Parkinson's disease is associated with various psychiatric manifestations that can affect up to 90% of patients. These include cognitive disturbances like dementia, depression in 40-50% of patients, anxiety in about 40%, and behavioral issues. Depression can predate motor symptoms and increases mortality risk. Mania or hypomania may occur due to dopaminergic medications. Compulsive behaviors are associated with dopamine replacement therapy. Apathy is also common and linked to cognitive and executive dysfunction. Accurate diagnosis and treatment of psychiatric conditions in Parkinson's patients is important for quality of life.
Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Parkinson Disease Ade Wijaya
1. Neuropsychiatric symptoms such as depression, anxiety, psychosis, apathy, and cognitive impairment are common in Parkinson's disease and can significantly reduce quality of life.
2. These symptoms are often underrecognized and undertreated. They arise due to imbalances in neurotransmitter systems and loss of dopamine and norepinephrine innervation in limbic regions.
3. Management involves determining if symptoms are related to medication, assessing severity, and treating with dopaminergics, psychotropics, supplements, or other therapies depending on the symptom. Addressing underlying causes is also important.
The association of neuropsychiatric disorders with cerebrovascular disease has been recognized by clinicians for over 100 years. Disease of the vascular system contribute greatly to the sum total of psychiatric disability, chiefly in the elderly population, mainly as a result of stroke, cerebrovascular accidents & subarachnoid haemorrhage.
This document provides an overview of the neuropsychiatric aspects of epilepsy. It defines key terms like seizure and epilepsy and discusses classifications of seizures and epilepsies. It covers the prevalence, etiology, investigations, and various neuropsychiatric aspects of epilepsy like disorders related to seizure occurrence such as preictal, ictal, peri-ictal, and postictal. It also discusses management approaches aimed at adequate seizure control and patient safety.
This document discusses treatment resistant schizophrenia, including definitions of response, remission, and resistance. It describes assessments that should be conducted before labeling a patient's schizophrenia as drug resistant, including evaluating for pseudo-resistance, co-occurring conditions, organic causes, antipsychotic side effects, and medication nonadherence. Management strategies discussed include optimizing antipsychotic drugs and doses, considering clozapine as the gold standard, and various augmentation strategies if clozapine fails such as with other antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, antidepressants, or other agents targeting glutamatergic transmission.
Neurobiology and functional brain circuits in mood disordersSuman Sajan
Mood disorders involve biological abnormalities in brain circuits and neurotransmitter systems. Key circuits include the prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, striatum, and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. In depression, these circuits demonstrate reduced activity of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine which impacts mood, motivation, and emotional processing. Mania involves hyperactivity in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal regions due to elevated serotonin and dopamine levels, leading to symptoms like grandiosity, risk-taking, and pressured speech. Neuroimaging supports changes in these brain regions and circuits in mood disorders.
Neuropsychiatric aspects of hiv infection and aidsRobin Victor
HIV & AIDS are closely related to psychiatry with the infection giving rise to many psychiatric problems and psychiatric illnesses leading to risk of acquiring HIV. Hence the approach to such a situation must be holistic with good coordination between medical specialists and psychiatrists, psychologists to bring maximum possible benefit to people with such a difficult illness
Akathisia is a neurological side effect of antipsychotic and antidepressant medications characterized by inner restlessness and a constant need for movement. It is caused by a loss of dopamine function in the brain. The prevalence of akathisia ranges from 12.5-75% when taking first-generation antipsychotics. While difficult to diagnose, it can often be treated with benzodiazepines, beta-blockers like propranolol, or reducing the dose of the causative medication. Left untreated, akathisia can lead to poor treatment adherence.
Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Parkinson Disease Ade Wijaya
1. Neuropsychiatric symptoms such as depression, anxiety, psychosis, apathy, and cognitive impairment are common in Parkinson's disease and can significantly reduce quality of life.
2. These symptoms are often underrecognized and undertreated. They arise due to imbalances in neurotransmitter systems and loss of dopamine and norepinephrine innervation in limbic regions.
3. Management involves determining if symptoms are related to medication, assessing severity, and treating with dopaminergics, psychotropics, supplements, or other therapies depending on the symptom. Addressing underlying causes is also important.
The association of neuropsychiatric disorders with cerebrovascular disease has been recognized by clinicians for over 100 years. Disease of the vascular system contribute greatly to the sum total of psychiatric disability, chiefly in the elderly population, mainly as a result of stroke, cerebrovascular accidents & subarachnoid haemorrhage.
This document provides an overview of the neuropsychiatric aspects of epilepsy. It defines key terms like seizure and epilepsy and discusses classifications of seizures and epilepsies. It covers the prevalence, etiology, investigations, and various neuropsychiatric aspects of epilepsy like disorders related to seizure occurrence such as preictal, ictal, peri-ictal, and postictal. It also discusses management approaches aimed at adequate seizure control and patient safety.
This document discusses treatment resistant schizophrenia, including definitions of response, remission, and resistance. It describes assessments that should be conducted before labeling a patient's schizophrenia as drug resistant, including evaluating for pseudo-resistance, co-occurring conditions, organic causes, antipsychotic side effects, and medication nonadherence. Management strategies discussed include optimizing antipsychotic drugs and doses, considering clozapine as the gold standard, and various augmentation strategies if clozapine fails such as with other antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, antidepressants, or other agents targeting glutamatergic transmission.
Neurobiology and functional brain circuits in mood disordersSuman Sajan
Mood disorders involve biological abnormalities in brain circuits and neurotransmitter systems. Key circuits include the prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, striatum, and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. In depression, these circuits demonstrate reduced activity of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine which impacts mood, motivation, and emotional processing. Mania involves hyperactivity in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal regions due to elevated serotonin and dopamine levels, leading to symptoms like grandiosity, risk-taking, and pressured speech. Neuroimaging supports changes in these brain regions and circuits in mood disorders.
Neuropsychiatric aspects of hiv infection and aidsRobin Victor
HIV & AIDS are closely related to psychiatry with the infection giving rise to many psychiatric problems and psychiatric illnesses leading to risk of acquiring HIV. Hence the approach to such a situation must be holistic with good coordination between medical specialists and psychiatrists, psychologists to bring maximum possible benefit to people with such a difficult illness
Akathisia is a neurological side effect of antipsychotic and antidepressant medications characterized by inner restlessness and a constant need for movement. It is caused by a loss of dopamine function in the brain. The prevalence of akathisia ranges from 12.5-75% when taking first-generation antipsychotics. While difficult to diagnose, it can often be treated with benzodiazepines, beta-blockers like propranolol, or reducing the dose of the causative medication. Left untreated, akathisia can lead to poor treatment adherence.
Neuropsychiatric Manifestations of Huntington Disease (2021)Zahiruddin Othman
This document discusses the neuropsychiatric manifestations of Huntington's disease. Huntington's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder caused by a defective gene on chromosome 4. It is characterized by motor, cognitive, and psychiatric symptoms. Psychiatric symptoms include depression, irritability, anxiety, and psychosis. Neuropathology involves gradual atrophy of the striatum due to neuronal loss. Diagnosis is based on family history, motor symptoms, and neuropsychological assessment. Management involves a multidisciplinary approach including pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions to treat motor, cognitive, and psychiatric symptoms.
Resistant depression is difficult to treat depression that does not respond adequately to multiple antidepressant treatments. It is defined as failure to respond to 2 adequate trials of antidepressants from different classes. Depression is a leading cause of disability worldwide and resistant depression has a poor prognosis with high relapse rates. Causes of resistance include medical comorbidities, substance abuse, personality disorders, chronicity of depression, and inadequate previous treatment. Management involves re-evaluating treatment adequacy and using strategies like optimizing dose and duration, augmentation, switching medications, somatic treatments, and non-pharmacological therapies. Long-term maintenance treatment for 6-9 months or more is often required to prevent relapse.
Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is treated first with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), but 40-60% do not respond to initial treatment. Treatment-resistant OCD is defined as failure to respond to an adequate trial of an SSRI. Strategies to treat resistant OCD include optimizing and switching medications, adding or combining medications with CBT, intensive residential therapy, and newer treatments like deep brain stimulation. Guidelines recommend trying different options like switching SSRIs, adding CBT, or augmenting before considering more intensive or experimental treatments.
Iloperidone is an atypical antipsychotic that acts through several receptor mechanisms. It exhibits high affinity for dopamine D2, serotonin 5-HT2A, alpha1, and alpha2C receptors. It also shows moderate affinity for serotonin 5-HT1A, 5-HT2C, 5-HT7, dopamine D3, and histamine H1 receptors. Through its receptor binding profile, iloperidone is effective in treating positive and negative symptoms as well as improving cognition and reducing anxiety. Its mixed receptor actions contribute to its favorable side effect profile with low risk of extrapyramidal symptoms and metabolic issues.
Major Depressive Disorder is characterized by a low mood about life and inability to feel pleasure, along with symptoms like insomnia, poor concentration, and thoughts of death or suicide. It is caused by biological factors like imbalances in neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine, psychological factors like insecure attachment as a child, and social factors like abuse. Treatment includes psychotherapy like cognitive behavioral therapy and antidepressant medication. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are commonly prescribed, and electroconvulsive therapy may be used for severe cases. Major depression affects about 8-12% of people during their lifetimes.
This document discusses drug-induced movement disorders caused by antipsychotic medications. It covers the classification of both acute and chronic movement disorders including dystonia, parkinsonism, akathisia, and tardive dyskinesia. It discusses the pathophysiology, risk factors, signs and symptoms, time of onset, scales used for assessment, management, and prevention of these medication-induced movement disorders. It also lists other medications that can cause movement disorders and the DSM-5 diagnostic categories for medication-induced movement disorders.
The document provides an overview of consultation-liaison psychiatry, including basics, common conditions, and management approaches. It defines consultation-liaison psychiatry and its roles in a general hospital setting. Common conditions addressed include delirium, suicide, depression, agitation, and medical issues like hepatic or renal impairment. Management prioritizes identifying and treating underlying causes, coordinating pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches, and effective communication with medical teams.
Treatment resistant schizophrenia & Treatment resistant depressionEnoch R G
This document discusses treatment resistant schizophrenia and provides guidelines for its management. It defines treatment resistance and outlines criteria from Kane and others. Factors associated with poor outcomes are biological, symptomatic, environmental, illness-related and pharmacological. The neurobiology of treatment resistant schizophrenia involves dopamine, glutamate, genetics and neuroanatomy. Management guidelines are provided from NICE and involve trials of clozapine as the gold standard treatment. Clozapine details include pharmacology, dosage, side effects, monitoring and predictors of response. Studies demonstrate clozapine's superior efficacy over other antipsychotics for treatment resistant schizophrenia.
This document provides an overview of delirium, including its introduction, history, epidemiology, etiology, neuropathology, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, course, prevention and management. Delirium is characterized by an acute change in mental status and cognition that fluctuates over the course of a day. It has a prevalence of 5-55% among elderly hospitalized patients and is associated with increased mortality, longer hospital stays and higher healthcare costs. The pathophysiology involves multiple neurotransmitter systems and risk factors include predisposing patient factors and precipitating insults like infection, medication side effects or metabolic disturbances. Prevention focuses on reducing risk factors and early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes.
Cerebellum its function and releveance in psychiatryHarsh shaH
The cerebellum receives inputs from many brain regions and is involved in motor control and coordination. Recent research also suggests it plays a role in cognition and certain psychiatric disorders. Studies have found cerebellar abnormalities such as reduced volume and blood flow in autism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, and anxiety disorders which may contribute to symptoms. Cerebellar lesions can cause motor signs as well as cognitive and psychiatric issues, referred to as cerebellar-cognitive affective syndrome.
Neurobiological understanding of anxiety disorder Devashish Konar
The document provides an overview of the neurobiological understanding of anxiety disorders. It discusses the key brain regions involved like the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. The amygdala is involved in processing fear and aversive memories, while the prefrontal cortex helps regulate amygdala responses. Anxiety disorders are thought to involve hyperactivity in the amygdala and weaker regulation from the prefrontal cortex. The document also discusses the roles of early life stress, genetics, and developmental factors in anxiety disorders.
This PPT contains all the important guidelines that are needed to manage a patient of Dementia. It involves diagnosis, psychosocial treatment, non-pharmacological management and pharmacological management. This PPT is prepared from NICE, APA and SIGN guidelines.
This document provides an overview of the history, definitions, classification, epidemiology and psychiatric disorders associated with epilepsy. It discusses how epilepsy was viewed in ancient times as a supernatural condition and outlines key developments in understanding including Hippocrates' view of it as a brain disorder. It defines terms like seizure, aura and epilepsy and classifies seizure types. Statistics on prevalence and risk factors for psychopathology in epilepsy are presented. Specific psychiatric conditions like depression, anxiety and inter-ictal psychosis are also examined.
This document discusses depression and its prevalence in India and neurological clinics. It provides criteria for diagnosing a major depressive episode according to DSM-5 and notes challenges in diagnosis for neurologists. Signs, symptoms, and treatment approaches for depression are also outlined. The document concludes by discussing depression associated with specific neurological disorders like Parkinson's disease.
Neuropsychiatric manifestations in neurological disorderswebzforu
The document discusses neuropsychiatric manifestations that can occur in neurological disorders. It summarizes that cerebral white matter is connected to other brain regions and plays an important role in behavior. White matter disorders can cause issues like cognitive loss, dementia, mood disorders, and psychosis. Specific white matter diseases are described along with their neurobehavioral impacts. Neuropsychiatric symptoms seen in neurological conditions are outlined. Finally, common neurological diseases associated with psychiatric symptoms like depression, anxiety, psychosis, mania, and aggression are listed.
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a complex mental disorder characterized by difficulties regulating emotions and impulsive behaviors. It typically emerges during late adolescence/early adulthood. While treatments like DBT and medication can help manage symptoms, BPD has high rates of suicide and comorbidity with other disorders. The causes are debated but may involve genetic and environmental factors like childhood trauma. BPD prevalence is estimated around 1-6% but is more common in clinical populations. It can cause significant impairment so early diagnosis and prevention are important.
This document provides information on bipolar disorder, including its symptoms, diagnosis, epidemiology, etiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, treatment goals, and treatment options. Bipolar disorder is a mood disorder characterized by one or more episodes of mania or hypomania often accompanied by one or more major depressive episodes. Correct diagnosis and early treatment are important to prevent complications and maximize treatment response. Treatment involves mood stabilizing medications like lithium, anticonvulsants, and atypical antipsychotics, as well as psychotherapy. The goals of treatment are to reduce symptoms, prevent recurrence, and improve quality of life.
This document discusses the history and modern practice of surgery for psychiatric disorders. It begins by covering the early history of psychosurgery dating back to the 1930s. It then discusses the development of stereotactic surgery and various ablative psychosurgical procedures used in the 1940s-1950s such as prefrontal leucotomy. The introduction of psychotropic drugs in the 1950s reduced the use of ablative psychosurgery. Modern techniques discussed include cingulotomy, anterior capsulotomy, limbic leucotomy, vagus nerve stimulation, and deep brain stimulation. Specific applications to disorders like obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, and Tourette's syndrome are also summarized.
The document provides an overview of dementia, including definitions, clinical presentation, causes, functional anatomy, evaluation approach, and treatment. It describes the typical presentation and progression of different types of dementia like Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, frontotemporal dementia, and dementia with Lewy bodies. Evaluation involves obtaining a detailed history, physical and neurological examination, and cognitive testing using tools like the Mini-Mental State Examination to assess domains like memory, language, and executive function.
Movement Disorders- M_Saidi- 21_01_20.pptxMagicStudio
1) Huntington's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG repeat expansion in the huntingtin gene, resulting in chorea, cognitive decline, and psychiatric symptoms.
2) Movement symptoms include chorea, dystonia, and bradykinesia. Cognitive deficits involve executive dysfunction, memory impairment, and psychiatric symptoms include depression, anxiety, and psychosis.
3) Pathology involves selective degeneration of GABAergic medium spiny neurons in the striatum, leading to dysfunction of corticostriatal circuits and characteristic motor, cognitive, and behavioral changes.
Neuropsychiatric Manifestations of Huntington Disease (2021)Zahiruddin Othman
This document discusses the neuropsychiatric manifestations of Huntington's disease. Huntington's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder caused by a defective gene on chromosome 4. It is characterized by motor, cognitive, and psychiatric symptoms. Psychiatric symptoms include depression, irritability, anxiety, and psychosis. Neuropathology involves gradual atrophy of the striatum due to neuronal loss. Diagnosis is based on family history, motor symptoms, and neuropsychological assessment. Management involves a multidisciplinary approach including pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions to treat motor, cognitive, and psychiatric symptoms.
Resistant depression is difficult to treat depression that does not respond adequately to multiple antidepressant treatments. It is defined as failure to respond to 2 adequate trials of antidepressants from different classes. Depression is a leading cause of disability worldwide and resistant depression has a poor prognosis with high relapse rates. Causes of resistance include medical comorbidities, substance abuse, personality disorders, chronicity of depression, and inadequate previous treatment. Management involves re-evaluating treatment adequacy and using strategies like optimizing dose and duration, augmentation, switching medications, somatic treatments, and non-pharmacological therapies. Long-term maintenance treatment for 6-9 months or more is often required to prevent relapse.
Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is treated first with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), but 40-60% do not respond to initial treatment. Treatment-resistant OCD is defined as failure to respond to an adequate trial of an SSRI. Strategies to treat resistant OCD include optimizing and switching medications, adding or combining medications with CBT, intensive residential therapy, and newer treatments like deep brain stimulation. Guidelines recommend trying different options like switching SSRIs, adding CBT, or augmenting before considering more intensive or experimental treatments.
Iloperidone is an atypical antipsychotic that acts through several receptor mechanisms. It exhibits high affinity for dopamine D2, serotonin 5-HT2A, alpha1, and alpha2C receptors. It also shows moderate affinity for serotonin 5-HT1A, 5-HT2C, 5-HT7, dopamine D3, and histamine H1 receptors. Through its receptor binding profile, iloperidone is effective in treating positive and negative symptoms as well as improving cognition and reducing anxiety. Its mixed receptor actions contribute to its favorable side effect profile with low risk of extrapyramidal symptoms and metabolic issues.
Major Depressive Disorder is characterized by a low mood about life and inability to feel pleasure, along with symptoms like insomnia, poor concentration, and thoughts of death or suicide. It is caused by biological factors like imbalances in neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine, psychological factors like insecure attachment as a child, and social factors like abuse. Treatment includes psychotherapy like cognitive behavioral therapy and antidepressant medication. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are commonly prescribed, and electroconvulsive therapy may be used for severe cases. Major depression affects about 8-12% of people during their lifetimes.
This document discusses drug-induced movement disorders caused by antipsychotic medications. It covers the classification of both acute and chronic movement disorders including dystonia, parkinsonism, akathisia, and tardive dyskinesia. It discusses the pathophysiology, risk factors, signs and symptoms, time of onset, scales used for assessment, management, and prevention of these medication-induced movement disorders. It also lists other medications that can cause movement disorders and the DSM-5 diagnostic categories for medication-induced movement disorders.
The document provides an overview of consultation-liaison psychiatry, including basics, common conditions, and management approaches. It defines consultation-liaison psychiatry and its roles in a general hospital setting. Common conditions addressed include delirium, suicide, depression, agitation, and medical issues like hepatic or renal impairment. Management prioritizes identifying and treating underlying causes, coordinating pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches, and effective communication with medical teams.
Treatment resistant schizophrenia & Treatment resistant depressionEnoch R G
This document discusses treatment resistant schizophrenia and provides guidelines for its management. It defines treatment resistance and outlines criteria from Kane and others. Factors associated with poor outcomes are biological, symptomatic, environmental, illness-related and pharmacological. The neurobiology of treatment resistant schizophrenia involves dopamine, glutamate, genetics and neuroanatomy. Management guidelines are provided from NICE and involve trials of clozapine as the gold standard treatment. Clozapine details include pharmacology, dosage, side effects, monitoring and predictors of response. Studies demonstrate clozapine's superior efficacy over other antipsychotics for treatment resistant schizophrenia.
This document provides an overview of delirium, including its introduction, history, epidemiology, etiology, neuropathology, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, course, prevention and management. Delirium is characterized by an acute change in mental status and cognition that fluctuates over the course of a day. It has a prevalence of 5-55% among elderly hospitalized patients and is associated with increased mortality, longer hospital stays and higher healthcare costs. The pathophysiology involves multiple neurotransmitter systems and risk factors include predisposing patient factors and precipitating insults like infection, medication side effects or metabolic disturbances. Prevention focuses on reducing risk factors and early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes.
Cerebellum its function and releveance in psychiatryHarsh shaH
The cerebellum receives inputs from many brain regions and is involved in motor control and coordination. Recent research also suggests it plays a role in cognition and certain psychiatric disorders. Studies have found cerebellar abnormalities such as reduced volume and blood flow in autism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, and anxiety disorders which may contribute to symptoms. Cerebellar lesions can cause motor signs as well as cognitive and psychiatric issues, referred to as cerebellar-cognitive affective syndrome.
Neurobiological understanding of anxiety disorder Devashish Konar
The document provides an overview of the neurobiological understanding of anxiety disorders. It discusses the key brain regions involved like the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. The amygdala is involved in processing fear and aversive memories, while the prefrontal cortex helps regulate amygdala responses. Anxiety disorders are thought to involve hyperactivity in the amygdala and weaker regulation from the prefrontal cortex. The document also discusses the roles of early life stress, genetics, and developmental factors in anxiety disorders.
This PPT contains all the important guidelines that are needed to manage a patient of Dementia. It involves diagnosis, psychosocial treatment, non-pharmacological management and pharmacological management. This PPT is prepared from NICE, APA and SIGN guidelines.
This document provides an overview of the history, definitions, classification, epidemiology and psychiatric disorders associated with epilepsy. It discusses how epilepsy was viewed in ancient times as a supernatural condition and outlines key developments in understanding including Hippocrates' view of it as a brain disorder. It defines terms like seizure, aura and epilepsy and classifies seizure types. Statistics on prevalence and risk factors for psychopathology in epilepsy are presented. Specific psychiatric conditions like depression, anxiety and inter-ictal psychosis are also examined.
This document discusses depression and its prevalence in India and neurological clinics. It provides criteria for diagnosing a major depressive episode according to DSM-5 and notes challenges in diagnosis for neurologists. Signs, symptoms, and treatment approaches for depression are also outlined. The document concludes by discussing depression associated with specific neurological disorders like Parkinson's disease.
Neuropsychiatric manifestations in neurological disorderswebzforu
The document discusses neuropsychiatric manifestations that can occur in neurological disorders. It summarizes that cerebral white matter is connected to other brain regions and plays an important role in behavior. White matter disorders can cause issues like cognitive loss, dementia, mood disorders, and psychosis. Specific white matter diseases are described along with their neurobehavioral impacts. Neuropsychiatric symptoms seen in neurological conditions are outlined. Finally, common neurological diseases associated with psychiatric symptoms like depression, anxiety, psychosis, mania, and aggression are listed.
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a complex mental disorder characterized by difficulties regulating emotions and impulsive behaviors. It typically emerges during late adolescence/early adulthood. While treatments like DBT and medication can help manage symptoms, BPD has high rates of suicide and comorbidity with other disorders. The causes are debated but may involve genetic and environmental factors like childhood trauma. BPD prevalence is estimated around 1-6% but is more common in clinical populations. It can cause significant impairment so early diagnosis and prevention are important.
This document provides information on bipolar disorder, including its symptoms, diagnosis, epidemiology, etiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, treatment goals, and treatment options. Bipolar disorder is a mood disorder characterized by one or more episodes of mania or hypomania often accompanied by one or more major depressive episodes. Correct diagnosis and early treatment are important to prevent complications and maximize treatment response. Treatment involves mood stabilizing medications like lithium, anticonvulsants, and atypical antipsychotics, as well as psychotherapy. The goals of treatment are to reduce symptoms, prevent recurrence, and improve quality of life.
This document discusses the history and modern practice of surgery for psychiatric disorders. It begins by covering the early history of psychosurgery dating back to the 1930s. It then discusses the development of stereotactic surgery and various ablative psychosurgical procedures used in the 1940s-1950s such as prefrontal leucotomy. The introduction of psychotropic drugs in the 1950s reduced the use of ablative psychosurgery. Modern techniques discussed include cingulotomy, anterior capsulotomy, limbic leucotomy, vagus nerve stimulation, and deep brain stimulation. Specific applications to disorders like obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, and Tourette's syndrome are also summarized.
The document provides an overview of dementia, including definitions, clinical presentation, causes, functional anatomy, evaluation approach, and treatment. It describes the typical presentation and progression of different types of dementia like Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, frontotemporal dementia, and dementia with Lewy bodies. Evaluation involves obtaining a detailed history, physical and neurological examination, and cognitive testing using tools like the Mini-Mental State Examination to assess domains like memory, language, and executive function.
Movement Disorders- M_Saidi- 21_01_20.pptxMagicStudio
1) Huntington's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG repeat expansion in the huntingtin gene, resulting in chorea, cognitive decline, and psychiatric symptoms.
2) Movement symptoms include chorea, dystonia, and bradykinesia. Cognitive deficits involve executive dysfunction, memory impairment, and psychiatric symptoms include depression, anxiety, and psychosis.
3) Pathology involves selective degeneration of GABAergic medium spiny neurons in the striatum, leading to dysfunction of corticostriatal circuits and characteristic motor, cognitive, and behavioral changes.
Dementia is a progressive decline in cognitive abilities without loss of consciousness. It is characterized by impairment in memory, language, perception or executive functioning that interferes with daily life. The most common forms of dementia are Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, and frontotemporal dementia. Alzheimer's disease is defined by beta-amyloid plaques and tau neurofibrillary tangles that damage brain cells. Vascular dementia is caused by multiple brain infarcts while frontotemporal dementia involves atrophy of the frontal and temporal lobes. Diagnosis involves ruling out other causes and assessing cognitive impairment through tests like the Mini-Mental State Examination.
Neuropsychiatric disorders involve complex relationships between brain function and human behavior. They include anxiety, ADHD, borderline personality disorder, multiple sclerosis, Guillain-Barre syndrome, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, progeria, and ischemia. Causes range from genetic mutations to brain damage to environmental toxins. Symptoms and treatments vary depending on the specific disorder. Neuropsychiatry aims to understand abnormal behaviors through both neurological and psychosocial factors.
1) Cognitive decline is a normal part of aging, but dementia is characterized by multiple cognitive deficits severe enough to interfere with daily life. The DSM-V criteria distinguish between mild and major neurocognitive disorders.
2) Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) represents an intermediate stage between normal aging and dementia, with greater cognitive decline than normal but preserved independence. Amnestic MCI is highly predictive of Alzheimer's disease.
3) Biomarkers like MRI, CSF analysis, PET imaging, and genetics can help predict conversion from MCI to dementia and distinguish Alzheimer's disease from other causes. Biomarkers show changes decades before symptoms appear in preclinical Alzheimer's disease.
This document provides an overview of the approach to diagnosing and classifying a case of dementia. It begins by defining dementia and outlining the DSM-V criteria. It then discusses various types and causes of dementia like Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, frontotemporal dementia, Lewy body disease, Parkinson's disease, and CJD. Evaluation involves a clinical history, physical and neurological exam, cognitive testing, and lab/imaging workup to identify reversible vs. irreversible causes. Biomarkers and imaging can aid in differential diagnosis. Treatment focuses on acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and management of symptoms.
Neurocognitive disorders affect learning, memory, and consciousness. They range from temporary conditions like delirium to long-term disorders like dementia. While some may be caused by medical conditions or drug use, the most common types like Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia develop due to aging and brain changes. Treatments aim to slow progression but cannot stop deterioration of cognitive skills. Lifestyle factors and social support may influence the course of disorders, but prevention is difficult as risk is determined by genetics in many cases.
Dementias are acquired cognitive impairments that affect memory, language, visuospatial ability, and other mental functions, impairing daily living. The most common type is Alzheimer's disease, which results from neuronal disruption and loss. A thorough evaluation involves assessing onset and progression of symptoms, neuropsychiatric features, physical exam including brief cognitive tests, and ruling out other treatable causes. The leading cause is Alzheimer's disease, whose risk increases dramatically with age and involves memory loss and other cognitive deficits that gradually worsen over years.
- There are several types of dementia, with Alzheimer's dementia making up 70-90% of cases. Other types include multi-infarct dementia, Parkinson's disease dementia, and Lewy body dementia.
- Alzheimer's disease is characterized by progressive cognitive and behavioral decline accompanied by brain abnormalities. The most common symptoms are memory loss, confusion, impaired judgment, and personality changes.
- Diagnosis of Alzheimer's involves excluding other causes and involves impaired memory and at least one other cognitive domain severe enough to interfere with daily life. A medical exam is typically normal while cognitive tests show deficits.
This document describes a case study of a rare cause of dementia in a 62-year old male patient. The patient had been experiencing memory, thinking, speaking, swallowing, and balance difficulties for two years. A neurological examination revealed dysarthria, opthalmoplegia, dysphagia, rigidity, and weight loss. MRI scans showed diffuse ischemic focuses and midbrain atrophy characteristic of Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP), an uncommon cause of dementia. Based on the clinical symptoms and MRI findings, PSP was diagnosed as the cause of the patient's dementia.
1. Dr. Ashutosh Rath presented on the approach to dementia. He discussed normal aging versus dementia and highlighted important differences.
2. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) was described as a syndrome between normal aging and dementia where independence is preserved but cognitive impairment is greater than normal.
3. The presentation covered diagnostic approaches including history, cognitive assessment, exams, and biomarkers. Biomarkers like CSF proteins and neuroimaging can help predict conversion from MCI to dementia.
4. Key dementia types discussed were Alzheimer's disease, frontotemporal dementia, and their atypical variants. The domains affected, progression, genetics, and diagnostic criteria for each were summarized.
Mon 10-20 Seniors with Memory Loss- A Primer_0.pptxBijoy Chakraborty
This document provides an overview of memory loss and dementia in seniors. It defines dementia and mild cognitive impairment, describes the most common causes and risk factors, and outlines the clinical features and diagnostic approach for different types of dementia like Alzheimer's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, frontotemporal dementia, and vascular dementia. It emphasizes gathering a thorough history, conducting a cognitive screening and neurological exam, and considering treatable causes through targeted testing before diagnosing a degenerative dementia.
Non motor manifestations of Parkinson disease Mahmoud Mo'ness
Parkinson's disease is characterized by various non-motor manifestations in addition to its motor symptoms. A survey of over 1,000 Parkinson's patients found that virtually all patients reported experiencing an average of eight non-motor symptoms, with psychiatric symptoms being the most common. Common non-motor symptoms include cognitive dysfunction and dementia in 40-80% of cases, psychosis and hallucinations in 20-40% of cases, mood disorders like depression and anxiety in up to 50% of cases, and sleep disturbances in 55-80% of cases. Fatigue is also experienced by 30-60% of patients. Autonomic dysfunction can cause issues like orthostatic hypotension in 60% of patients and urinary
This document provides an overview of dementia, including its definition, diagnosis, causes, and approach to evaluation and management. It defines dementia as acquired cognitive impairment that interferes with daily life. The diagnostic criteria from the DSM-V are outlined. Common causes of dementia like Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, and Lewy body dementia are reviewed. The document discusses taking a history, performing a physical and neurological exam, cognitive testing, and medical investigations to diagnose the underlying cause of dementia.
Dementia is characterized by progressive deterioration of intellect, behavior, and personality due to diffuse brain disease, especially affecting the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Memory impairment is required for diagnosis. Common causes include Alzheimer's disease, cerebrovascular disease, Lewy body disease, and frontotemporal dementia. Evaluation involves assessing cognitive function, neurological exam, imaging, and lab tests to identify underlying causes and rule out other conditions. There is no cure for dementia, but some types can be temporarily slowed with medications or treated if potentially reversible causes are identified.
Parkinson’s disease (PD):It is a progressive disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) with both motor and non-motor symptoms.
PD is a common disease that affects an estimated 1million American and an estimated 7 to 10 million people worldwide.
The prevalence of the disease is expected to increase substantially in the coming years due to the aging of the population.
The average age of onset is 50-60 years.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:
Parkinsonism is a generic term used to describe a group of disorders with primary disturbance in the dopamine system of basal ganglia (BG).
BG is a network of sub cortical nuclei consisting of caudate nucleus, putamen ,globus pallidus, and subthalamic nucleus with along with substantia nigra.
The BG engage in number of parallel circuit or loops ,only few of which are motor .
The document summarizes key aspects of neurocognitive disorders as outlined in Chapter 7. It describes three main groups - delirium, major or minor neurocognitive disorders (dementia), and amnestic disorders. Delirium is a temporary state of confusion that can have various causes and usually resolves quickly if the underlying cause is treated. Dementia involves a gradual loss of cognitive abilities that impairs daily life; it has various causes like Alzheimer's disease or vascular issues. Assessment and management aim to address any underlying causes or provide support, as the condition is often not reversible.
Parkinson's disease is characterized by tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia and postural instability. It is caused by degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, reducing striatal dopamine. The basal ganglia circuitry is disrupted, affecting movement planning and execution. Levodopa is the most effective treatment but has long term side effects; it is often combined with carbidopa to reduce peripheral effects and dosage. Differential diagnoses include conditions with similar parkinsonian symptoms but different causes or presentations.
Similar to Psychiatric manifestations of Parkinson's Disease (20)
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
2. INTRODUCTION
• Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder
that is associated with the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the
substantia nigra pars compacta.
• Etiology unknown
• Majority of cases thought to result from a combination of
environmental and genetic factors
3. EPIDEMIOLOGY
• Second most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer’s
disease
• Affects over 1 percent of the population over age 55 and nearly 3
percent of the population over age 70.(Ref CTP 9th Ed)
• Mean age of onset is 60 years
• Prevalence highest in Europe and North America, with lower rates in
Asia and Africa.
• Men are affected slightly more often than women.
4. MANIFESTATIONS OF PD
• MOTOR SYMPTOMS:
Hallmarks of the disease are its triad of motor features:
Resting tremor
Rigidity
Akinesia/bradykinesia
PSYCHIATRIC SYMPTOMS:
Due to the disease itself, or due to treatment (Pharmacological or
Surgical).
5. PSYCHIATRIC ASPECTS OF PD
• Psychiatric disturbances affect up to 90 percent of patients at some
point during the course of PD. (CTP 9th Ed)
• More than one psychiatric disturbance is often present.
• Early in the disease process, adult-onset anxiety and depressive
disorders precede the obvious onset of motor symptoms in up to 30
percent of patients. (CTP 9th Ed)
7. PREMORBID PERSONALITY
• Industriousness
• Cautiousness
• Perfectionism
• Punctuality
These traits represent a consequence of premorbid reductions in
dopaminergic tone (Controversial).
9. PROBLEMS
• about two-thirds of patients with early PD will show abnormalities of
cognitive function on formal neuropsychological testing
• Bradyphrenia or slowness of thought, slowing of mental processing and
memory retrieval, and examination of neuropsychological test
performance might show delay in deciding on choices, although the final
decisions are correct.
• The “tip of the tongue” phenomenon refers to the patient’s knowing the
word he or she wants, but not being able to come up with it and say it at
that moment
• Less ability to deal with mental problems, particularly multiple tasks at the
same time.
• Such cognitive impairments may be due to comorbid depression.
10. CAUSES
• Dopamine deficiency in the non-motor regions of the striatum,
especially the caudate nucleus which receives from and projects to
prefrontal cerebral cortex
• Loss of dopamine projections from the midbrain ventral tegmental
area to the frontal lobes (mesocortical pathways)
• Loss of cortical cholinergic projections from the basal forebrain
• Loss of cortical noradrenergic projections from the locus coeruleus
(Bradyphrenia)
• Cortical Lewy body degeneration.
11. DIAGNOSIS
• The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) was found to be a useful
screening tool for cognitive dysfunction in PD and more sensitive than the
MMSE (Gill et al., 2008; Hoops et al., 2009).
• Patients are weak in performance of tests that are sensitive to frontal lobe
dysfunction (executive function), such as verbal fluency, the Wisconsin card
sorting test, the Tower of London test and its variants, and tests of working
memory.
• Poor performance on these tests suggests abnormalities of frontal lobe
executive functions, which may be due to defective input from nonmotor
basal ganglia regions (via thalamus) into prefrontal cerebral cortical areas.
• Thus, some patients with early PD may exhibit a frontostriatal cognitive
syndrome
12. BIOCHEMICAL TESTING
• Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG PET)
scanning pattern that correlated with impaired memory and
executive functioning, these was found to be metabolic reductions in
frontal and parietal association areas and relative increases in the
cerebellar vermis and dentate nuclei
13. MANGEMENT DIFFICULTIES
• These selective cognitive impairments do not seem to respond to
dopamine replacement therapy in the way the motor problems of PD
do.
• Nor do they respond to antidepressants, unless depression is present
and is itself the cause of the slowness of thinking.
• Anticholinergics, amantadine, dopamine agonists, and even levodopa
in excess might well impair cognitive function.
• Unilateral pallidotomy for motor symptoms: transient and mild
cognitive problems mainly affecting frontosubcortical functions (e.g.
executive functions and memory)
15. RISK FACTORS
• Risk factors for developing dementia are low serum epidermal growth
factor (Chen-Plotkin et al., 2011), low CSF amyloid-beta (Siderowf et
al., 2010), and severity of olfactory impairment (Stephenson et al.,
2010).
• Other risk factors include older age, late onset, greater severity and
longer duration of PD, and male gender.
• Dementia in patients with PD may affect around 25%-40% of
cases(Ref. CTP 9th Ed.)
• Psychotic symptoms are more frequent in demented patients
16. PD DEMENTIA
• PD dementia (PDD) is characterized by impairment of memory,
visuospatial skills, information processing speed, attention, explicit
recall, spatial planning, perseveration, verbal fluency, and poverty of
thought.
• Executive dysfunction is especially common, resulting from deficits
that affect the ability to process new information and anticipate, plan,
initiate, maintain, and change behaviors.
• Behavioral symptoms such as affective changes, hallucinations, and
apathy are frequent.
17. DIAGNOSIS
• The Movement Disorder Society’s Task Force on Dementia developed
a set of criteria for diagnosing dementia in patients with PD (Emre et
al., 2007).
• PD dementia (PDD) is now the term applied to those whose PD
symptoms began at least one year prior to the onset of dementia.
• It is called Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) (McKeith et al., 1996)
when the dementia precedes or occurs within 1 year after onset of
parkinsonian motor features (Lippa et al., 2007).
• Combination (which some have called the Lewy body variant of
Alzheimer disease) is a common cause of dementia in PD.
18. PATHOLOGY
There are at least three common substrates for dementia in PD:
• Alzheimer disease
• Alzheimer disease with Lewy bodies
• Diffuse Lewy body disease (Dementia with Lewy bodies: DLB).
• A fourth possibility is dementia with just the standard pathology of
PD (PDD), typically with Lewy bodies in the cerebral cortex.
19. DIFFERENCE FROM AD
• A personality trait that distinguishes DLB/PDD from Alzheimer disease
is passivity (diminished emotional responsiveness, relinquished
hobbies, growing apathy, and purposeless hyperactivity) (Galvin et al.,
2007).
• In comparison to patients with Alzheimer’s disease, recognition
memory, aphasia, agnosia, apraxia, and higher language functions are
relatively spared.
• Neuroimaging with Pittsburgh Compound B (PIB) ligand with PET can
reveal the presence of fibrillar Abeta amyloid, which is present in
patients with PDD.
20. DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSES
• Prominent early memory difficulties with language, praxis, and
visuospatial problems pointing to temporo-parietal problems suggest
Alzheimer disease.
• A variable, fluctuating course with prominent hallucinations
(especially visual), confusion, and an unusual susceptibility to
neuroleptics could indicate dementia with Lewy bodies (McKeith et
al., 1996, 1999), i.e., diffuse Lewy body disease.
• Prominent behavioral, speech and memory difficulties could point to
frontotemporal dementia or Pick disease.
21. IMAGING
• FDG PET scans were correlated with the dementia score on the
UPDRS (Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale).
• A correlation was found with left limbic structures such as the
cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, and medial frontal gyrus (Wu
et al., 2000).
• Dementia, with or without a frank confusional state, is the
commonest cause of final nursing home placement in those with PD,
and shortens life expectancy (Goetz and Stebbins, 1993).
22. TREATMENT OF COGNITIVE
PROBLEMS/DEMENTIA
• Donepezil, which provides modest benefit in Alzheimer disease, has
been found also to provide modest benefit in cognition in those with
PD who are demented without aggravating the motoric symptoms of
PD (Aarsland et al., 2002; Ravina et al., 2005).
• Rivastigmine has also been tried with some success.
• Trials with Memantine are underway.
• Overall poor response to drug therapy.
24. EPIDEMIOLOGY
• Most common psychiatric disorder in PD (40% - 50%)
• Mostly mild to moderate, 20% have severe depression (upto 50%
have major depression)
• Possible risk factors : female sex, younger age at onset of PD,
prominence of right sided signs, and prominence of bradykinesia and
gait disturbance
• Depression may also predate the motor features of PD
• Depression is also considered a risk factor for the development of
dementia.
25. PROBLEMS
• Depression carries a hazard ratio of 2.66 for increased mortality in PD
(Hughes et al., 2004)
• Depression may correlate with faster progression of the disease and
faster decline in cognitive status and activities of daily living.
• No association has been clearly established, between severity of PD
and presence or severity of depression.
• Patients with PD and depression show worse cognitive function than
those without depression, particularly in tests of prefrontal/executive
function.
26. CAUSES
• Disabilities and handicaps imposed by PD, with reduced activities and
independence, and the prospects of a chronic incurable condition.
• PD in itself might predispose to depression, especially that involving
serotonergic and noradrenergic systems, which have been implicated
in the neurochemical basis of primary depressive illnesses.
• ↓ dopaminergic stimulation of orbitofrontal & prefrontal cortex.
• The substantia nigra, itself, is implicated by the report that deep brain
stimulation of this structure in a patient with PD induced acute severe
depression (Bejjani et al., 1999)
27. DIAGNOSTIC DIFFICULTY
• Often difficult to distinguish true depression from the apathy (abulia)
associated with PD, especially in the presence of the characteristic
expressionless face (hypomimia), bowed posture, and slowed
movement, which resemble the psychomotor retardation of a
primary depressive illness.
• The critical factor is whether the patient has a true disturbance of
mood (dysphoria), with low spirits, loss of interest, bleak outlook,
typical depressive sleep disturbance, paranoid ruminations, and
sometimes suicidal thoughts.
28. PHARMACOLOGICAL TREATMENT
• Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are the treatment of
choice, especially Sertraline and Escitalopram
• A few cases have been reported to interact with levodopa to induce
the “serotonin” syndrome (confusion, myoclonus, rigidity, and
restlessness) and to worsen PD symptoms.
• Tricyclic antidepressants(TCAs) can also be employed, although their
sedative and anticholinergic properties may be detrimental in elderly
patients.
• Nonselective monoamine oxidase inhibitors are contraindicated in
patients who are taking levodopa because of potential pressor
reactions
29. NONPHARMACOLOGICAL TREATMENT
• Psychotherapy(CBT) and counselling.
• If a severely depressed patient with PD fails to respond to
antidepressant drug treatment, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) can
be used (Douyon et al., 1989).
• Indeed, ECT in itself can temporarily improve mobility in PD.
31. EPIDEMIOLOGY
• Levodopa and dopamine agonists may occasionally be associated
with mood changes ranging from a sense of wellbeing to euphoria
and mania.
• The rate of hypomania is close to 2%,and that of euphoria is about
10%.
• Patients with pre-existing bipolar disorder may experience "high"
mood swings when treatment with dopaminergic drugs is started.
• In a few patients, occasional manifestation of hypomanic symptoms
during times of peak dose.
• Antidepressants along with antiparkinsonian therapy may contribute.
32. SYMPTOMS
• Altered sexual behaviour such as increased libido, hypersexuality,
sexual deviation, and various paraphilias
• Sleep disturbances such as vivid dreams and nightmares, and multiple
awakenings.
• Can be managed by more frequent and lower dosing to avoid sudden
dosage peaks, and mood swings
34. CAUSES
• Prevalence near about 40%. Higher in younger patients.
• Often comorbid with depression.
• GAD, social phobia & panic disorders are common.
• Noradrenergic and serotonergic deficits
• Imbalance in noradrenergic/dopaminergic tone.
• Psychosocial factors: Loss of confidence, loss of mobility and their
nonverbal emotional responses to social interactions.
• In some patients panic attacks occur with the onset of "freezing" or
"off" episodes. Also, association with levodopa level fluctuations.
35. MANAGEMENT
• Anxiety can be relieved by effective antiparkinsonian drug therapy
• Might require an antidepressant(SSRI)
• If dysphoria is present, a benzodiazepine (e.g., lorazepam 0.5 - 2 mg
three times a day) or buspirone may be added.
• Anxiety and stress worsen tremor, and alprazolam 0.25 mg during
those periods can provide relief.
• However, all these drugs can increase confusion in those who are
cognitively impaired.
37. COMPULSIVE BEHAVIORS
• Impulse Control Disorders(ICDs) were more common in patients treated
with a dopamine agonist than in patients not taking a dopamine agonist.
(ICDs affect upto 14% of the patients).
• Pathological gambling, hypersexuality, compulsive buying, and binge-eating
are common.
• All dopaminergic antiparkinsonian treatments as well as deep brain
stimulation have been associated with the behaviors.
• Reward-seeking behaviors possibly related to dopaminergic stimulation in
the mesolimbic system (PET scan reflecting greater dopaminergic release)
• Patients with a younger age at PD onset, higher novelty seeking traits, and
a personal or family history of alcohol use disorders were found to have a
greater risk.
38. HEDONISTIC HOMEOSTATIC DYSREGULATION
• It is a neuropsychological behavioral disorder associated with substance misuse
and addiction.
• The disorder has been recognized as a consequence of dopamine replacement
therapy (DRT) in patients with Parkinson's disease.
• The syndrome typically develops in male patients with early onset Parkinson's
disease, and can occur with orally and subcutaneously administered DRT.
• These patients take increasing quantities of their DRT, despite increasingly severe
drug induced dyskinesias, and may develop a cyclical mood disorder with
hypomania or manic psychosis.
• There is impairment of social and occupational functioning.
• Tolerance develops to mood elevating effects of DRT and a negative affective
withdrawal state occurs if the drugs are withdrawn or doses decreased.
39. REPETITIVE BEHAVIORS
• The term punding has been used to describe an abnormal motor
behavior in which there is an intense fascination with repetitive
handling and examining of mechanical objects.
• Punding has been reported with levodopa and dopamine agonists.
• A common form is repetitive cleaning/rearranging/ordering
behaviors, which can be disabling. These have associated features of
hypomania, occur during motor “on” periods, and often occur
nocturnally.
• Repetitive behaviors are more of a compulsion, and responds poorly
to serotonin reuptake inhibitors, but may benefit from atypical
antipsychotics.
40. APATHY
• A frequent symptom seen in PD (25%), and although often related to
depression. It can be found in patients without mood disorder.
• Manifest as indifference and a lack of motivation, initiative,
perseverance, interest in new things, or concern for one’s health.
• Associated with cognitive dysfunction (mainly executive impairment).
• It has been suggested that its presence is related to dysfunction of
forebrain dopaminergic systems.
• Lack of motivation → Apathy → Abulia
• Abulia is a characterized syndrome due to caudate and prefrontal
dysfunction.
41. OTHER ABNORMALITIES IN BEHAVIOR
• Behavioral disturbances, including verbal and physical aggression,
wandering, agitation, inappropriate sexual behavior,
uncooperativeness, and urinary incontinence, cause major difficulties.
42. ASSOCIATION WITH ON-OFF PHENOMENON
• Sensory & behavioral “off” periods, either accompanying or instead of
a motor “off.”
• The behavioral symptoms can consist of depression, anxiety,
dysphoria, and panic; the sensory symptoms consist of pain or
akathisia mainly.
• Behavioral and sensory “offs” probably represent an insufficient
dopaminergic “tone” in the limbic dopaminergic areas of the brain,
such as the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and cingulate cortex.
• Behavioral offs respond to dopaminergic medication.
43. MANAGEMENT
• Depression might require specific treatment, preferably avoiding
antidepressants with marked anticholinergic properties.
• If depression is not an issue, then dopaminergic agents, including
levodopa, dopamine receptor agonists, selegiline, amphetamines, and
amantadine, have been most consistently effective for apathy.
• Nocturnal sedation might require Quetiapine, which provides both
sedation and antihallucinatory effects.
• Clozapine does the same but requires weekly ascertainment for
neutropenia.
44. OTHER STRATEGIES
• Other bedtime hypnotics, such as benzodiazepines and zolpidem, can
be effective.
• Rivastigmine and other centrally active cholinesterase inhibitors were
found to provide some improvement in apathy, anxiety, delusions,
and hallucinations in patients with DLB (McKeith et al., 2000) and can
improve dementia (Giladi et al., 2003).
• For ICDs, drug therapy should be simplified, removing selegiline,
anticholinergic agents, amantadine, and dopamine agonists.
• ICDs in PD respond well to DBS of STN.
• Psychotherapy.
46. PSYCHOSES
Psychotic features appear to be due to a complex interaction between:
• Progressive and widespread pathology of the illness (diffuse cortical Lewy
body degeneration, concurrent Alzheimer plaques and tangles)
• Cortical cholinergic, noradrenergic, and serotonergic denervation
• The unwanted effects of drugs (anticholinergics, levodopa, and dopamine
agonists). Dopaminergic therapy may lead to hypersensitivity of
mesocortical and mesolimbic dopaminergic receptors.
• Intercurrent illness (such as infections or metabolic disturbances)
• Psychotic symptoms occur in up to 40% of patients (Jankovic 6th Ed)
47. HALLUCINATIONS
• Hallucinations occur in a significant proportion of those with PD,
especially in elderly patients ( upto 50% of cases: Ref. CTP 9th Ed.)
• Risk factors were higher age at onset, dopaminergic dose, and RBD
(REM sleep Behavior Disorder) at baseline.
• Isolated visual hallucinations are fairly common, whereas auditory
and hallucinations of other sensory modalities are very uncommon
48. VISUAL HALLUCINATIONS
• Mostly nocturnal. Often associated with sleep disturbances.
• Visual hallucinations often take the form of familiar humans or animals,
which the patients know are false (pseudo-hallucinations).
• Commonly the hallucinations do not disturb the patient because the visual
images are vivid but friendly and not frightening (benign hallucinations),
and occur in clear consciousness with preservation of insight and cognition.
• “Benign” visual hallucinations are the most common psychotic symptom in
Parkinson’s disease and are related to dopaminergic medications.
• These milder forms can worsen to a more malignant type (common with
anticholinergic medications).
49. ASSOCIATIONS
• Hallucinations may develop shortly after starting treatment for PD in
some patients.
• Risk factors for the occurrence of hallucinations: Several years of
treatment, increasing age & multiple drug therapy.
• FDG-PET reveals that PD patients with visual hallucinations have a
reduced metabolic rate in the occipitotemporoparietal regions,
sparing the occipital pole (Boecker et al., 2007).
50. DELUSIONS AND PARANOIA
• The prevalence of delusions ranges from 3% to 30% and is greater when
high doses of medication are used.
• Increasing age and presence of dementia are risk factors for the
development of delusions. Antiparkinsonian drug therapy is the most likely
cause.
• Delusions tend to appear more than 2 years after initiating treatment with
levodopa.
• They are typically paranoid in nature but delusions of jealousy have also
been described.
• May also progress to a delusional paranoid state or a frank confusional
state with impairment of attentiveness and disorientation.
• Schizophrenic formal thought disorder is rare.
51. DIAGNOSIS
• Criteria for diagnosing psychosis in PD and differentiating it from
other causes of psychosis were established by an NIH working group
(Ravina et al., 2007).
52. Proposed diagnostic criteria for PD-associated psychosis
Characteristic symptoms
Presence of at least one of the following symptoms (Criterion A) (specify which of the symptoms fulfill the criteria):
• Illusions
• False sense of presence
• Hallucinations
• Delusions
Primary diagnosis
• UK brain bank criteria for PD
Chronology of the onset of symptoms of psychosis
• The symptoms in Criterion A occur after the onset of PD
Duration
• The symptom(s) in Criterion A are recurrent or continuous for 1 month
Exclusion of other causes
• The symptoms in Criterion A are not better accounted for by another cause of parkinsonism such as dementia with Lewy bodies, psychiatric
disorders such as schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder, or mood disorder with psychotic features, or a general medical
condition including delirium
Associated features (specify if associated):
• With/without insight
• With/without dementia
• With/without treatment for PD (specify drug, surgical, other)
53. TREATMENT
• Psychosis due to antiparkinsonian medications can usually be
counteracted by atypical antipsychotics, drugs that usually do not
aggravate parkinsonism at a dosage that has a therapeutic benefit in
treating the psychosis, namely Quetiapine and Clozapine.
54. QUETIAPINE
• Quetiapine appears to be effective only for milder psychosis, such as
hallucinations, but not in more severe forms of psychosis, as
demonstrated by its failure in controlled trials.
• It is practical to start therapy with quetiapine if the hallucinations are
mild. A dose of 25–50 mg at night can often control confusion and
psychosis without worsening the parkinsonism.
• Quetiapine can be utilized as a hypnotic in older patients with PD to
take advantage of suppressing the development of hallucinations in
this susceptible population.
55. CLOZAPINE & OTHER AGENTS
• Clozapine should be tried next, starting with 12.5 mg at night to avoid
daytime drowsiness and increasing the dose until benefit or adverse
effects are encountered. It is more effective than Quetiapine, but its
use requires regular monitoring of blood counts to prevent the 1–2%
risk of agranulocytosis
• Olanzapine is relegated to third choice.
• Ziprasidone has also been tried.
• Risperidone more closely resembles a typical, rather than an atypical
antipsychotic, and role is controversial in PD.
• Aripiprazole has also worsened parkinsonism (Fernandez et al., 2004).
56. OTHER DRUG THERAPIES
• An alternative to atypical antipsychotics are the centrally active
anticholinesterase drugs (Rivastigmine) that are used in the treatment
of dementia. They have been reported to have similar efficacy on
psychosis as Quetiapine.
• The serotonin 5HT3-receptor antagonist Ondansetron blocks nausea
and vomiting due to anticancer drugs. It has been reported to reduce
hallucinations, paranoia, and confusion in PD (Zoldan et al., 1995).
57. OTHER STRATEGIES
• If psychosis continues without adequate benefit from the antipsychotics,
selegiline, anticholinergics, and amantadine should be withdrawn.
• If the symptoms persist, dopamine agonists should be reduced or stopped.
If necessary, the dose of levodopa should be tapered.
• Limited drug holiday, withdrawing dopaminergic drugs for 1–2 days each
week, might help to dispel psychotoxicity, allowing a reasonable dose of
medication to maintain mobility on other days.
• As drugs are reduced to improve the mental state, mobility deteriorates. A
brittle balance is reached at which the patient either is mobile but
confused, paranoid or hallucinating, or is mentally clear but immobile.
• Intact mental function is more important than an intact motor function.
• Resistant cases may require ECT.
59. PSYCHIATRIC MANIFESTATIONS OF PD
• Fairly common (90%)
• Due to the disease pathology itself along with drug therapy.
• Commonest is depression mixed with anxiety. Often a diagnostic challenge in PD.
SSRIs may be used. CBTs useful.
• Cognitive impairment often related to drug therapy. Aim is to find sweet spot
between intact mental function and reduction in motor symptoms.
• Dementia poses poor prognosis. Widespread pathology. Responds poorly to
drugs. Donepezil and Rivastigmine tried with some success.
• Psychoses almost invariably iatrogenic. Visual hallucinations common, generally
benign. To decrease/withdraw drugs gradually. Responds to Quetiapine and
Clozapine.
• Behavioral abnormalities especially ICDs and repetitive behaviors seen. Atypical
antipsychotics may be used. ECT for resistant cases.