The document discusses quantitative data collection methods in applied linguistics research. It describes how questionnaires and tests are commonly used to collect quantitative data. It provides guidance on sampling procedures, sample size determination, questionnaire design considerations like question format and wording, and formatting questionnaires. Key points covered include using probability and non-probability sampling, aiming for samples of 100-1000 participants, and designing questionnaires that are 4 pages or less and take 30 minutes to complete.
The document summarizes key concepts in research methods in applied linguistics. It discusses sources of knowledge such as sensory experience, expert opinion, deductive and inductive logic. It also outlines the scientific method including positivism, logical positivism, and post-positivism. Finally, it defines research as a systematic process used to increase understanding through posing a question, collecting data to answer it, and presenting an answer.
This document outlines research methodology for collecting quantitative and qualitative data in English language teaching. It discusses various quantitative data collection methods like sampling, questionnaires, experiments, and collecting data online. It also discusses qualitative data collection methods like sampling in qualitative research, ethnography, interviews, focus groups, introspective methods, case studies, diary studies, and maintaining research journals. The document provides details on how to conduct each of these methods and their respective strengths and weaknesses.
The document discusses various types of language tests that teachers may design or utilize, including language aptitude tests, proficiency tests, placement tests, diagnostic tests, and achievement tests. It provides details on the purpose and objectives of each test type, as well as considerations for designing, administering, and scoring the tests. Specific examples discussed include the Modern Language Aptitude Test and Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery, as well as components of sample language tests like their format, scoring criteria, and feedback approaches.
Needs analysis in syllabus design.pptxAREEJ ALDAEJ
The document discusses needs analysis for syllabus design in teaching English. It defines needs analysis and syllabus design, outlines the history and purposes of needs analysis, and classifications of needs. The document also describes steps for designing a syllabus based on needs analysis, provides an example research study on needs analysis conducted in Albania, and discusses the role of teachers in needs analysis.
This document discusses discourse analysis and provides information on key concepts. It defines discourse analysis as the analysis of language beyond the sentence level, including analysis of text and conversation. It also discusses several basic ideas in discourse analysis such as text analysis, conversation analysis, cohesion, coherence, speech events, turn-taking, and the cooperative principle. The document provides examples and explanations of these concepts.
This document discusses testing listening skills in language learning. It explains that listening tests assess how well students have mastered what has been taught and that listening is a key receptive skill for language proficiency. There are two main types of listening tests - discrete tests that evaluate specific listening elements or aspects of proficiency one at a time, and task-based tests that evaluate broader communicative listening skills like comprehending facts or interpreting intentions. Important considerations for developing listening tests include selecting appropriate texts and tasks, determining the number of speakers, choosing a live or recorded format, minimizing writing, and using multiple choice or other item types. Sample test formats described include dictation, following map directions, comprehending radio reports or talks, and answering comprehension questions
The document outlines different types of language tests: proficiency tests measure general language ability regardless of training; achievement tests relate to language courses and assess whether objectives were achieved; diagnostic tests identify strengths and weaknesses; placement tests determine what language level is appropriate. It also distinguishes between direct and indirect testing, discrete point and integrative testing, norm-referenced and criterion-referenced testing, and objective and subjective scoring. The document concludes by mentioning computer adaptive testing and communicative language testing.
The document summarizes key concepts in research methods in applied linguistics. It discusses sources of knowledge such as sensory experience, expert opinion, deductive and inductive logic. It also outlines the scientific method including positivism, logical positivism, and post-positivism. Finally, it defines research as a systematic process used to increase understanding through posing a question, collecting data to answer it, and presenting an answer.
This document outlines research methodology for collecting quantitative and qualitative data in English language teaching. It discusses various quantitative data collection methods like sampling, questionnaires, experiments, and collecting data online. It also discusses qualitative data collection methods like sampling in qualitative research, ethnography, interviews, focus groups, introspective methods, case studies, diary studies, and maintaining research journals. The document provides details on how to conduct each of these methods and their respective strengths and weaknesses.
The document discusses various types of language tests that teachers may design or utilize, including language aptitude tests, proficiency tests, placement tests, diagnostic tests, and achievement tests. It provides details on the purpose and objectives of each test type, as well as considerations for designing, administering, and scoring the tests. Specific examples discussed include the Modern Language Aptitude Test and Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery, as well as components of sample language tests like their format, scoring criteria, and feedback approaches.
Needs analysis in syllabus design.pptxAREEJ ALDAEJ
The document discusses needs analysis for syllabus design in teaching English. It defines needs analysis and syllabus design, outlines the history and purposes of needs analysis, and classifications of needs. The document also describes steps for designing a syllabus based on needs analysis, provides an example research study on needs analysis conducted in Albania, and discusses the role of teachers in needs analysis.
This document discusses discourse analysis and provides information on key concepts. It defines discourse analysis as the analysis of language beyond the sentence level, including analysis of text and conversation. It also discusses several basic ideas in discourse analysis such as text analysis, conversation analysis, cohesion, coherence, speech events, turn-taking, and the cooperative principle. The document provides examples and explanations of these concepts.
This document discusses testing listening skills in language learning. It explains that listening tests assess how well students have mastered what has been taught and that listening is a key receptive skill for language proficiency. There are two main types of listening tests - discrete tests that evaluate specific listening elements or aspects of proficiency one at a time, and task-based tests that evaluate broader communicative listening skills like comprehending facts or interpreting intentions. Important considerations for developing listening tests include selecting appropriate texts and tasks, determining the number of speakers, choosing a live or recorded format, minimizing writing, and using multiple choice or other item types. Sample test formats described include dictation, following map directions, comprehending radio reports or talks, and answering comprehension questions
The document outlines different types of language tests: proficiency tests measure general language ability regardless of training; achievement tests relate to language courses and assess whether objectives were achieved; diagnostic tests identify strengths and weaknesses; placement tests determine what language level is appropriate. It also distinguishes between direct and indirect testing, discrete point and integrative testing, norm-referenced and criterion-referenced testing, and objective and subjective scoring. The document concludes by mentioning computer adaptive testing and communicative language testing.
The document provides an overview of different models for categorizing speakers of English based on whether it is their native, second, or foreign language. It discusses Kachru's three circles model of inner circle (traditional bases), outer circle (former colonies), and expanding circle (other countries). It notes difficulties with these models and proposes some alternatives, including based on competence rather than geography. Sound samples from different English speakers are then provided to test whether the listener can identify a native versus non-native speaker.
Testing for Language TeachersArthur HughesRajputt Ainee
Testing is done for various purposes such as verifying that a product meets requirements, managing risk, and assessing knowledge or skills. The main purposes of testing are to verify that specifications are met and to manage risks. Tests can have negative effects if not aligned with learning objectives, and inaccuracies can arise from flawed test content or unreliable scoring techniques. Effective testing requires quality assurance and validation to catch errors before public release. Assessment includes formative assessment for immediate feedback and summative assessment for end-of-period evaluation. Teachers can help improve testing by writing better tests, educating others, and advocating for testing improvements.
Language testing is the practice of evaluating an individual's proficiency in using a particular language. There are two main types of assessment: formative assessment which checks student progress, and summative assessment which measures achievement at the end of a term. There are five common types of language tests: proficiency tests which measure overall ability, achievement tests related to course content, diagnostic tests which identify strengths and weaknesses, placement tests for assigning students to class levels, and direct/indirect tests. The effect of testing on teaching is known as backwash, which can be harmful if not aligned with course objectives, or beneficial if tests influence instructional changes.
This document discusses language testing and evaluation. It defines formative and summative evaluation, with formative used to provide feedback during instruction and summative used to assess learning after instruction. Examples of evaluation include textbook, materials, course, and instructional evaluations. The purpose of evaluation is to improve teaching and learning, assess student progress, and identify weaknesses. Evaluation methods can be norm-referenced, comparing students, or criterion-referenced, assessing specific skills. Testing can directly assess skills or indirectly measure underlying abilities. Objective testing uses multiple choice while subjective uses human judgment. Proper testing is crucial for the teaching-learning process and provides feedback to improve curriculum and instruction.
This document provides background information on code switching and code mixing. It discusses how code switching occurs when speakers alternate between two languages in a conversation, while code mixing happens when elements of both languages are used within a single utterance. The document then outlines the objectives, limitations, research problems, theoretical framework and methodology used to analyze code switching and code mixing in the novel "Love You Anyway". It identifies three types of code switching - tag, inter-sentential, and intra-sentential - and two types of code mixing - intra-sentential and extra-sentential. Potential reasons for code switching/mixing discussed include discussing specific topics, quoting others, emphasis, clarification and expressing group identity.
Social stratification of (r) in New York City Department StoresAtula Ahuja
In 1966, William Labov conducted a study “The Social Stratification of (r) in New York City to demonstrate the variation in the pronunciation of post-vocalic –/r/ according to social group. He hypothesized, “salespeople in the highest ranked store will have the highest values of (r); those in the middle ranked store will have intermediate values of (r); and those in the lowest ranked store will show the lowest values”. (Labov 1966:65)” The results showed a clear stratification along socio- economic class and status dimension and proved the hypothesis. He also found that rhotic use of /r/ was more widespread among younger age group and women. In NYC, pronouncing /r/ is considered prestigious but in Reading, it’s not. At the beginning of the words, hotel, herb, hour. Interestingly, initial [h] has reappeared in the speech of London youth who belong to ethnic minority (Holmes, 2008).
This document discusses speech act theory, which was proposed by philosophers John Austin and John Searle. They believed that language is used not just to inform but also to perform acts. Austin distinguished three acts in a single speech act: the illocutionary act is the intended function of the utterance, the locutionary act is the literal meaning of words used, and the perlocutionary act is the effect on the listener. Searle later classified illocutionary acts into five categories: directives, commissives, representatives, declaratives, and expressives. The document provides examples to illustrate each category.
This document discusses various frameworks for evaluating and adapting English language teaching materials. It begins by outlining the advantages and disadvantages of using textbooks, as well as some criteria for evaluating materials such as appearance, teacher-friendliness, and suitability for learners' levels. The document then examines different methods for adapting materials, including editing, adding, replacing, and deleting content. It analyzes frameworks from Dalby (2009), McDonough and Shaw (2003), and Islam and Mares (2003) for adapting materials through techniques like expanding, subtracting, modifying, simplifying, and reordering. The document concludes by exploring approaches to materials evaluation, such as pre-use, while-use, and post-use evaluation, and
Classroom Interaction and Second Language Acquisitiondehsheikhi
Classroom interaction plays a fundamental role in second language acquisition. Research has developed systems to analyze classroom discourse and identify its characteristics. Teacher-centered classroom discourse typically follows an initiation-response-feedback structure. Different frameworks have also categorized types of language use in the classroom, including whether the focus is on linguistic forms or meaningful communication. Classroom turn-taking is typically controlled by the teacher to manage transitions, with students having less autonomy to initiate discussions.
1) Speech acts are utterances that perform actions rather than just communicating information, such as apologizing, promising, or naming a ship.
2) Austin categorized speech acts as locutionary (the act of communication), illocutionary (the message or action conveyed), or perlocutionary (the effect on the listener).
3) Searle identified five categories of speech acts: representatives that commit the speaker to a belief, directives that try to get the listener to do something, commissives that commit the speaker to an action, expressives that express the speaker's attitude, and declarations that change the status quo through the utterance.
This document discusses various test techniques used to assess language ability. It describes multiple choice items as being perfectly reliable but only testing recognition knowledge. Short answer items are less susceptible to guessing but require more time to score. Gap filling items work for listening and reading tests but can be difficult for grammar. When writing test items, it is important they reliably and validly measure the intended language ability and have unambiguous instructions. Item types should be varied to reduce method effects influencing scores. Overall, good test techniques aim to efficiently and accurately obtain information about a student's language proficiency.
This document provides an overview of critical discourse analysis (CDA). It discusses key principles of CDA, including how social and political issues are constructed through language use and how power relations are negotiated in discourse. The document also outlines how CDA is conducted, examining framing of texts, agent-patient relations, and issues like genre, modality, and identity. Some criticisms of CDA are noted, such as the need to involve text producers/consumers, and responses to these criticisms are presented.
1) Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It examines how social factors such as context, status, and function influence language variation and use.
2) People code switch and use different linguistic varieties depending on social context, including the participants, setting, topic, and function of the interaction. Formal contexts like religion or education use high varieties while informal settings use low varieties.
3) Languages shift when their speakers abandon them for a dominant language due to economic, social, or demographic factors. This can lead to language loss or even death when no one speaks it anymore.
Product Syllabus : product syllabuses are those in which the focus is on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain as a result of instruction.
4.2. process syllabuses are those which focus on the learning experiences themselves.
. Synthetic syllabus: segment the target language into discrete linguistic items.
Different parts of language are taught separately.
4.4 . Analytic Syllabi: focus on the learner and his needs and on the kinds of linguistic
performance necessary to achieve those goals .
4.5. Type A: This type deals with what should be learned in a second language classroom.
4.6. Type B : Consider the question of how a second language should be learned.
This document discusses corpus linguistics and methods of corpus analysis. It defines corpus linguistics as the study of language using large samples of authentic texts. It outlines the history of corpus linguistics from early manually created corpora to current large electronically stored corpora. It also discusses different types of annotation that can be applied to corpora, including part-of-speech tagging, syntactic analysis, semantic tagging, and discourse-level annotation. The document contrasts the corpus linguistics approach, which focuses on descriptive adequacy based on empirical data, with the generative grammar approach, which prioritizes explanatory adequacy through abstract principles.
This document discusses bilingualism and second language acquisition. It defines bilingualism as the ability to communicate in two languages and notes there is individual and social bilingualism. There can also be bidialectalism, referring to communicating in two dialects of the same language, and biscriptural competence, the ability to read two scripts of the same language. The document also discusses how the first language influences second language learning and errors, and how cultural communication is determined by native language structures. It argues that the potential of the first language can be used creatively in second language instruction.
Discourse analysis examines how sentences form coherent units like paragraphs and conversations. Cohesion refers to grammatical and lexical relationships between discourse elements, created through devices like reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. However, coherence depends on how people interpret a discourse based on their background knowledge and expectations. While cohesive devices link utterances, coherence involves constructing a meaningful interpretation in line with one's experience of the world.
Language testing involves developing and administering tests to evaluate an individual's proficiency in a language, including their knowledge, ability to discriminate, and different types of skills like achievement, proficiency, and aptitude. Tests are used to determine what a student has learned according to content standards and policies, and performance standards evaluate skills like reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Language evaluation also gauges student growth and development against learning objectives.
This document outlines a sociolinguistics course that is 2 credits and compulsory for English department students. The course is intended to provide students with micro-level and macro-level analysis of the relationship between language and society. Students will learn about functions of language in society, code-switching, speech communities, and language planning. Teaching methods include lectures, peer discussion, case analysis, and student presentations. Students will be evaluated based on their ability to identify sociolinguistic concepts and analyze phenomena in daily life.
Reading test specifications assignment-01-pptBilal Yaseen
This document outlines the test specifications for a reading comprehension assessment for 4th grade ESL students in Iraq. It will include multiple choice, true/false, and matching questions to measure students' reading achievement based on the semester curriculum. The test aims to place students in appropriate classes for the next semester. It provides accommodations for adolescent ESL learners and uses clear, plain language in passages and items. Scoring will be dichotomous with 1 point for a correct answer and 0 for incorrect.
Quantitative & Qualitative Data Collection.pptxminervainez1
1. Quantitative data collection methods like tests and surveys are commonly used to collect numerical data for research. Sample selection affects the timing, costs, and arrangements of a research project.
2. There are two main types of sampling - probability sampling which uses random selection, and non-probability sampling which does not. The sample size should be large enough to represent the overall population.
3. Quantitative data collection has benefits like being low-cost and convenient but also limitations such as unreliable data and superficial results. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs can help establish cause-and-effect but have weaknesses in external and internal validity.
This document outlines the key aspects of survey research. It defines a survey, explains why surveys are used, and describes the characteristics and steps involved in survey research. It discusses tools for surveys such as interviews and questionnaires. It also covers survey research designs like cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Finally, it summarizes the strengths and limitations of survey research.
The document provides an overview of different models for categorizing speakers of English based on whether it is their native, second, or foreign language. It discusses Kachru's three circles model of inner circle (traditional bases), outer circle (former colonies), and expanding circle (other countries). It notes difficulties with these models and proposes some alternatives, including based on competence rather than geography. Sound samples from different English speakers are then provided to test whether the listener can identify a native versus non-native speaker.
Testing for Language TeachersArthur HughesRajputt Ainee
Testing is done for various purposes such as verifying that a product meets requirements, managing risk, and assessing knowledge or skills. The main purposes of testing are to verify that specifications are met and to manage risks. Tests can have negative effects if not aligned with learning objectives, and inaccuracies can arise from flawed test content or unreliable scoring techniques. Effective testing requires quality assurance and validation to catch errors before public release. Assessment includes formative assessment for immediate feedback and summative assessment for end-of-period evaluation. Teachers can help improve testing by writing better tests, educating others, and advocating for testing improvements.
Language testing is the practice of evaluating an individual's proficiency in using a particular language. There are two main types of assessment: formative assessment which checks student progress, and summative assessment which measures achievement at the end of a term. There are five common types of language tests: proficiency tests which measure overall ability, achievement tests related to course content, diagnostic tests which identify strengths and weaknesses, placement tests for assigning students to class levels, and direct/indirect tests. The effect of testing on teaching is known as backwash, which can be harmful if not aligned with course objectives, or beneficial if tests influence instructional changes.
This document discusses language testing and evaluation. It defines formative and summative evaluation, with formative used to provide feedback during instruction and summative used to assess learning after instruction. Examples of evaluation include textbook, materials, course, and instructional evaluations. The purpose of evaluation is to improve teaching and learning, assess student progress, and identify weaknesses. Evaluation methods can be norm-referenced, comparing students, or criterion-referenced, assessing specific skills. Testing can directly assess skills or indirectly measure underlying abilities. Objective testing uses multiple choice while subjective uses human judgment. Proper testing is crucial for the teaching-learning process and provides feedback to improve curriculum and instruction.
This document provides background information on code switching and code mixing. It discusses how code switching occurs when speakers alternate between two languages in a conversation, while code mixing happens when elements of both languages are used within a single utterance. The document then outlines the objectives, limitations, research problems, theoretical framework and methodology used to analyze code switching and code mixing in the novel "Love You Anyway". It identifies three types of code switching - tag, inter-sentential, and intra-sentential - and two types of code mixing - intra-sentential and extra-sentential. Potential reasons for code switching/mixing discussed include discussing specific topics, quoting others, emphasis, clarification and expressing group identity.
Social stratification of (r) in New York City Department StoresAtula Ahuja
In 1966, William Labov conducted a study “The Social Stratification of (r) in New York City to demonstrate the variation in the pronunciation of post-vocalic –/r/ according to social group. He hypothesized, “salespeople in the highest ranked store will have the highest values of (r); those in the middle ranked store will have intermediate values of (r); and those in the lowest ranked store will show the lowest values”. (Labov 1966:65)” The results showed a clear stratification along socio- economic class and status dimension and proved the hypothesis. He also found that rhotic use of /r/ was more widespread among younger age group and women. In NYC, pronouncing /r/ is considered prestigious but in Reading, it’s not. At the beginning of the words, hotel, herb, hour. Interestingly, initial [h] has reappeared in the speech of London youth who belong to ethnic minority (Holmes, 2008).
This document discusses speech act theory, which was proposed by philosophers John Austin and John Searle. They believed that language is used not just to inform but also to perform acts. Austin distinguished three acts in a single speech act: the illocutionary act is the intended function of the utterance, the locutionary act is the literal meaning of words used, and the perlocutionary act is the effect on the listener. Searle later classified illocutionary acts into five categories: directives, commissives, representatives, declaratives, and expressives. The document provides examples to illustrate each category.
This document discusses various frameworks for evaluating and adapting English language teaching materials. It begins by outlining the advantages and disadvantages of using textbooks, as well as some criteria for evaluating materials such as appearance, teacher-friendliness, and suitability for learners' levels. The document then examines different methods for adapting materials, including editing, adding, replacing, and deleting content. It analyzes frameworks from Dalby (2009), McDonough and Shaw (2003), and Islam and Mares (2003) for adapting materials through techniques like expanding, subtracting, modifying, simplifying, and reordering. The document concludes by exploring approaches to materials evaluation, such as pre-use, while-use, and post-use evaluation, and
Classroom Interaction and Second Language Acquisitiondehsheikhi
Classroom interaction plays a fundamental role in second language acquisition. Research has developed systems to analyze classroom discourse and identify its characteristics. Teacher-centered classroom discourse typically follows an initiation-response-feedback structure. Different frameworks have also categorized types of language use in the classroom, including whether the focus is on linguistic forms or meaningful communication. Classroom turn-taking is typically controlled by the teacher to manage transitions, with students having less autonomy to initiate discussions.
1) Speech acts are utterances that perform actions rather than just communicating information, such as apologizing, promising, or naming a ship.
2) Austin categorized speech acts as locutionary (the act of communication), illocutionary (the message or action conveyed), or perlocutionary (the effect on the listener).
3) Searle identified five categories of speech acts: representatives that commit the speaker to a belief, directives that try to get the listener to do something, commissives that commit the speaker to an action, expressives that express the speaker's attitude, and declarations that change the status quo through the utterance.
This document discusses various test techniques used to assess language ability. It describes multiple choice items as being perfectly reliable but only testing recognition knowledge. Short answer items are less susceptible to guessing but require more time to score. Gap filling items work for listening and reading tests but can be difficult for grammar. When writing test items, it is important they reliably and validly measure the intended language ability and have unambiguous instructions. Item types should be varied to reduce method effects influencing scores. Overall, good test techniques aim to efficiently and accurately obtain information about a student's language proficiency.
This document provides an overview of critical discourse analysis (CDA). It discusses key principles of CDA, including how social and political issues are constructed through language use and how power relations are negotiated in discourse. The document also outlines how CDA is conducted, examining framing of texts, agent-patient relations, and issues like genre, modality, and identity. Some criticisms of CDA are noted, such as the need to involve text producers/consumers, and responses to these criticisms are presented.
1) Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It examines how social factors such as context, status, and function influence language variation and use.
2) People code switch and use different linguistic varieties depending on social context, including the participants, setting, topic, and function of the interaction. Formal contexts like religion or education use high varieties while informal settings use low varieties.
3) Languages shift when their speakers abandon them for a dominant language due to economic, social, or demographic factors. This can lead to language loss or even death when no one speaks it anymore.
Product Syllabus : product syllabuses are those in which the focus is on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain as a result of instruction.
4.2. process syllabuses are those which focus on the learning experiences themselves.
. Synthetic syllabus: segment the target language into discrete linguistic items.
Different parts of language are taught separately.
4.4 . Analytic Syllabi: focus on the learner and his needs and on the kinds of linguistic
performance necessary to achieve those goals .
4.5. Type A: This type deals with what should be learned in a second language classroom.
4.6. Type B : Consider the question of how a second language should be learned.
This document discusses corpus linguistics and methods of corpus analysis. It defines corpus linguistics as the study of language using large samples of authentic texts. It outlines the history of corpus linguistics from early manually created corpora to current large electronically stored corpora. It also discusses different types of annotation that can be applied to corpora, including part-of-speech tagging, syntactic analysis, semantic tagging, and discourse-level annotation. The document contrasts the corpus linguistics approach, which focuses on descriptive adequacy based on empirical data, with the generative grammar approach, which prioritizes explanatory adequacy through abstract principles.
This document discusses bilingualism and second language acquisition. It defines bilingualism as the ability to communicate in two languages and notes there is individual and social bilingualism. There can also be bidialectalism, referring to communicating in two dialects of the same language, and biscriptural competence, the ability to read two scripts of the same language. The document also discusses how the first language influences second language learning and errors, and how cultural communication is determined by native language structures. It argues that the potential of the first language can be used creatively in second language instruction.
Discourse analysis examines how sentences form coherent units like paragraphs and conversations. Cohesion refers to grammatical and lexical relationships between discourse elements, created through devices like reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. However, coherence depends on how people interpret a discourse based on their background knowledge and expectations. While cohesive devices link utterances, coherence involves constructing a meaningful interpretation in line with one's experience of the world.
Language testing involves developing and administering tests to evaluate an individual's proficiency in a language, including their knowledge, ability to discriminate, and different types of skills like achievement, proficiency, and aptitude. Tests are used to determine what a student has learned according to content standards and policies, and performance standards evaluate skills like reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Language evaluation also gauges student growth and development against learning objectives.
This document outlines a sociolinguistics course that is 2 credits and compulsory for English department students. The course is intended to provide students with micro-level and macro-level analysis of the relationship between language and society. Students will learn about functions of language in society, code-switching, speech communities, and language planning. Teaching methods include lectures, peer discussion, case analysis, and student presentations. Students will be evaluated based on their ability to identify sociolinguistic concepts and analyze phenomena in daily life.
Reading test specifications assignment-01-pptBilal Yaseen
This document outlines the test specifications for a reading comprehension assessment for 4th grade ESL students in Iraq. It will include multiple choice, true/false, and matching questions to measure students' reading achievement based on the semester curriculum. The test aims to place students in appropriate classes for the next semester. It provides accommodations for adolescent ESL learners and uses clear, plain language in passages and items. Scoring will be dichotomous with 1 point for a correct answer and 0 for incorrect.
Quantitative & Qualitative Data Collection.pptxminervainez1
1. Quantitative data collection methods like tests and surveys are commonly used to collect numerical data for research. Sample selection affects the timing, costs, and arrangements of a research project.
2. There are two main types of sampling - probability sampling which uses random selection, and non-probability sampling which does not. The sample size should be large enough to represent the overall population.
3. Quantitative data collection has benefits like being low-cost and convenient but also limitations such as unreliable data and superficial results. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs can help establish cause-and-effect but have weaknesses in external and internal validity.
This document outlines the key aspects of survey research. It defines a survey, explains why surveys are used, and describes the characteristics and steps involved in survey research. It discusses tools for surveys such as interviews and questionnaires. It also covers survey research designs like cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Finally, it summarizes the strengths and limitations of survey research.
This document discusses various qualitative data collection methods used in descriptive research, including observations, interviews, questionnaires, surveys, and examining records. It provides details on how to conduct interviews and design questionnaires, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of different techniques. Specifically, it outlines steps for structured interviews, factors to consider in choosing data collection methods, and how to write questions to avoid biases and ensure understandability.
The document discusses key aspects of data collection and analysis for monitoring and evaluation projects. It covers topics such as qualities of good data, data collection methods including questionnaires, sampling methods, and data analysis techniques. Specifically, it emphasizes that collecting adequate, timely and relevant data is essential for evaluation and that questionnaires must be designed carefully to obtain accurate information and address all relevant variables. It also highlights the importance of representative sampling to make reliable estimates about target populations.
Qualitative and quantitative methods of researchJordan Cruz
The document compares and contrasts qualitative and quantitative research methods. It discusses that qualitative research aims to understand social interactions through smaller, non-randomly selected samples, while quantitative research seeks to test hypotheses and make predictions using larger, randomly selected samples and specific variables. It also outlines the different types of data collected, forms of analysis, roles of researchers, and final reporting structures between the two methods.
This document discusses and compares qualitative and quantitative research methods. Qualitative research gathers non-numerical information through methods like interviews and observations, aiming to provide a detailed description of a topic. Quantitative research collects numerical data using methods like surveys and tests to classify, categorize, and build statistical models. Some examples of qualitative methods include interviews and document reviews, while quantitative methods include questionnaires, structured interviews, and measurements that analyze numbers. Both can be valid forms of research but qualitative is more subjective and focused on depth, while quantitative is more objective and focused on breadth.
The document discusses various data collection methods and sampling strategies for quantitative and qualitative research designs. It begins by outlining the objectives of understanding sampling strategies, data collection methods, and how to identify appropriate methods for a given study. It then covers topics such as gaining access to participants, sampling strategies like random sampling and purposive sampling. Various data collection instruments like questionnaires, interviews, observations, focus groups, think aloud protocols, diaries and journals are also discussed in detail including their strengths and limitations. The document provides an in-depth overview of key considerations for data collection in research.
This document provides guidance on conducting surveys through questionnaires. It discusses the different types of surveys, including self-completed questionnaires, telephone surveys, and face-to-face interviews. It outlines the nine key steps to conducting a survey: deciding what information is needed, who to survey, the survey method, sample size, writing questions, testing questions, conducting the survey, analyzing results, and reporting findings. It also provides tips for writing effective questions, including using both open-ended and closed-ended questions, and sequencing questions logically and presenting questionnaires clearly.
Research methodology - Collection of DataThe Stockker
Concept of Sample, sampling, Characteristics of a good sample, Probability Sampling, Non Probability Sampling, Types of Data, Primary Data, Observations, Interview, The questionnaire method, Open v/s Closed questions, Precaution in Construction of Questionnaire, Collection of Secondary Data,
This document discusses methods for non-experimental research studies, including survey research, observational studies, and analysis of existing data sets. It describes the key phases of survey research such as defining objectives, formulating hypotheses, deciding on sampling methods, designing instruments, collecting data, and analyzing results. Observational studies are described as a way to directly observe behaviors without manipulation, with advantages like access to interactions but disadvantages like being time-consuming and potentially influencing the situation. The document also notes that combining different non-experimental research methods can strengthen a study.
Qualitative research is a scientific method of investigation that seeks to understand and explain social phenomena through analysis of people's experiences. It involves collecting data in natural settings through methods like interviews, observations and focus groups. The data collected consists of words and images rather than numbers. Three common qualitative methods are participant observation, in-depth interviews, and focus groups. Qualitative research is characterized by its inductive approach, focus on meanings and experiences, flexible design, and interpretation of findings. It aims to gain an in-depth understanding of issues rather than generalizing to a population.
This document provides an overview of survey research methods. It defines a survey as a research method that collects information from a sample group using standardized questionnaires or interviews. The key steps in conducting a survey are defined as: 1) defining the objective, 2) constructing the questionnaire, 3) determining the method, 4) testing the questionnaire, 5) administering the questionnaire, 6) analyzing the data, and 7) writing a report. The document also discusses types of survey questions, sampling procedures, data collection techniques, and how to analyze and discuss the results.
This document provides an overview of survey research methods. It defines a survey as a research method that collects information from a sample group using standardized questionnaires or interviews. The key steps in conducting a survey are defined as: 1) defining the objective, 2) constructing the questionnaire, 3) determining the method, 4) testing the questionnaire, 5) administering the questionnaire, 6) analyzing the data, and 7) writing a report. The document also discusses types of survey questions, sampling procedures, data collection techniques, and how to analyze and discuss the results.
The document discusses effective methods for measuring patient healthcare experiences. It describes the Picker Institute Europe, an organization that specializes in gaining patient feedback through quantitative, qualitative, and analysis services. The presentation outlines key principles for developing patient-reported experience measures (PREMs), including involving patients throughout the process and using experience-based questions. It also discusses considerations for survey implementation and provides an example of working with a large community healthcare trust that requires different methodologies based on patient populations and services.
This document discusses qualitative research methods. It defines qualitative research as seeking to understand opinions, experiences, and feelings through subjective data rather than numerical data. The document outlines several key characteristics of qualitative research, including that it takes place in natural settings, collects non-numerical data like words or illustrations, is concerned with processes, and analyzes data inductively by drawing out general ideas. It also discusses the need for qualitative research, ethics, and ways to link qualitative and quantitative research approaches.
The document discusses various data collection techniques used in educational research, including observation, interviews, and tests. It provides details on how each technique is conducted and its advantages and limitations. Specifically, it describes overt and covert observation methods, structured and unstructured interviews, and different types of tests used to measure achievement, aptitude, and personality. It also highlights important considerations for properly planning and conducting observations and interviews.
Presentation on research methodologiesBilal Naqeeb
The document provides an overview of research methodologies. It defines research as an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions. It notes that research is systematic because there are definite procedures and steps followed, and organized because there is a planned structure. The main purpose of research is to find answers to questions. The document then discusses different types of research such as primary and secondary research, as well as pure, applied, scientific and social research. It also outlines tools and techniques used for data collection in research such as surveys, experiments, interviews and case studies. Finally, it discusses key research concepts like variables, hypotheses, sampling, questionnaires and how to design good questions.
The document discusses multiple choice questions (MCQs), including their definition, characteristics, types, advantages, and disadvantages. MCQs consist of a stem, options including one key and distractors, and are commonly used for educational testing. They allow for broad sampling but encourage guessing. Steps for formulating high-quality MCQs include deciding the number, selecting appropriate formats at varying difficulty levels, and validating items before and after use.
This document provides information about a survey research presentation by Sana Khan, a PhD student at Cyprus International University. It defines survey research and discusses reasons for conducting surveys, the design and types of survey research, and common survey scales used in research. Survey research involves collecting quantitative data through surveys and statistically analyzing the results to draw conclusions. It is useful for understanding populations and tracking changes over time. Key steps in survey design are deciding the goal, sampling the target group, choosing a method, designing questions, distributing surveys, and analyzing responses. Common survey types are paper, interviews, online, and telephone. Scales help quantify responses and include dichotomous, rating, ranking, and Likert scales.
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2. Introduction
The most common instrument for
collecting quantitative data is the test.
tests have several types: language test or
psychological test (aptitude or personal
batteries)
A frequent method of collecting
quantitative data is through conducting a
survey using some sort of questionnaire.
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3. Sampling in quantitative research
The most frequent questions asked by
novice researchers before starting
investigation:
How many people do I need to include in
my study?
Hoe large should my sample be?
What sort of people shall I select?
Sampling decisions affect the necessary
arrangements, timing and scheduling of
the project as well as the costs.
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4. Sample, population,
representativeness
Sample: The group of participants whom the
researcher actually examines in investigation.
Population: The group of people whom the
study is about.
The sample is a subset of the population that
is representative of the whole population.
The strength of the conclusions we can draw
from the results obtained from a selected
small group depends on how accurately the
particular sample represents the larger
population.
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5. Sampling procedures
Probability Sampling
Random Sampling: selecting members of
population on a completely random basis
Stratified random Sampling: combination of
randomization and categorization
Systematic Sampling: selecting every nth member
of the target group
Cluster Sampling: random selection of larger
groupings or units of population(especially when the
population is widely dispread)
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6. Sampling procedures
None-probability Sampling
Quota Sampling and Dimensional
Sampling: Quota Sampling is similar to proportional
stratified random sampling without the ‘random’ element. In
Dimensional Sampling at least one representative of every
combination of the various parameters is included in
sample.
Snowball Sampling: a few people having criteria
are asked to identify further members.
Convenience or opportunity
Sampling:members are selected if they meet certain
pratical criteria.
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7. How large should the sample
be?
Rule of thumb: a range of between 1% to 10% of
the population, with a minimum of 100 participants.
Statistical consideration: sample should have
a normal distribution.
Sample composition: identify any distinct sub
groups that may behave differently in advance.
Safety margin: leave a decent margin for
unforeseen or unplanned circumstances.
Reverse approach: first approximate the
expected magnitude of results then determine the
sample size.
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8. The problem of respondent self-selection
The actual composition of sample is not only the
function of some systematic selection but also
of factors related to respondents' own
willingness to participate.
The problem can arise, for example when:
Researcher invite volunteers to take part in
study
The design allows for high degree of dropout
Participants are free to choose to be in study or
not
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9. Questionnaire Survey
Main methodological issues:
a) How to sample the participants
b) How to design and administer the research
tool
Positive point of questionnaires:
Easy to construct
Extremely Versatile
Capable of gathering a large amount of
information quickly in a form that is readily
processible
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10. What are questionnaires? what do they
measure?
It is used in at least 2 broad senses
1. Interview schedules/guides
2. Self–administered pencil-and-paper
questionnaire
“any written instruments that present respondents
with a series of questions to which they are to react
either by writing out or selecting their answers”
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11. What do questionnaires
measure?
Questionnaires can yield 3 types of data:
Factual questions: finding certain facts about the
respondents such as demographic characteristic,
occupation, residential location, marital and socio-
economical status, educational level,etc.
Behavioral question: finding out what the
respondents are doing, have done in the past, habits,
lifestyles, focusing on action and personal history.
Attitudinal question: finding out what people
think, covering attitudes, opinions, beliefs, iterests and
values
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12. The difference between test and questionnaire
A test takes a sample of the respondent`s
behavior/knowledge for the purpose of
evaluating the individual`s more general
underlying competence/abilities/skills. It
measures how well some one can do
something.
Questionnaire items do not have good/bad
answers. They elicit information in a non-
evaluative manner, without gauging their
performance against a set of criteria.
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13. Multi-item scales
Multi-item scales: a cluster of several
differently worded items that focus on the
same target.
Item wording in general has a substantial
impact on the responses.
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14. Closed-ended items
There`s no production of free writing;
respondents choose one of the given
alternatives.
Most professional questionnaires are
made up of ‘closed-ended’ items.
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15. Common closed-ended item formats
Likert scale: consisting of a characteristic statement.
Respondents are asked to indicate the extent to which
they ’agree’ or ’disagree’.
Semantic differential scales: by using it researchers
can avoid writing statements.
Numerical rating scale: ’Giving so many marks out
of so many’
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16. Other closed-ended item types
True-false items: Problems: simplifying things too
much; resulting highly reduced and distorted
Multiple-Choice items: When asking about personal
information, such as level of education
Rank order: Ordering items by assigning a number to
them
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17. Open-ended question
Here questions are not followed by
response options.
They permit greater freedom of
expression.
We use the when we do not know the
range of possible answers.
They can work well if they are not
completely open but contain guidance.
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18. Four question types in open-ended
questions:
Specific open questions: asking about concrete
pies of information
Clarification questions: can be attached to
answers with special importance or after the “Other” in a
MC item
Sentence completion: completing an unfinished
sentence
Short-answer questions: more than a phrase
less than a paragraph
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19. Rules about item wording
Aim for short and simple items
Use simple and natural language
Avoid ambiguous or loaded words and
sentences(non specific adj/adv, universals, modifying
words, words having more than one meaning,Loaded
words )
Avoid negative constructions
Avoid double-barrelled questions
Avoid items that are likely to be answered the same
way by everybody
Include both positively and negatively worded items
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20. The format of the questionnaire
Main parts
Title: for identifying the domain of investigation,
providing initial orientation, activating relative
background knowledge and content expectations
General introduction: describing the purpose,
sponsoring/conducting organization, emphasizing that
there`s no right or wrong answer, promising
confidentiality, requesting honest answers, saying ‘thank
you’
Specific instructions: explaining how respondents
should answer the questions
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21. The format of the questionnaire
Main parts
Questionnaire items: main body of
questionnaire with the use of different typefaces
and font styles.
Additional information: including a contact
name with a phone number or address. we can
include a note promising to send a summary of
findings, inviting for follow-up interviews
Final ‘thank you’
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22. The format of the questionnaire
Length
The length depends on how important the topic
of questionnaire is for the respondent.
Dörneyi agrees on a four-page well-designed
questionnaire that takes half an hour to be
completed.
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23. The format of the questionnaire
Layout
Booklet Format: not only does the questionnaire have
to be short but also it has to look short.
Appropriate density: we need to achieve a
compromise on how much material need to be put.
Sequence marking: marking each main section with
roman numbers, each question with Arab figures and
lettering subparts of questions.
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24. Item sequence
Four principles:
Mixing up the scales(items of different scales)
Opening questions: need to be easy, interesting
and focusing on important aspects
Factual(‘personal’,’classification’)
Questions: leave personal questions at the end
(especially culture issues)
Open-ended questions ate the end: So
other items won`t be affected by negative
consequences of this question.
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25. Developing and piloting questionnaire
Developing and piloting questionnaire is a
stepwise process:
Drawing up an item pool:
‘Item pool’: letting our imagination to go free and create as
many potential items for each scale as we can think of.
2 sources for drawing ideas in doing so:
a) Qualitative, exploratory data gathered in interviews or
student essays focusing on the content of the
questionnaire
b) Established/published questionnaires in the area
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26. Developing and piloting questionnaire
Initial piloting of the item pool: for reducing the
large of questions in the item pool to the intended final
number it is useful to ask 3-4 trusted and helpful
colleagues or friends to go through the items.
Final piloting(dress rehearsal): there`s only
one way to find out whether respondents will reply in
intended manner and it is by administrating the
questionnaire to about 50 respondents similar to the
target population.
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27. Developing and piloting questionnaire
Item analysis: it involves checking three
aspects:
Missing responses that were not understood correctly
The range of responses elicited by each item
The internal consistency of multi-item scales
Post hoc item analysis: conducting a final item
analysis after administration of the final questionnaire
screen out any items that have not worked properly
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28. Administering the questionnaire
In social research by mail
In educational research by hand
In applied linguistics by group administration
People in general do not mind answering the
questions as long as they think that the
survey is related to a worthy cause and that
their opinion matters.
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29. Strategies for achieving the cooperation of
our informants:
Advance notice: announcing a few days in
advance and explaining the purpose and nature of the
survey
Attitudes conveyed by teachers, parents,
and other authority figures: participants are
quick to pick up superiors’ attitude towards the survey.
Win the support of all these authority figures
Respectable sponsorship: if we represent an
organization that is esteemed highly by respondents,
the positive reputation is likely to be projected onto the
survey
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30. Strategies for achieving the cooperation of
our informants:
The behavior of the survey administrators:
1.business-like cloths 2.friendlyness 3.smile for
breaking the ice 4.professional overall conduct
Administrator attitudes: their behavior should exhibit
keen involvement in the project and show an obvious
interest in the outcome.
Communicating the purpose and significance of
the survey: cover the following points in introductory
speech1. greeting and thanking 2. the purpose of the
survey 3.the reason of the selection of these
participants 4.assurance of confidentiality 5.the duration
6.’any question?’ 7.’thank you’
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31. Strengths of questionnaires
Collecting a huge amount of information in
less than an hour
Straightforward and fast data processing
Useable with a variety of people in variety
of situations targeting variety of topics
Offering anonymity if needed
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32. weaknesses of questionnaires
Easy to produce unreliable and invalid
data
Need of simple and straightforward items
Unsuitable for probing deeply into an
issue
Usually resulting in superficial data
Including possible respondent literacy
problems
Including social desirability bias
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33. Experimental study
Experimental study can establish
unambiguous cause-effect relationships.
First take a group of learners and do something
special to them while measuring their progress.
Then compare the data with another group that
is similar to first group but it did not receive
special treatment.
First group is “treatment” or “experimental
group” and the Second one is “control group”
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34. Quasi-experimental study
They are similar to experiments except
they do not use random assignment to
create the comparisons
Two ways of improving its design:
Avoiding students self-selection to be in
treatment group
Minimizing pre-test differences between the two
groups
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35. Methods for minimizing pre-test differences
Matching participants in the treatment and
control groups: first determine particular
individual difference variables then identify
participants in two comparison groups with
similar parameters
Using analysis of covariance(ANCOVA):it
offers statistical method for adjusting the post-
test scores for any pre-test differences; we can
statistically screen the unwanted effects out of
the outcome measure
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36. Analyzing the results
Two ways of analyzing data obtained with a
‘pre-test-post-test control group design’:
1. ANOVA: computing ‘gain scores’
separately(by subtracting the pre-test scores
from post-test) then comparing with T-test or
‘analysis of variance’
2. ANCOVA: comparing the post-test scores
by controlling from the pre-test scores
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37. ANCOVA offers more precise results
because:
Gain scores are not sufficiently reliable as
they are systematically related to any
random error of measurement
ANCOVA helps to reduce the initial group
differences(especially in quasi-
experimental studies)
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38. Experimental studies in educational and
applied linguistic research
American Educational Research Journal(AERJ)
reports “not only has educational intervention
research been decreasing in quantity but there
also has been a decline in quality”.
Reasons for losing popularity in experiments:
a) Many of topics are not directly related to ‘treatment’ or
’intervention’
b) Narrow scope(only one or a few variables can be
altered at a time)
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39. Strengths and weaknesses of experimental
design
Strengths
Best method of establishing cause-effect
relationship and evaluating educational
innovations
‘pre-test-post-test control group design’ can
control the threats to its validity
Weaknesses
High price for implementation
We may end up with artificial framework in
laboratory conditions which reduce the external
validity
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40. Strengths and weaknesses of quasi-
experimental design
Strengths
We do not have to worry about external
validity
Weaknesses
‘selection bias’: inequality of the initial
treatment and control group
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41. Collecting quantitative data via the
Internet
A web based study offers some tempting
benefits:
Reduced costs
Convenience of administration
Automatic coding(by using ‘CGI script’)
High level of anonymity(high level of honesty)
International access (+for cross-cultural research)
Access to specialized population(small, scattered,
or specialized)
Limitation of this approach:
1.Technial issues 2.Sampling issues
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42. Technical issues
Internet users have different computers,
systems, browsers, and monitors, so the
actual stimulus received may differ from
what the investigator has intended. For this
reason we can employ a single HTML page
and improve the user interface.
Participation is limited by technical issues
like connection speed and quality of installed
software but given the speed of progress
these restrictions are likely to be temporary.
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43. Sampling issues
There's a lack of control over who will
eventually participate in the study
The actual sample that completes the
web-based survey or experiment may be
much more heterogeneous than in
traditional research.
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44. Strategies offering a partial solution for
sampling issues
1. Analysis the question separately within each sub
stream of the sample. If the same conclusions are
reached in each subgroups, this might lend some
external validity to the result.
2. Comparison the web-based results with the outcomes
of a similar, non-web-based survey or experiment.
Convergence of the findings can help to validate the
results.
3. Sampling in traditional way and asking them to log on
and complete the survey online at home or in
computer lab.
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