environment, drug use and prenatal
stressors. Parenting style seems to have no effect, although people
with supportive parents do better than those with critical parents.
Living in an urban environment during childhood or as an adult has
consistently been found to increase the risk of schizophrenia by a
factor of two, even after taking into account drug use, ethnic group,
and size of social group. Other factors that play an important role
include social isolation and immigration related to social adversity,
racial discrimination, family dysfunction, unemployment, and poor
housing conditions. There is evidence that childhood experiences of
abuse or trauma are risk factors for a diagnosis of schizophrenia later
in life.
Factors such as hypoxia and infection, or stress and malnutrition in
the mother during fetal development, may result in a slight increase in
the risk of schizophrenia later in life.

14. Social withdrawal, sloppiness of dress and
hygiene, and loss of motivation and
judgment are all common in
schizophrenia. There is often an
observable pattern of emotional
difficulty, for example lack of
responsiveness. Impairment in social
cognition is associated with
schizophrenia, as are symptoms of
paranoia; social isolation commonly
occurs. In one uncommon subtype, the
person may be largely mute, remain
motionless in bizarre postures, or exhibit
purposeless agitation, are all signs of
schizophrenia.

16. The first-line
psychiatric treatment
for schizophrenia is
antipsychotic
medication,[ which can
reduce the positive
symptoms of
psychosis in about 7–
14 days. Like :
Zyprexa.
Risperdal Tablets

17. A number of psychosocial
interventions have been useful in
the treatment of schizophrenia
including: family therapy, assertive
community treatment, supported
employment, cognitive
remediation, skills training,
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT),
token economic interventions, and
psychosocial interventions for
substance use and weight
management.

19. Dyslexia is a broad term defining a learning
disability that impairs a person's fluency or
comprehension accuracy in being able to read,
and which can manifest itself as a difficulty with
phonological awareness, phonological decoding,
orthographic coding, auditory short-term
memory, or rapid naming. Dyslexia is separate
and distinct from reading difficulties resulting
from other causes, such as a non-neurological
deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or
inadequate reading instruction. It is difficult to
obtain a certain diagnosis of dyslexia before a
child begins school, but many dyslexic individuals
have a history of difficulties that began well
before kindergarten. Children who exhibit these
symptoms early in life have a higher likelihood of
being diagnosed as dyslexic than other children.

20. •· Identified by Oswald Berkhan in 1881, the
term 'dyslexia' was later coined in 1887 by Rudolf
Berlin, an ophthalmologist practising in Stuttgart,
Germany, from the Greek prefix (dus-), "hard,
bad, difficult“ (lexis), "speech, word".
In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan published a
description of a reading-specific learning
disorder in the British Medical Journal titled
"Congenital Word Blindness’’.

21. Inherited factors
It is clear that dyslexia is very frequently found in families, and
is often accompanied by left-handedness somewhere in the
family. This does not mean to say that a dyslexic parent will
automatically have a dyslexic child, or that a left-handed child
will necessarily be dyslexic. But where dyslexia is identified,
between a third and a half of children have a history of learning
difficulties in their family, and more than half have a family
member who is left-handed.
Hearing problems at an early age.
If a child suffers frequent colds and throat
infections in the first five years, the ears can
be blocked from time to time so that hearing
is impaired. The parents can easily be
unaware of this until a doctor actually looks
into the child's ear. This condition is
sometimes known as 'glue ear' or 'conductive
hearing loss'. If the difficulty is not noticed at
an early stage, then the developing brain
does not make the links between the sounds
it hears

22. symptoms include:
•delays in speech
•slow learning of new words
•difficulty in rhyming words, as
in nursery rhymes
•low letter knowledge
•letter reversal or mirror writing
for example, "Я" instead of "R")

23. There is no cure for dyslexia, but dyslexic individuals can learn to read
and write with appropriate educational support. Early intervention is
very helpful.
Especially for undergraduates, some consideration of what 'reading' is and what it is
for can be useful. There are techniques (reading the first sentence [and/or last] of each
paragraph in a chapter, for example) which can give an overview of content. This can
be sufficient for some purposes .Since stress and anxiety are contributors to a
dyslexic's weaknesses in absorbing information, removing these can assist in
improving understanding. When a dyslexic knows that not every reading experience
must be onerous, it greatly helps their mental approach to the task.
For dyslexia intervention with alphabet writing systems the fundamental aim is to
increase a child's awareness of correspondences between graphemes and phonemes,
and to relate these to reading and spelling. It has been found that training focused
towards visual language and orthographic issues yields longer-lasting gains than
mere oral phonological training.[63]