DNA fingerprinting is a technique that uses variations in DNA sequences to distinguish individuals. It involves extracting DNA from a sample, amplifying it if needed, cutting it with restriction enzymes to isolate variable number tandem repeats, separating the fragments by size using gel electrophoresis, treating the DNA fragments with a radioactive probe, and exposing X-ray film to create an image-based fingerprint of the sample's DNA pattern. This fingerprint can then be used to identify individuals or determine familial relationships for various applications like criminal investigations, identifying remains, and tracing hereditary conditions.
A restriction digest is a procedure used in molec.pdfanwarfoot
A restriction digest is a procedure used in molecular biology to prepare DNA for
analysis or other processing. It is sometimes termed DNA fragmentation (this term is used for
other procedures as well). Hartl and Jones describe it this way: This enzymatic technique can be
used for cleaving DNA molecules at specific sites, ensuring that all DNA fragments that contain
a particular sequence have the same size; furthermore, each fragment that contains the desired
sequence has the sequence located at exactly the same position within the fragment. The
cleavage method makes use of an important class of DNA-cleaving enzymes isolated primarily
from bacteria. These enzymes are called restriction endonucleases or restriction enzymes, and
they are able to cleave DNA molecules at the positions at which particular short sequences of
bases are present .[1] The resulting digested DNA is very often selectively amplified using PCR,
making it more suitable for analytical techniques such as agarose gel electrophoresis, and
chromatography. It is used in genetic fingerprinting, and RFLP analysis. A given restriction
enzyme cuts DNA segments within a specific nucleotide sequence, at what is called a restriction
site. These recognition sequences are typically four, six, eight, ten, or twelve nucleotides long.
Because there are only so many ways to arrange the four nucleotides which compose DNA
(Adenine, Thymine, Guanine and Cytosine) into a four- to twelve-nucleotide sequence,
recognition sequences tend to occur by chance in any long sequence. Restriction enzymes
specific to hundreds of distinct sequences have been identified and synthesized for sale to
laboratories, and as a result, several potential \"restriction sites\" appear in almost any gene or
locus of interest on any chromosome. Furthermore, almost all artificial plasmids include an
(often entirely synthetic) polylinker (also called \"multiple cloning site\") that contains dozens of
restriction enzyme recognition sequences within a very short segment of DNA. This allows the
insertion of almost any specific fragment of DNA into plasmid vectors, which can be efficiently
\"cloned\" by insertion into replicating bacterial cells. After restriction digest, DNA can then be
analysed using gel electrophoresis. In gel electrophoresis, a sample of DNA is first \"loaded\"
onto a slab of agarose gel (literally pipetted into small wells at one end of the slab). The gel is
then subjected to an electric field, which draws the negatively charged DNA across it. The
molecules travel at different rates (and therefore end up at different distances) depending on their
net charge (more highly charged particles travel further), and size (smaller particles travel
further). Since none of the four nucleotide bases carry any charge, net charge becomes
insignificant and size is the main factor affecting rate of diffusion through the gel. Net charge in
DNA is produced by the sugar-phosphate backbone. This is in contrast to proteins, in w.
A restriction digest is a procedure used in molec.pdfanwarfoot
A restriction digest is a procedure used in molecular biology to prepare DNA for
analysis or other processing. It is sometimes termed DNA fragmentation (this term is used for
other procedures as well). Hartl and Jones describe it this way: This enzymatic technique can be
used for cleaving DNA molecules at specific sites, ensuring that all DNA fragments that contain
a particular sequence have the same size; furthermore, each fragment that contains the desired
sequence has the sequence located at exactly the same position within the fragment. The
cleavage method makes use of an important class of DNA-cleaving enzymes isolated primarily
from bacteria. These enzymes are called restriction endonucleases or restriction enzymes, and
they are able to cleave DNA molecules at the positions at which particular short sequences of
bases are present .[1] The resulting digested DNA is very often selectively amplified using PCR,
making it more suitable for analytical techniques such as agarose gel electrophoresis, and
chromatography. It is used in genetic fingerprinting, and RFLP analysis. A given restriction
enzyme cuts DNA segments within a specific nucleotide sequence, at what is called a restriction
site. These recognition sequences are typically four, six, eight, ten, or twelve nucleotides long.
Because there are only so many ways to arrange the four nucleotides which compose DNA
(Adenine, Thymine, Guanine and Cytosine) into a four- to twelve-nucleotide sequence,
recognition sequences tend to occur by chance in any long sequence. Restriction enzymes
specific to hundreds of distinct sequences have been identified and synthesized for sale to
laboratories, and as a result, several potential \"restriction sites\" appear in almost any gene or
locus of interest on any chromosome. Furthermore, almost all artificial plasmids include an
(often entirely synthetic) polylinker (also called \"multiple cloning site\") that contains dozens of
restriction enzyme recognition sequences within a very short segment of DNA. This allows the
insertion of almost any specific fragment of DNA into plasmid vectors, which can be efficiently
\"cloned\" by insertion into replicating bacterial cells. After restriction digest, DNA can then be
analysed using gel electrophoresis. In gel electrophoresis, a sample of DNA is first \"loaded\"
onto a slab of agarose gel (literally pipetted into small wells at one end of the slab). The gel is
then subjected to an electric field, which draws the negatively charged DNA across it. The
molecules travel at different rates (and therefore end up at different distances) depending on their
net charge (more highly charged particles travel further), and size (smaller particles travel
further). Since none of the four nucleotide bases carry any charge, net charge becomes
insignificant and size is the main factor affecting rate of diffusion through the gel. Net charge in
DNA is produced by the sugar-phosphate backbone. This is in contrast to proteins, in w.
4. (TCO 9) Provide a detailed description of the techniques used to .pdfarrowit1
4. (TCO 9) Provide a detailed description of the techniques used to make a DNA fingerprint.
What are some of the uses and applications of DNA fingerprinting?
Solution
DNA fingerprinting is a technique used to determine the nucleotides sequences of DNA which
are unique to each individual.
Technique
1. Extraction of the DNA from the source the DNA is extracted from blood sample, hair follicles
etc.available sample.
2.DNA is cut into fragments the DNA molecules broken with the help of restriction
endonuclease. Here the cleaning is double strand cut producing DNA fragments of different
lengths this fragment are also called restricted fragment length polymorphism Manyi of this
fragment contain vntr
3. Separation of the fragments using gel electrophoresis. As the DNA molecule is negatively
charged hence it will move towards positive or not in the setup the gel based matrix provides tiny
pores through which DNA molecules travel the larger molecules travel slowly where is the
smallest mens travel quickly from the loading point at the end of the experiment DNA pieces of
equal length obtained.
4. The DNA fragments or now treated with alkaline chemicals to facilitate denaturation into
single stranded DNA this is very important step.
5. Southern blotting technique in this technique nitrocellulose membrane is used the DNA is
bloated on suitable membrane like nitrocellulose or nylon membranes as they have good binding
capacity the membrane is subjected to gentle pressure due to this single stranded DNA fragments
are pulled and transfer onto the membrane . the membrane contains replica of the DNA.
Hybridisation with suitable DNA probe which is single stranded DNA having complementary
sequence to the desired DNA. Before using the probe the DNA of tagged with fluorescent dyes
to help in detection of the desired DNA excess probea are washed away.
5. the DNA sample is visualised using autoradiography the hybridisation pattern is called DNA
fingerprint having a sequence complementary to the probe.
6. PCR technique is a technique is useful to synthesise millions of copies of the DNA sequence
when low amount of DNA is available for the study this technique is used modifications of PCR
technique like r a p d PCR rflp PCR helps in giving accurate results.
Applications of DNA fingerprinting :
1.This test is used in the case of disputes regarding paternity testing .
2 it is useful tool in forensic applications
3.It is used to assess migration pattern of ancient population
4.it is used to determine Genetic diversity is in the evolutionary biology.
4. It is used to diagnose inherited disorders in both prenatal and newborn babies examples
huntington\'s disease Alzheimer\'s Sickle Cell anaemia Thalassemia haemophilia.
5. DNA fingerprinting is used to come from confirm cell line identity in a cell line collection.
6. It also helps in developing cures for inherited disorders..
4. (TCO 9) Provide a detailed description of the techniques used to .pdfarrowit1
4. (TCO 9) Provide a detailed description of the techniques used to make a DNA fingerprint.
What are some of the uses and applications of DNA fingerprinting?
Solution
DNA fingerprinting is a technique used to determine the nucleotides sequences of DNA which
are unique to each individual.
Technique
1. Extraction of the DNA from the source the DNA is extracted from blood sample, hair follicles
etc.available sample.
2.DNA is cut into fragments the DNA molecules broken with the help of restriction
endonuclease. Here the cleaning is double strand cut producing DNA fragments of different
lengths this fragment are also called restricted fragment length polymorphism Manyi of this
fragment contain vntr
3. Separation of the fragments using gel electrophoresis. As the DNA molecule is negatively
charged hence it will move towards positive or not in the setup the gel based matrix provides tiny
pores through which DNA molecules travel the larger molecules travel slowly where is the
smallest mens travel quickly from the loading point at the end of the experiment DNA pieces of
equal length obtained.
4. The DNA fragments or now treated with alkaline chemicals to facilitate denaturation into
single stranded DNA this is very important step.
5. Southern blotting technique in this technique nitrocellulose membrane is used the DNA is
bloated on suitable membrane like nitrocellulose or nylon membranes as they have good binding
capacity the membrane is subjected to gentle pressure due to this single stranded DNA fragments
are pulled and transfer onto the membrane . the membrane contains replica of the DNA.
Hybridisation with suitable DNA probe which is single stranded DNA having complementary
sequence to the desired DNA. Before using the probe the DNA of tagged with fluorescent dyes
to help in detection of the desired DNA excess probea are washed away.
5. the DNA sample is visualised using autoradiography the hybridisation pattern is called DNA
fingerprint having a sequence complementary to the probe.
6. PCR technique is a technique is useful to synthesise millions of copies of the DNA sequence
when low amount of DNA is available for the study this technique is used modifications of PCR
technique like r a p d PCR rflp PCR helps in giving accurate results.
Applications of DNA fingerprinting :
1.This test is used in the case of disputes regarding paternity testing .
2 it is useful tool in forensic applications
3.It is used to assess migration pattern of ancient population
4.it is used to determine Genetic diversity is in the evolutionary biology.
4. It is used to diagnose inherited disorders in both prenatal and newborn babies examples
huntington\'s disease Alzheimer\'s Sickle Cell anaemia Thalassemia haemophilia.
5. DNA fingerprinting is used to come from confirm cell line identity in a cell line collection.
6. It also helps in developing cures for inherited disorders..
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
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Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...
PPTChapter 6 Molecular Basis of Inheritance G.pptx
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36. 1. DNA has two strands that are complementry.
2. Deoxyribose sugar. OH group at carbon atm
no 2 in the Ribose sugar is replaced by only
H which makes it less reactive and hence
more stable.
3. presence of thymine in place of uracil also
make DNA more stable
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124. Satellite DNA
consists of very large arrays of tandemly repeating, non-coding
DNA. Satellite DNA is the main component of functional
centromeres.
The name "satellite DNA" refers to the phenomenon that
repetitions of a short DNA sequence tend to produce a different
frequency of the bases adenine, cytosine, guanine and
thymine, and thus have a different density from bulk DNA such
that they form a second or 'satellite' band when genomic DNA
is separated on a density gradient.[2]
125. Lengthof Satellite DNA
A repeated pattern can be between 1 base pair long (a mononucleotide repeat) to several
thousand base pairs long,[5] and the total size of a satellite DNA block can be several
megabases without interruption. Long repeat units have been described containing
domains of shorter repeated segments and mononucleotides (1-5 bp), arranged in clusters
of microsatellites, wherein differences among individual copies of the longer repeat units
were clustered.[5] Most satellite DNA is localized to the telomeric or the centromeric region
of the chromosome. The nucleotide sequence of the repeats is fairly well conserved across
species. However, variation in the length of the repeat is common. For example,
minisatellite DNA is a short region (1-5kb) of repeating elements with length >9
nucleotides. Whereas microsatellites in DNA sequences are considered to have a
length of 1-8 nucleotides .[6] The difference in how many of the repeats is present
in the region (length of the region) is the basis for DNA fingerprinting.[citation needed]
126. Restriction fragment length
polymorphism
In molecular biology, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) is a technique that exploits
variations in homologous DNA sequences, known as polymorphisms, in order to distinguish individuals,
populations, or species or to pinpoint the locations of genes within a sequence.The term may refer to a
polymorphism itself, as detected through the differing locations of restriction enzyme sites, or to a
related laboratory technique by which such differences can be illustrated. In RFLP analysis, a DNA
sample is digested into fragments by one or more restriction enzymes, and the resulting restriction
fragments are then separated by gel electrophoresis according to their size.
127.
128. Seven steps to understanding DNA fingerprinting:
● Extracting the DNA from cells
● Cutting up the DNA using an enzyme
● Separating the DNA fragments on a gel
● Transferring the DNA onto paper
● Adding the radioactive probe
● Setting up the X-ray film
● Yes - we've got the result!
129. Extracting DNA from Cells
To perform DNA fingerprinting, you must first have a DNA sample! In order to procure this, a
sample containing genetic material must be treated with different chemicals. Common
sample types used today include blood and cheek swabs.
These samples must be treated with a series of chemicals to break open cell membranes,
expose the DNA sample, and remove unwanted components – such as lipids and proteins –
until relatively pure DNA emerges.
130. PCR Amplification (Optional)
If the amount of DNA in a sample is small, scientists may wish to perform PCR – Polymerase Chain
Reaction – amplification of the sample.
PCR is an ingenious technology which essentially mimics the process of DNA replication carried
out by cells. Nucleotides and DNA polymerase enzymes are added, along with “primer” pieces of DNA
which will bind to the sample DNA and give the polymerases a starting point.
PCR “cycles” can be repeated until the sample DNA has been copied many times in the lab if necessary.
131. Treatment with Restriction Enzymes
The best markers for use in quick and easy DNA profiling are those which can be reliably identified using
common restriction enzymes, but which vary greatly between individuals.
For this purpose, scientists use repeat sequences – portions of DNA that have the same sequence so they
can be identified by the same restriction enzymes, but which repeat a different number of times in
different people. Types of repeats used in DNA profiling include Variable Number Tandem Repeats
(VNTRs), especially short tandem repeats (STRs), which are also referred to by scientists as
“microsatellites” or “minisatellites.”
Once sufficient DNA has been isolated and amplified, if necessary, it must be cut with restriction enzymes
to isolate the VNTRs. Restriction enzymes are enzymes that attach to specific DNA sequences and create
breaks in the DNA strands.
132. Gel Electrophoresis
Gel electrophoresis is a brilliant technology that separates molecules by size. The “gel” in question is a
material that molecules can pass through, but only at a slow speed.
Just as air resistance slows a big truck more than it does a motorcycle, the resistance offered
by the electrophoresis gel slows large molecules down more than small ones. The effect of the gel
is so precise that scientists can tell exactly how big a molecule is by seeing how far it moves within a given
gel in a set amount of time.
In this case, measuring the size of the DNA fragments from the sample that has been treated with a
restriction enzyme will tell scientists how many copies of each VTNR repeat the sample DNA contains.
It’s called “electrophoresis” because, to make the molecules move through the gel, an electrical current is
applied. Because the sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA has a negative electrical charge, the electrical
133. Gel Electrophoresis
Gel electrophoresis is a brilliant technology that separates molecules by size. The “gel” in question is a
material that molecules can pass through, but only at a slow speed.
Just as air resistance slows a big truck more than it does a motorcycle, the resistance offered
by the electrophoresis gel slows large molecules down more than small ones. The effect of the
gel is so precise that scientists can tell exactly how big a molecule is by seeing how far it moves within a
given gel in a set amount of time.
In this case, measuring the size of the DNA fragments from the sample that has been treated with a
restriction enzyme will tell scientists how many copies of each VTNR repeat the sample DNA contains.
It’s called “electrophoresis” because, to make the molecules move through the gel, an electrical current
is applied. Because the sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA has a negative electrical charge, the
134. Treatment with Radioactive Probe
Now that the DNA is fixed onto the blotting paper, it is treated with a special probe chemical that sticks to
the desired DNA fragments. This chemical is radioactive, which means that it will create a visible
record when exposed to X-ray paper.
This method of blotting DNA fragments onto nitrocellulose paper and then treating it with a radioactive
probe was discovered by a scientist name Ed Southern – hence the name “Southern blot.”
Amusingly, the fact that the Southern blot is named after a scientist and not the direction “south” did not
stop scientists from naming similar methods “northern” and “western” blots in honor of the Southern blot.
135. X-Ray Film Exposure
The last step of the process is to turn the information from the DNA fragments into a visible record. This is
done by exposing the blotting paper, with its radioactive DNA bands, to X-ray film.
X-ray film is “developed” by radiation, just like camera film is developed by visible light, resulting in a
visual record of the pattern produced by the person’s DNA “fingerprint.”
To ensure a clear imprint, scientists often leave the X-ray film exposed to the weakly
radioactive Southern blot paper for a day or more.
Once the image has been developed and fixed to prevent further light exposure from changing the image,
this “fingerprint” can be used to determine if two DNA samples are the same or similar!
Quiz
137. ● Physically connect a piece of evidence to
a person or rule out someone as a
suspect.
● Show who your parents, siblings, and
other relatives may be.
● Identify a dead body that’s too old or
damaged to be recognizabl
138. ● Match tissues of organ donors with
those of people who need transplants.
● Identify diseases that are passed down
through your family.
● Help find cures for those diseases,
called hereditary conditions.
Editor's Notes
structural Adapter catalytic...eg ribozyme
Bacteiophage o174 5386 nuleotides lambda 48502b p E. coli 4.6 x10 bp human DNA 3.3x 10 bp