Module: Pharmacotherapy III
Module Coordinator: Dr. Arwa M. Amin Mostafa
Academic Level: Postgraduate, Master of Pharmacy in Clinical Pharmacy
School: Dubai Pharmacy College
Year of first presented in Class: 2018
This presentation is for Educational purpose. It has no commercial value associated with it.
Parkinson's Disease, SYMPTOMS OF PARKINSONISM, STAGES OF PARKINSONISM, ETIOLOGY OF PARKINSONISM, PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PARKINSONISM, TREATMENT OF PARKINSONISM.
Parkinsonism is a clinical syndrome and, typically, when the condition
appears to be idiopathic and responsive to levodopa therapy, is referred
to as Parkinson’s disease1
• The four cardinal features of the parkinsonian syndrome are:2
– Bradykinesia
– Muscular rigidity
– Resting tremor
– Postural instability (and gait impairment)
• These features are not always observed in every patient, at any given
time
To make a diagnosis of PD, the physician must distinguish between
different forms of parkinsonism:1
– Parkinson’s disease
– Secondary parkinsonism
– Parkinsonism as part of another neurodegenerative disorder (e.g., multiple
system atrophy, progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal degeneration, or
Lewy body dementia)
SCALES COMMONLY USED IN
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
RESEARCH
SCALES COMMONLY USED IN
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
RESEARCH
During my 1st &2nd year of residency period , i used to teach Anatomy and Orthopaedics for foreign undergraduate medical students. At last year i taught Neurology for one batch. so i posted some of my collections for competely educational purpose coz i believe in knowledge ...inseted of deleting these ppts , they may me useful for others so i shared it ....
Parkinson’s disease (PD):It is a progressive disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) with both motor and non-motor symptoms.
PD is a common disease that affects an estimated 1million American and an estimated 7 to 10 million people worldwide.
The prevalence of the disease is expected to increase substantially in the coming years due to the aging of the population.
The average age of onset is 50-60 years.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:
Parkinsonism is a generic term used to describe a group of disorders with primary disturbance in the dopamine system of basal ganglia (BG).
BG is a network of sub cortical nuclei consisting of caudate nucleus, putamen ,globus pallidus, and subthalamic nucleus with along with substantia nigra.
The BG engage in number of parallel circuit or loops ,only few of which are motor .
Module: Pharmacotherapy III
Module Coordinator: Dr. Arwa M. Amin Mostafa
Academic Level: Postgraduate, Master of Pharmacy in Clinical Pharmacy
School: Dubai Pharmacy College
Year of first presented in Class: 2018
This presentation is for Educational purpose. It has no commercial value associated with it.
Parkinson's Disease, SYMPTOMS OF PARKINSONISM, STAGES OF PARKINSONISM, ETIOLOGY OF PARKINSONISM, PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PARKINSONISM, TREATMENT OF PARKINSONISM.
Parkinsonism is a clinical syndrome and, typically, when the condition
appears to be idiopathic and responsive to levodopa therapy, is referred
to as Parkinson’s disease1
• The four cardinal features of the parkinsonian syndrome are:2
– Bradykinesia
– Muscular rigidity
– Resting tremor
– Postural instability (and gait impairment)
• These features are not always observed in every patient, at any given
time
To make a diagnosis of PD, the physician must distinguish between
different forms of parkinsonism:1
– Parkinson’s disease
– Secondary parkinsonism
– Parkinsonism as part of another neurodegenerative disorder (e.g., multiple
system atrophy, progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal degeneration, or
Lewy body dementia)
SCALES COMMONLY USED IN
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
RESEARCH
SCALES COMMONLY USED IN
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
RESEARCH
During my 1st &2nd year of residency period , i used to teach Anatomy and Orthopaedics for foreign undergraduate medical students. At last year i taught Neurology for one batch. so i posted some of my collections for competely educational purpose coz i believe in knowledge ...inseted of deleting these ppts , they may me useful for others so i shared it ....
Parkinson’s disease (PD):It is a progressive disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) with both motor and non-motor symptoms.
PD is a common disease that affects an estimated 1million American and an estimated 7 to 10 million people worldwide.
The prevalence of the disease is expected to increase substantially in the coming years due to the aging of the population.
The average age of onset is 50-60 years.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:
Parkinsonism is a generic term used to describe a group of disorders with primary disturbance in the dopamine system of basal ganglia (BG).
BG is a network of sub cortical nuclei consisting of caudate nucleus, putamen ,globus pallidus, and subthalamic nucleus with along with substantia nigra.
The BG engage in number of parallel circuit or loops ,only few of which are motor .
parkinson's disease by me ..........prakash mahala p.g. medical surgical nursing at himalayan college of nursing dehradun.......prakashjpmmahala@gmail.com
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
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Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
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2. GENERAL ASPECTS
Components of basal ganglia:
• Striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen )
• Globus pallidus
• Substantia nigra
• Nucleus accumbens
• Subthalamic nucleus
• Affernts : 1) from cerebral cortex to striatum
• 2)from centromedian nucleus of thalamus to striatum
• Efferents : 1) mainly from internal segment of globus pallidus to CM nucleus of
thalamus
• 2)from substantia nigra to thalamus
• Intrastriatal pathways are cholinergic
• Striatonigral pathways are GABAergic
• Nigrostriatal pathways are dopaminergic
• In Parkinson disease, all pathways are effected but nigrostriatal pathway is effected
the most
3. FUNCTION OF BASAL GANGLIA
• Planning and programming of movement
( skilled movements)
• Role in cognitive process
( esp. that of caudate )
4. • Parkinson disease is a chronic
progressive disease of nervous
system characterised by cardinal
features of tremors , rigidity ,
bradykinesia and postural instability.
• UK brain bank criteria ( resting tremors,
asymmetry and good response to levodopa).
Diagnosis of PD is confirmed in 99% cases by this
criteria.
5. TREMORS
• Resting tremor: causes "pill rolling" between thumb and
index fingers and illegible writing
• Parkinsonian tremor is characteristically slow, of medium to
coarse amplitude (3-7 Hz); present at rest; increased by
emotion, fatigue, stress, and anxiety; absent in sleep; and
decreased by volitional activity.
• It typically affects the distal appendicular muscles, leading to:
• Flexion-extension movements of the metacarpophalangeal
and interphalangeal joints of the fingers and thumb
• Adduction-abduction movements of the thumbs (pill rolling)
• Pronation-supination movements of the wrists.
• It often begins unilaterally in the hand and may be present
initially only in the thumb or a single finger.
6. TREMORS
• The tremor then typically spreads to the
ipsilateral lower extremity (hemiparkinsonism)
before involving the opposite half of the body.
7. BRADYKINESIA
• Bradykinesia (decreased movements).
• Bradykinesia is the most disabling manifestation of
parkinsonism
• It’s characterized by delay in the initiation and execution of
willed movements and a general reduction of associated
automatic movements.
• Bradykinesia explains (at least partially) the facial hypomimia,
reduced blinking, impaired ocular convergence, monotonous
and low-volume speech (bradylalia, eventually leading to
anarthria), drooling of saliva, micrographia, and slow shuffling
gait with reduced associated movements that occur in
parkinsonism.
8. RIGIDITY
• Muscle rigidity: causes slowness of voluntary
muscle movement (bradykinesia) and cogwheel
rigidity
• Rigidity is characterized by a plastic resistance to
passive movements that affects both agonist and
antagonist muscles (e.g., flexors and extensors,
pronators, and supinators) to a similar extent and
that is constant throughout the entire range of
movement.
• Rigidity affects more axial and proximal limb
muscles
10. ASSOCIATED NON MOTOR FEATURES
Anosmia
Sensory disturbances (eg. Pain)
Mood disorders ( eg. Depression)
Sleep disturbances
Autonomic disturbances( orthostatic hypotension,
GI disturbances, GU disturbances, sexual
dysfunction )
Cognitive impairment / dementia
11.
12. PATHOLOGY
Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the
substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), reduced
striatal dopamine and intracytoplasmic
proteinous inclusions ka lewy bodies
Neuronic degeneration can also affect cholinergic
neurons of nucleus basalis of meynert (NBM),
serotonin neurons in raphe nuclei of brainstem
and neurons of olfactory system, cerebral
hemispheres, spinal cord, and peripheral
autonomic nervous system
13. PATHOLOGY
• Symptom reflecting nondopaminergic
degeneration such as constipation,
anosmia, rapid eye movement(REM)
behavior sleep disorder and cardiac
depervation precede the onset of the
classic motor features of the illness
14. PATHOGENESIS
Nigral dopamine neurons and other cell dies
because of following facters :
Genetic vulnerability ( abnormal processing or
folding of alfa-synuclein leds to lewy body
formation )
Oxidative stress ( due to mitochondrial
dysfunction)
Proteasomal dysfunction ( protease inhibition
substrate accumulation)
15. PATHOGENESIS
• Abnormal kinase activity inappropiate
phosphorylation
• Enviromental facters
• Oxidative stress plays major role in sporadic form
of PD. Free radicals produced by metabolism of
dopamine and melanin Defect in mitochondrial
complex 1 of oxidative phosphorylation chain.
• MPTP, a meperidine derivative ; rotenone inhibits
complex 1.
16. • Genetic factors:
• Autosomal dominant (AD) and autosomal recessive
(AR) patterns of inheritance have been identified.
chromosome 4q21-23:
• Alanine-53-threonine mutation in the α-synuclein
gene.
• Autosomal dominant (AD).
• Earlier disease onset (mean, age 45 years).
• Faster progression.
• Some with fluent aphasia.
17. • chromososme 6q25.2-27:
• The parkin gene.
• Autosomal recessive (AR).
• Relatively young-onset parkinsonism.
• Early dystonia.
• Symmetric involvement.
• Good levodopa response.
• Absence of Lewy bodies at autopsy.
• chromosome 2p13:
• Autosomal dominant (AD) but with 40% penetrance.
• All from northern Germany and southern Denmark.
• Nigral degeneration and Lewy bodies at autopsy.
• Dementia may be more common
18. • chromosome 4p14-16.3:
• Autosomal dominant (AD).
• From a family known as the Iowa kindred.
• Also younger age of onset (mean, 34 years).
• Rapid clinical course.
• Early-onset dementia.
• Equivocal response to levodopa.
• Some family members with only postural tremor
resembling essential tremor.
• Autopsy shows Lewy bodies in the nigra and
hippocampus.
19. mutation in ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1
on chromosome 4:
• Autosomal dominant (AD).
• Young-onset progressive parkinsonism.
chromosome 1p35-36:
• Autosomal recessive (AR).
• Early-onset parkinsonism.
• Slow progression.
• Marked response to levodopa.
• Gene not yet identified.
20. chromosome 1p3:
• Early Autosomal recessive (AR) parkinsonism.
• Slow progression.
• With levodopa responsiveness.
21. D/D
• Differential Diagnosis:
• There are other disorders that may cause
parkinsonism besides Parkinson disease (sometimes
called “Parkinson plus”).
• These disorders may be difficult to separate clinically
from Parkinson disease.
• A lack of response to medication for Parkinson, early
dementia, and other neurologic signs may all suggest
such conditions.
• Up to 30% of patients with parkinsonism ultimately
have a cause other than Parkinson disease.
22. D/D
• Medications may cause secondary parkinsonism
by blocking the D2 receptor in the basal ganglia.
• Common agents responsible for this effect
include typical neuroleptics such as haloperidol
and the anti-emetic metoclopramide.
• Up to 5% of patients on long-term valproic acid
will develop parkinsonism with a cognitive
decline that may be reversible.
23. D/D
• Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) is a
degenerative disorder in which patients have a
toppling gait, impaired voluntary up-and-
down eye movements, and pseudobulbar
palsy.
• PSP should be considered in a parkinsonian
patient who presents with falling as an early
symptom.
24. D/D
• Multiple system atrophy (MSA) refers to a group of
degenerative disorders in which there are
abnormalities in multiple neurologic systems, including
the basal ganglia, corticospinal tract, autonomic
nervous system, and cerebellum.
• The Shy-Drager syndrome is a subtype of MSA with
impotence, postural hypotension, and parkinsonism.
• Early urinary incontinence, orthostatic hypotension,
and dysarthia are suggestive of multiple system
atrophy.
• (MSAc – cerebellar) has intentional tremors, dysarthia
• (MSAp – parkinson ) has resting tremors.
25. D/D
• Diffuse Lewy body disease may cause
parkinsonism, accompanied by an early
cognitive decline, prominent visual
hallucinations, a fluctuating course, and
sensitivity to major antipsychotics.
• Pathologically, Lewy bodies are seen in
cortical areas in addition to the pigmented
nuclei.
26. D/D
• Normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) involves the triad of
gait disorder, cognitive decline, and incontinence.
• Patients may appear parkinsonian but the gait is usually
apraxic rather than parkinsonian (patients seem unable to
“figure out” how to walk but can still bicycle with their legs
effectively when lying in bed on their back).
• NPH may be a delayed manifestation following a head injury,
subarachnoid hemorrhage, meningitis, or may occur
spontaneously.
• On computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance
imaging, large ventricles are seen without significant atrophy.
• Gait is “magnetic,” with difficulty picking up the feet despite
good strength (gait apraxia).
27. D/D
• Parkinsonism may be secondary to toxins such
as chronic manganese or carbon monoxide
intoxication.
28. TREATMENT OUTLINE
• PD pharmacological interventions
neuroprotection - ? Resagiline functional
disability if present then levodopa/ dopamine
agonists combination therapy with LEVODOPA/
DOPAMINE AGONISTS/ COMT INHIBITERS/ MAO
INHIBITERS SURGERY/CDS
• Non pharmacological measures : physiotherapy,
counselling, life style modifications.
29. TREATMENT
• Levodopa is the most effective anti-parkinsonian medication,
and is the cornerstone of therapy for most patients.
• Despite this, many physicians delay the use of levodopa until
later in the course with the hope that the long-term side
effects of this medication can be reduced or delayed.
• The effect may be dramatic when administered early in
disease. Used alone, large doses are needed for effect, and
the peripheral effect causes nausea and orthostatic
hypotension.
• When combined with a dopa-decarboxylase inhibitor
(carbidopa), the peripheral effects are minimized, and the
dose may be reduced as more of the dopa reaches the brain
to be converted to dopamine
30. TREATMENT
• Combination medication is available as a short-acting
or long-acting preparation.
• The short-acting medication is available as 10/100,
25/100, and 25/250, with the first number referring to
the milligrams of carbidopa and the second number
referring to the milligrams of levodopa.
• A long-acting (CR) form is available as 25/100 or
50/200 mg, but does not confer a significant added
benefit.
• Carbidopa/ Levodopa 25/100, 3 to 4 times a day is the
usual starting dose. The most common side effect of
levodopa therapy is nausea.
31. TREATMENT
• Early motor fluctuations, dyskinesia, and on-off
phenomena are common problems encountered
with levodopa/carbidopa as parkinsonism
progresses.
• Dystonia, agitation, hallucinations, and sleep
disorders also may occur, particularly in patients
with dementia.
• Providing levodopa/carbidopa 30 minutes before
meals and limiting protein intake during the day
may improve absorption and efficacy of
levodopa/carbidopa.
32. TREATMENT
• Dopamine replacement might excessively
inhibit the pallidal output system , there by
leading to increased thalamo-cortical
activity dyskinesia
• Levodopa induced alternation in Gpi neuronal
firing pattern.This leds to transmission of
misinformation from pallidum to
thalamus/cortex leding to dyskinesia.
Pallidotomy thus ameliorate dyskinesia
33. TREATMENT
• Advantages of Levodopa:
• Most efficacious antiparkinsonian drug
• Immediate therapeutic benefits (within 1 week)
• Easily titrated
• Reduces mortality
• Lower cost
• Disadvantages of Levodopa:
• No effect on disease course,
• No effect on nondopaminergic symptoms, such as dysautonomia,
cognitive disturbances, and postural instability, motor fluctuations
and dyskinesia develop over time (especially in younger patients,
those with more severe disease and those requiring higher doses).
34. TREATMENT
• Dopamine agonists are advocated by some authorities as
early monotherapy in an attempt to spare the use of levodopa
early in the disease.
• Pergolide, bromocryptine, ropinerole, pramipexole, and
rasagiline are available dopamine agonists.
• Because pergolide, pramipexole, and ropinerole are longer-
acting agents, they may help smooth out motor fluctuations
seen with levodopa therapy, and have fewer choreiform-like
dyskinesias than levodopa.
• However, they may cause nausea, hypotension,
hallucinations, and confusion, as well as excessive
somnolence.
• Gradual titration to the desired dose is the most effective
strategy.
35. TREATMENT
• They may be used as monotherapy or in combination with
other anti- parkinsonian medications.
• Ergot derived dopamine agonists (pergolide, bromocryptine,
cabergoline) have recently been shown to cause valvular
heart disease in up to 5% of treated patients.
• In addition, dopamine agonists may cause impulsive
behaviors, such as gambling and hypersexuality, particularly at
higher doses.
• Patients taking dopamine agonists should be warned not to
drive if excessive somnolence is a significant complaint. It is
not known if lowering the dose of dopamine agonist will help
this.
37. TREATMENT
• Selegiline is a selective monoamine-B oxidase inhibitor
that increases the availability of dopamine at the
synaptic terminal.
• Rasagiline, a selective monoamine-B oxidase inhibitor,
was recently approved for use in Parkinson disease.
• This can be used both as an initial agent early in
Parkinson disease, or as an add-on agent for “on-off”
problems later in the disease.
• In the usual dosing of 0.5 to 1.0 mg per day, there do
not appear to be problems with reactions to tyramine-
containing foods.
38. TREATMENT
• Anticholinergic medications were used in the
past, but are no longer commonly prescribed due
to their side effect profile.
• option for young patients (<60 y/o) whose
predominant symptoms are resting tremor and
hypersalivation
• available agents—trihexyphenidyl and
benztropine;
• adverse effects often limit use—memory
impairment, confusion, hallucinations
39. TREATMENT
• Amantidine, an NMDA antagonist, was
initially demonstrated to have a modest anti-
parkinsonian effect.
• This agent is now used to reduce dyskinesias
when that side effect of treatment occurs.
40. TREATMENT
• Treatment (Late Stage):
• After approximately 5 years of treatment with levodopa,
probably because of loss of buffering action by remaining
dopaminergic neurons, patients develop a variety of
difficult-to-treat side effects of levodopa.
• Such problems include the following:
• Wearing-off of levodopa may be improved by giving the
levodopa more frequently, using longer-acting dopa
preparations, adding dopamine agonists to levodopa,
adding COMT inhibitors such as tolcapone or entacapone,
or adding rasagiline (grade A).
• Fatal hepatotoxicity has occasionally occurred with
tolcapone.
41. TREATMENT
Peak-dose dyskinesias
• Use smaller and more frequent levodopa
doses, or lower the levodopa dose and add
dopamine agonists.
• Amantidine may also be helpful in this setting
42. TREATMENT
• “On-off” fluctuations refer to dramatic,
unpredictable shifts from under-treated to
over-treated states.
• These are difficult to treat.
• Adding dopamine agonists, using COMT
inhibitors, using rasagiline, and occasionally
using injectable apomorphine may be helpful.
43. TREATMENT
• Confusion, sleep disorder, and
psychosis may be helped by decreasing the
medication, particularly limiting
anticholinergics, amantidine, and other
medications with sedating or anticholinergic
effects.
44. TREATMENT
Impulse control disorders have recently
been identified in patients with Parkinson
disease (gambling, hypersexuality, excessive
shopping, etc.).
• These may be associated with the use of
dopamine agonists or be related to the
disease entity.
45. SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
Lesion surgery
• Thalamotomy— most effective for parkinsonian and
essential tremor
• Pallidotomy—improves bradykinesia, tremor, rigidity,
dyskinesia in PD
INDICATIONS : 1) INTRACTABLE TREMORS
• 2) DRUG INDUCED DYSKINESIA
• Deep brain stimulaters : most preferred site for
implantation is subthalamic nucleus but in parkinson
with depresion,the most preffered site is GPi