The document discusses antibiotic resistant bacteria and antibiotic residues found in chicken meat and eggs sold in Kenya. Some key points:
- 87.5% of meat and 100% of egg samples showed presence of antibiotic residues when tested against various bacteria.
- Bacterial counts were higher in meat samples from Kiwanja market compared to Kenyatta University, with mean counts of 190.25 x 102 CFU and 104.96 x 102 CFU respectively.
- Isolated bacteria like E. coli, Salmonella and Shigella from samples showed resistance to certain commonly used antibiotics like ampicillin and intermediate resistance to others.
- The study reveals the presence of antibiotic residues and resistant bacteria in chicken products in
Mobile phone has been source of microorganisms that cause diseases of public health concerns. In a study, one-fi fth of cellular phones examined were found to harbor pathogenic bacteria indicating that these devices may serve as vehicles of transmission. Swab samples were collected aseptically from the phones of different handlers like motor bike riders, food vendors, meat sellers and nursing mothers. Bacteria isolation and identifi cation were carried out using pour plating technique with distinctive morphological and biochemical characteristics.The pathogenicity of the bacterial isolates was investigated through oral inoculation into albino rats. Eighty-eight (88) bacteria were isolated and selected based on their resistance to antibiotics for pathological study. Loss in weight was observed in some albino rat. Along with reduction in the packed cell volume, hemoglobin but raised white blood cell. Animal inoculated with Bacillus cereus showed meningitis like symptom after the first week of inoculation. Also, there were short and stunted villi; low crystal depth with necrotic
debris in the lumen. It has been observed that cell phones may harbor pathogenic bacteria and can subsequently plays role as fomite in the disease transmission. Therefore, the need to educate community phone handlers in the rural area becomes imperative.
The present study was undertaken to investigate
microbiological quality of ready-to-eat street vended aloo-tikki
sold in Allahabad, city of Uttar Pradesh, India. A total of 36
samples were collected from 12 major areas which represented
whole city. All samples were collected from the vendors in
sterilized polythene bags and analyzed within an hour of
procurement. Bacterial pathogens were identified by standard
bacteriological techniques. Microbiological enumeration of ready
to eat street-vended aloo-tikki, revealed a standard plate count
ranging from 103.4-247.3×10-4 cfu/gm, and yeast and mould
ranging between 89-168.2×10-4 cfu/gm. The presumptive coliform
test was found to be 86.1% positive. Prominent bacterial
pathogens isolated were Styphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli,
Bacillus sp., and Salmonella sp. The presence of such
microorganisms indicates poor handling practices, cross
contamination and aerial contamination which becomes reason
and sometimes important source of food borne illness to humans.
Bacteriological Assessment of Meat Pie Sold at Ochanja Market Onitsha, Anambr...IJEAB
Ten meat pie samples were purchased from different eatery points in Ochanja Main Market, Onitsha and analyzed for the presence of pathogenic bacteria using standard microbiology and biochemical techniques. The following bacteria genera were isolated and identified from the meat pie; Escherichia coli (39%), Staphylococcus aureus (35%), and Bacillus cereus (26%). The percentage distribution showed that Escherichia coli were the most prevalent in the meat pie samples while Bacillus cereus was the least. The meat pie samples sold within Ochanja Main Market were considered fit for human consumption since the distributions of the bacteria isolates were below standard threshold limit.
Brief About Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences
Published Quarterly Since 1999. Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences is published in March, June, September and December every year.
AJMBES is a highly popular journal exclusively devoted to three most important and interrelated areas of science.
The scope of the journal includes
1. Microbiology of water, air, soil, food, environmental
and industrial microbiology
2.Microbiology in waste water treatment 3.All aspects of bio technology perferably environmental
and industrial microbiology
4.Enviromental biochemistry
5.Ecology of grassland, forests and wetlands, limnology and oceanography, mangrove ecology,
ecology of lakes, rivers and soil ecology
6.All reasearch related to biology of water pollution
including toxicology
7.Effect of air pollutants on microbes, plants, animal & man and biomonitoring of air pollution
8.Ecotechnology including land application of waste water, vermicomposting, utilisation of crop residues, bioremediation of hazardous wastes, biomass generation,
energy plantation, reclamation of mined lands
9.All research related to biological aspect of fisheries
including utilisation of biological wastes in fish farming
10.Waste water treatment involving organisms and rootzone technology, biological aspects of composting
11.Waste land development
12.All floristic and faunistic reporting from any ecosystem
13. Agricultural Ecology.
14. Bioinformatics.
Coverage: Research Papers, Reviews, Technical Notes, Book Reviews, Information on Conferences and Training Pogrammes all over the World, Topical Articles, New Publications and Products Information.
Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences is abstracted/covered in:
Chemical Abstracts, U.S.A.
SCOPUS
EBSCO Publishing, U.S.A.
Cambridge Science Abstracts
Ecology Abstracts
Pollution Abstracts
Eco-Disc CD Rom
Geological Abstracts
International Development Abstracts
Oceanographic Literature Review
Zoological Records
Indian Science Abstracts, Niscair, India
Elsevier’s Compendex
Elsevier’s Current Awareness in Biological Sciences
Elsevier’s Encompass
Elsevier’s Geobase
Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences journal is accredited with National Academy of Agricultural sciences, NAAS, India.
Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences journal is covered by SCOPUS.
Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences journal also features in Uhlrich International Periodical Directory, U.K., Gale Directory, U.K. and SAARC directory of periodicals.
Studies on Prevalence of Ixodid Ticks Infesting Cattle and Their Control by P...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences(IOSR-JPBS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of Pharmacy and Biological Science. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in Pharmacy and Biological Science. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Mobile phone has been source of microorganisms that cause diseases of public health concerns. In a study, one-fi fth of cellular phones examined were found to harbor pathogenic bacteria indicating that these devices may serve as vehicles of transmission. Swab samples were collected aseptically from the phones of different handlers like motor bike riders, food vendors, meat sellers and nursing mothers. Bacteria isolation and identifi cation were carried out using pour plating technique with distinctive morphological and biochemical characteristics.The pathogenicity of the bacterial isolates was investigated through oral inoculation into albino rats. Eighty-eight (88) bacteria were isolated and selected based on their resistance to antibiotics for pathological study. Loss in weight was observed in some albino rat. Along with reduction in the packed cell volume, hemoglobin but raised white blood cell. Animal inoculated with Bacillus cereus showed meningitis like symptom after the first week of inoculation. Also, there were short and stunted villi; low crystal depth with necrotic
debris in the lumen. It has been observed that cell phones may harbor pathogenic bacteria and can subsequently plays role as fomite in the disease transmission. Therefore, the need to educate community phone handlers in the rural area becomes imperative.
The present study was undertaken to investigate
microbiological quality of ready-to-eat street vended aloo-tikki
sold in Allahabad, city of Uttar Pradesh, India. A total of 36
samples were collected from 12 major areas which represented
whole city. All samples were collected from the vendors in
sterilized polythene bags and analyzed within an hour of
procurement. Bacterial pathogens were identified by standard
bacteriological techniques. Microbiological enumeration of ready
to eat street-vended aloo-tikki, revealed a standard plate count
ranging from 103.4-247.3×10-4 cfu/gm, and yeast and mould
ranging between 89-168.2×10-4 cfu/gm. The presumptive coliform
test was found to be 86.1% positive. Prominent bacterial
pathogens isolated were Styphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli,
Bacillus sp., and Salmonella sp. The presence of such
microorganisms indicates poor handling practices, cross
contamination and aerial contamination which becomes reason
and sometimes important source of food borne illness to humans.
Bacteriological Assessment of Meat Pie Sold at Ochanja Market Onitsha, Anambr...IJEAB
Ten meat pie samples were purchased from different eatery points in Ochanja Main Market, Onitsha and analyzed for the presence of pathogenic bacteria using standard microbiology and biochemical techniques. The following bacteria genera were isolated and identified from the meat pie; Escherichia coli (39%), Staphylococcus aureus (35%), and Bacillus cereus (26%). The percentage distribution showed that Escherichia coli were the most prevalent in the meat pie samples while Bacillus cereus was the least. The meat pie samples sold within Ochanja Main Market were considered fit for human consumption since the distributions of the bacteria isolates were below standard threshold limit.
Brief About Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences
Published Quarterly Since 1999. Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences is published in March, June, September and December every year.
AJMBES is a highly popular journal exclusively devoted to three most important and interrelated areas of science.
The scope of the journal includes
1. Microbiology of water, air, soil, food, environmental
and industrial microbiology
2.Microbiology in waste water treatment 3.All aspects of bio technology perferably environmental
and industrial microbiology
4.Enviromental biochemistry
5.Ecology of grassland, forests and wetlands, limnology and oceanography, mangrove ecology,
ecology of lakes, rivers and soil ecology
6.All reasearch related to biology of water pollution
including toxicology
7.Effect of air pollutants on microbes, plants, animal & man and biomonitoring of air pollution
8.Ecotechnology including land application of waste water, vermicomposting, utilisation of crop residues, bioremediation of hazardous wastes, biomass generation,
energy plantation, reclamation of mined lands
9.All research related to biological aspect of fisheries
including utilisation of biological wastes in fish farming
10.Waste water treatment involving organisms and rootzone technology, biological aspects of composting
11.Waste land development
12.All floristic and faunistic reporting from any ecosystem
13. Agricultural Ecology.
14. Bioinformatics.
Coverage: Research Papers, Reviews, Technical Notes, Book Reviews, Information on Conferences and Training Pogrammes all over the World, Topical Articles, New Publications and Products Information.
Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences is abstracted/covered in:
Chemical Abstracts, U.S.A.
SCOPUS
EBSCO Publishing, U.S.A.
Cambridge Science Abstracts
Ecology Abstracts
Pollution Abstracts
Eco-Disc CD Rom
Geological Abstracts
International Development Abstracts
Oceanographic Literature Review
Zoological Records
Indian Science Abstracts, Niscair, India
Elsevier’s Compendex
Elsevier’s Current Awareness in Biological Sciences
Elsevier’s Encompass
Elsevier’s Geobase
Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences journal is accredited with National Academy of Agricultural sciences, NAAS, India.
Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences journal is covered by SCOPUS.
Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences journal also features in Uhlrich International Periodical Directory, U.K., Gale Directory, U.K. and SAARC directory of periodicals.
Studies on Prevalence of Ixodid Ticks Infesting Cattle and Their Control by P...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences(IOSR-JPBS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of Pharmacy and Biological Science. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in Pharmacy and Biological Science. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) for food safety management: Perspectives from K...ExternalEvents
http://tiny.cc/faowgsworkshop
Use of genome sequencing technology on food safety management- Kenya's Perspectives. Presentation from the FAO expert workshop on practical applications of Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) for food safety management - 7-8 December 2015, Rome, Italy.
Metagenomics in food safety: What's the added value? Case studies from the li...ILRI
Presentation by Silvia Alonso, Kristina Roesel, Stephen Opiyo, Francesca Stomeo and Delia Grace at the FAO Regional Meeting on Agricultural Biotechnologies in Sustainable Food Systems and Nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 22–24 November 2017.
Bovine Mastitis due to Coliform Bacteria, and Susceptibility to Antibiotics, ...Premier Publishers
This study was aimed at determining the prevalence of coliform bacteria in bovine milk in Plateau State of Nigeria and their antibiotic susceptibility patterns. A total of 640 milk samples were collected aseptically and 160 questionnaires from where data such as breed, age, parity, lactation stage, floor type, and husbandry system were analyzed. Cows without clinical mastitis were subjected to California Mastitis Test to determine the presence of subclinical mastitis. Bacteriological assays and antibiotic susceptibility tests were conducted according to standard guidelines. Subclinical mastitis with a prevalence of 63.8% was more prevalent in cows than clinical mastitis. Overall, the Friesian breed had the highest mastitis prevalence of 85.7% compared to White Fulani (which is indigenous in Nigeria). Cows aged within 2-4 years old had the least mastitis prevalence of 55.2%. Coliforms isolated from milk samples included E coli, K. pneumoniae, K. oxytoca, C. freundii, E. aerogenes, E. cloacae, and S. marcescens, with E coli having the highest prevalence of 44.8%. The most resistant antimicrobial agent was Streptomycin with 79% prevalence. The principle of One Health approach which targets the environment, animals and humans should be considered important. Good hygienic measures should be intensified among pastoralists.
Prevalence of Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus from meat in Cambodian mar...ILRI
Poster by Rortana Chea, Delia Grace, Hung Nguyen-Viet, Sothyra Tum, Sinh Dang-Xuan, Ren Theary, Siek Sophary, Sok Koam, So Pheany, Hout Sotheany, Theng Heng, Seng Sarim and Johanna Lindahl presented at a regional symposium on research into smallholder pig production, health and pork safety, Hanoi, Vietnam, 27–29 March 2019.
Food samples: African salad, fried yam, fried potato, fried plantain, bole and suya meat retailed in three locations along Choba, Aluu and Alakahia were analyzed for their microbial load. Analysis of the food samples revealed Total viable count ranging from 3.8×107 cfu/g to 5.2×107 cfu/g (African salad), 2.6×107 cfu/g to 3.3×107 cfu/g (Bole), 3.0×107 cfu/g to 3.4×107 cfu/g (Plantain), 3.4×107 cfu/g to 3.6×107 cfu/g (Potato), 2.9×107 cfu/g to 3.3×107 cfu/g (Yam) and 4.8×107 cfu/g to 5.1×107 cfu/g (Suya meat) from the various locations. The organism isolated includes, Staphylococcus aureus (25%), Escherichia coli (25%), Pseudomonas (15%), Streptococcus (15%), Bacillus cereus (12%) and Salmonella spp (8%). The TVC count in these food samples exceeds the standard set by International Commission for Microbiology Specification for Food (ICMSF) for ready-to-eat food which states that TVC count between 0-107 cfu/g is acceptable, 104 to 105 cfu/g is tolerable and >107 cfu/g is unacceptable. Therefore, these foods are not bacteriologically fit for consumption. The occurrence of these bacterial isolates in the foods constitutes public health risk to consumers as these pathogens have been associated with foodborne infections Therefore, government should enforce strong food safety regulations for street foods vendors. In addition, street food vendors need to be educated on food safety and hygienic practices
Microbiological Assessment and Storage Quality of Expressed Breast MilkAI Publications
The microbiological and storage quality of expressed human breast milk was studied between July and December, 2016. One hundred and twenty working class lactating mothers and thirty lactating mothers visiting Imo State University teaching Hospital Orlu for various health challenges were recruited for the study. They were requested to express 60ml of their breast milk into sterile containers. The milk sample collected from each mother was distributed 10ml into each of 3 sterile containers. One set was heated at 100OC for 1hour in a water bath, 1 set was stored in a refrigerator at – 4OC for 5 days and 1 set was stored on the bench at ambient temperature without any treatment. 0.1ml of each sample was inoculated on laboratory culture media before commencement of storage and 2hours, 6hours, 12 hours, 24 hours and 5days post storage. Eight genera of bacteria: Stapylococcus aureus, Streptococcus viridians, Diphtheroides, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella species, Lactobacillus species, Pseudomonas species and Salmonella species, were isolated from expressed human breast milk samples. The most prevalent bacterium in the milk samples was Staphylococcus epidernidis, followed by Escherichia coli. The least prevalent bacteria were Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella species and Diphtheroides. No bacterium was isolated from milk samples heated at 100OC and stored in a refrigerator. The total heterotrophic bacterial counts of the milk samples collected from healthy working mothers ranged from 3.2 x 103 to 8.2 x 103cfu/ml, while that of health challenged mothers ranged from 4.3 x 103 to 1.6 x 104cfu/ml. As shown, the bacterial counts of the samples. Out of 30 samples collected from health – challenged mothers, 9 (30%) had total heterotrophic bacteria count ranging from 1.2 x 104 to 1.6 x 104cfu/ml, 21 (70%) had total bacteria count ranging from 4.3 x 103 to 8.6 x 103cfu/ml. Analysis of the data using chi square showed significant difference (p < 0.05) in the total heterotrophic bacterial count of breast milk between healthy working mothers and health challenged mother.
Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of Staphylococcus aureus, and their nasa...Open Access Research Paper
The frequency of Staphylococcus aureus carriage among healthy food handlers at the students’ cafeteria at the Federal University of Technology, Owerri Nigeria was investigated. Nasal and throat swab samples were obtained from 54 food handlers, and analysed using standard microbiological methods. A total of 28 (51.9%) food handlers were positive for S. aureus. Twenty one of the food handlers (38.9%) harbor S. aureus in their nostrils, 11 (20.4%) in their throat, while 6(11.1%) harbor it in both their nostrils and throats. The exclusive colonization of the throat (20.4%) of the studied food handlers, demonstrated the importance of the throat as a site of colonization for S. aureus. Antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates shows that all the isolated S. aureus were susceptible to nitrofurantoin and cefuroxime, but resistant to penicillin, chloramphenicol, cotrimazole. The isolates were also 25%, 28.6% and 35.7% susceptible to ampicillin, amoxycillin and erythromycin, respectively. This study has further shown the need for routine regular screening of food handlers for both nasal and throat carriage of S. aureus so as to detect early and treat carriers in order to protect the general public from staphylococcal food poisoning. The high prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in S. aureus isolated from the healthy food handlers is of great public health concern, as it shows a growing problem of antimicrobial resistance in the community. This study thus, recommends an urgent formulation of a national policy on antibiotics by the Nigerian government for regulation and management of antibiotics use.
ABSTRACT- Some Lactobacillus species (L. acidophilus, L. casei and L. plantarum) were isolated from locally fermented products (ogi, fura de Nunu and wara) and their effect on microbial infections caused by some pathogenic bacteria (E.coli, K. pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphyloccoccus aureus) isolated from urine and high vaginal swab samples were studied using standard micriobiological methods.Fifiteen (15) healthy guinea pigs used for the study were divided into three (3) groups of five (5) guinea pigs each and placed in three (3) different cages. The pigs were initially fed for two (2) weeks (acclimatization period) with conventional feeds before administering the treatment. Lactobacillus species were introduced into the guinea pigs in cage 2 after the acclimatization period. Subsequently, the guinea pigs in cages 1 and 2 were orally infected with all the clinical bacteria pathogens while the guinea pigs in cage 3 which served as control were left with no microbial treatment. Ten (10) days after treatment, the packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin concentration (HBC), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity level were determined. Striking differences were observed from guinea pigs in the different cages. The effectiveness of Lactobacilli (probiotics) was evident when the guinea pigs in cages 1 and 2 were compared. The guinea pigs in cage 1 which were infected with pathogens but no probiotics had lower blood level (mean PCV= 24.8%) and inferior liver condition (mean ALT=58.18µl; mean AST=51.91µl). Higher blood level (Mean PCV=45%) and superior liver conditions (Mean ALT=9.51µl; mean AST=9.7µl) were obtained for guinea pigs in cage 2 which were infected with the same pathogens and fed with probiotics. The control (cage 3) had the highest PCV level and best liver conditions (mean PCV=46.6%, means ALT= 7.65µl; mean AST=11.83µl).Th .This might be attributed to the fact that they were not infected with pathogenic organisms. Lactobacillus species administered are promising probiotics against the tested bacterial pathogens.
Keywords: Lactobacillus species, Guinea pig, Bacteria pathogen, Enzymes assay, Haematological Parameters, Probiotics
Antibacterial Resistance in the Muscles of Chicken, Pig and Beef IJERA Editor
Though antibiotic drugs are known to improve the health and welfare of food animals , there is parallel risk due
to the development of resistant microorganisms in the body of target animals. Seven meat samples were
procured from wet market in Old Town,Petaling Jaya, Malaysia and assessed for the presence of antibiotic
residues. The samples chosen were chicken parts (skin, muscle and liver) , pig parts (liver, muscle and
intestine) and beef muscle. The results indicated that chicken skin had high level of antibioticresidues which
positively resisted the presence of gram positive, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidisand B. cereus as known
by the zone of inhibition.The beef muscle also held residue which resisted S. aureusChosenbacteriaalong with
the extracts of chicken skin, pig intestine and beef muscle were observed to be resistant totetracycline
hydrochloride, ciprofloxacin hydrochloride monohydrate and their combinations when tested at a concentration
of 1 percent
Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) for food safety management: Perspectives from K...ExternalEvents
http://tiny.cc/faowgsworkshop
Use of genome sequencing technology on food safety management- Kenya's Perspectives. Presentation from the FAO expert workshop on practical applications of Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) for food safety management - 7-8 December 2015, Rome, Italy.
Metagenomics in food safety: What's the added value? Case studies from the li...ILRI
Presentation by Silvia Alonso, Kristina Roesel, Stephen Opiyo, Francesca Stomeo and Delia Grace at the FAO Regional Meeting on Agricultural Biotechnologies in Sustainable Food Systems and Nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 22–24 November 2017.
Bovine Mastitis due to Coliform Bacteria, and Susceptibility to Antibiotics, ...Premier Publishers
This study was aimed at determining the prevalence of coliform bacteria in bovine milk in Plateau State of Nigeria and their antibiotic susceptibility patterns. A total of 640 milk samples were collected aseptically and 160 questionnaires from where data such as breed, age, parity, lactation stage, floor type, and husbandry system were analyzed. Cows without clinical mastitis were subjected to California Mastitis Test to determine the presence of subclinical mastitis. Bacteriological assays and antibiotic susceptibility tests were conducted according to standard guidelines. Subclinical mastitis with a prevalence of 63.8% was more prevalent in cows than clinical mastitis. Overall, the Friesian breed had the highest mastitis prevalence of 85.7% compared to White Fulani (which is indigenous in Nigeria). Cows aged within 2-4 years old had the least mastitis prevalence of 55.2%. Coliforms isolated from milk samples included E coli, K. pneumoniae, K. oxytoca, C. freundii, E. aerogenes, E. cloacae, and S. marcescens, with E coli having the highest prevalence of 44.8%. The most resistant antimicrobial agent was Streptomycin with 79% prevalence. The principle of One Health approach which targets the environment, animals and humans should be considered important. Good hygienic measures should be intensified among pastoralists.
Prevalence of Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus from meat in Cambodian mar...ILRI
Poster by Rortana Chea, Delia Grace, Hung Nguyen-Viet, Sothyra Tum, Sinh Dang-Xuan, Ren Theary, Siek Sophary, Sok Koam, So Pheany, Hout Sotheany, Theng Heng, Seng Sarim and Johanna Lindahl presented at a regional symposium on research into smallholder pig production, health and pork safety, Hanoi, Vietnam, 27–29 March 2019.
Food samples: African salad, fried yam, fried potato, fried plantain, bole and suya meat retailed in three locations along Choba, Aluu and Alakahia were analyzed for their microbial load. Analysis of the food samples revealed Total viable count ranging from 3.8×107 cfu/g to 5.2×107 cfu/g (African salad), 2.6×107 cfu/g to 3.3×107 cfu/g (Bole), 3.0×107 cfu/g to 3.4×107 cfu/g (Plantain), 3.4×107 cfu/g to 3.6×107 cfu/g (Potato), 2.9×107 cfu/g to 3.3×107 cfu/g (Yam) and 4.8×107 cfu/g to 5.1×107 cfu/g (Suya meat) from the various locations. The organism isolated includes, Staphylococcus aureus (25%), Escherichia coli (25%), Pseudomonas (15%), Streptococcus (15%), Bacillus cereus (12%) and Salmonella spp (8%). The TVC count in these food samples exceeds the standard set by International Commission for Microbiology Specification for Food (ICMSF) for ready-to-eat food which states that TVC count between 0-107 cfu/g is acceptable, 104 to 105 cfu/g is tolerable and >107 cfu/g is unacceptable. Therefore, these foods are not bacteriologically fit for consumption. The occurrence of these bacterial isolates in the foods constitutes public health risk to consumers as these pathogens have been associated with foodborne infections Therefore, government should enforce strong food safety regulations for street foods vendors. In addition, street food vendors need to be educated on food safety and hygienic practices
Microbiological Assessment and Storage Quality of Expressed Breast MilkAI Publications
The microbiological and storage quality of expressed human breast milk was studied between July and December, 2016. One hundred and twenty working class lactating mothers and thirty lactating mothers visiting Imo State University teaching Hospital Orlu for various health challenges were recruited for the study. They were requested to express 60ml of their breast milk into sterile containers. The milk sample collected from each mother was distributed 10ml into each of 3 sterile containers. One set was heated at 100OC for 1hour in a water bath, 1 set was stored in a refrigerator at – 4OC for 5 days and 1 set was stored on the bench at ambient temperature without any treatment. 0.1ml of each sample was inoculated on laboratory culture media before commencement of storage and 2hours, 6hours, 12 hours, 24 hours and 5days post storage. Eight genera of bacteria: Stapylococcus aureus, Streptococcus viridians, Diphtheroides, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella species, Lactobacillus species, Pseudomonas species and Salmonella species, were isolated from expressed human breast milk samples. The most prevalent bacterium in the milk samples was Staphylococcus epidernidis, followed by Escherichia coli. The least prevalent bacteria were Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella species and Diphtheroides. No bacterium was isolated from milk samples heated at 100OC and stored in a refrigerator. The total heterotrophic bacterial counts of the milk samples collected from healthy working mothers ranged from 3.2 x 103 to 8.2 x 103cfu/ml, while that of health challenged mothers ranged from 4.3 x 103 to 1.6 x 104cfu/ml. As shown, the bacterial counts of the samples. Out of 30 samples collected from health – challenged mothers, 9 (30%) had total heterotrophic bacteria count ranging from 1.2 x 104 to 1.6 x 104cfu/ml, 21 (70%) had total bacteria count ranging from 4.3 x 103 to 8.6 x 103cfu/ml. Analysis of the data using chi square showed significant difference (p < 0.05) in the total heterotrophic bacterial count of breast milk between healthy working mothers and health challenged mother.
Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of Staphylococcus aureus, and their nasa...Open Access Research Paper
The frequency of Staphylococcus aureus carriage among healthy food handlers at the students’ cafeteria at the Federal University of Technology, Owerri Nigeria was investigated. Nasal and throat swab samples were obtained from 54 food handlers, and analysed using standard microbiological methods. A total of 28 (51.9%) food handlers were positive for S. aureus. Twenty one of the food handlers (38.9%) harbor S. aureus in their nostrils, 11 (20.4%) in their throat, while 6(11.1%) harbor it in both their nostrils and throats. The exclusive colonization of the throat (20.4%) of the studied food handlers, demonstrated the importance of the throat as a site of colonization for S. aureus. Antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates shows that all the isolated S. aureus were susceptible to nitrofurantoin and cefuroxime, but resistant to penicillin, chloramphenicol, cotrimazole. The isolates were also 25%, 28.6% and 35.7% susceptible to ampicillin, amoxycillin and erythromycin, respectively. This study has further shown the need for routine regular screening of food handlers for both nasal and throat carriage of S. aureus so as to detect early and treat carriers in order to protect the general public from staphylococcal food poisoning. The high prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in S. aureus isolated from the healthy food handlers is of great public health concern, as it shows a growing problem of antimicrobial resistance in the community. This study thus, recommends an urgent formulation of a national policy on antibiotics by the Nigerian government for regulation and management of antibiotics use.
ABSTRACT- Some Lactobacillus species (L. acidophilus, L. casei and L. plantarum) were isolated from locally fermented products (ogi, fura de Nunu and wara) and their effect on microbial infections caused by some pathogenic bacteria (E.coli, K. pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphyloccoccus aureus) isolated from urine and high vaginal swab samples were studied using standard micriobiological methods.Fifiteen (15) healthy guinea pigs used for the study were divided into three (3) groups of five (5) guinea pigs each and placed in three (3) different cages. The pigs were initially fed for two (2) weeks (acclimatization period) with conventional feeds before administering the treatment. Lactobacillus species were introduced into the guinea pigs in cage 2 after the acclimatization period. Subsequently, the guinea pigs in cages 1 and 2 were orally infected with all the clinical bacteria pathogens while the guinea pigs in cage 3 which served as control were left with no microbial treatment. Ten (10) days after treatment, the packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin concentration (HBC), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity level were determined. Striking differences were observed from guinea pigs in the different cages. The effectiveness of Lactobacilli (probiotics) was evident when the guinea pigs in cages 1 and 2 were compared. The guinea pigs in cage 1 which were infected with pathogens but no probiotics had lower blood level (mean PCV= 24.8%) and inferior liver condition (mean ALT=58.18µl; mean AST=51.91µl). Higher blood level (Mean PCV=45%) and superior liver conditions (Mean ALT=9.51µl; mean AST=9.7µl) were obtained for guinea pigs in cage 2 which were infected with the same pathogens and fed with probiotics. The control (cage 3) had the highest PCV level and best liver conditions (mean PCV=46.6%, means ALT= 7.65µl; mean AST=11.83µl).Th .This might be attributed to the fact that they were not infected with pathogenic organisms. Lactobacillus species administered are promising probiotics against the tested bacterial pathogens.
Keywords: Lactobacillus species, Guinea pig, Bacteria pathogen, Enzymes assay, Haematological Parameters, Probiotics
Antibacterial Resistance in the Muscles of Chicken, Pig and Beef IJERA Editor
Though antibiotic drugs are known to improve the health and welfare of food animals , there is parallel risk due
to the development of resistant microorganisms in the body of target animals. Seven meat samples were
procured from wet market in Old Town,Petaling Jaya, Malaysia and assessed for the presence of antibiotic
residues. The samples chosen were chicken parts (skin, muscle and liver) , pig parts (liver, muscle and
intestine) and beef muscle. The results indicated that chicken skin had high level of antibioticresidues which
positively resisted the presence of gram positive, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidisand B. cereus as known
by the zone of inhibition.The beef muscle also held residue which resisted S. aureusChosenbacteriaalong with
the extracts of chicken skin, pig intestine and beef muscle were observed to be resistant totetracycline
hydrochloride, ciprofloxacin hydrochloride monohydrate and their combinations when tested at a concentration
of 1 percent
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Antimicrobial stewardship to prevent antimicrobial resistanceGovindRankawat1
India is among the nations with the highest burden of bacterial infections.
India is one of the largest consumers of antibiotics worldwide.
India carries one of the largest burdens of drug‑resistant pathogens worldwide.
Highest burden of multidrug‑resistant tuberculosis,
Alarmingly high resistance among Gram‑negative and Gram‑positive bacteria even to newer antimicrobials such as carbapenems.
NDM‑1 ( New Delhi Metallo Beta lactamase 1, an enzyme which inactivates majority of Beta lactam antibiotics including carbapenems) was reported in 2008
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Top 10 Best Ayurvedic Kidney Stone Syrups in India
poultry ab mo.pdf
1. CONTACT : DANIEL KAMUA NGANGA dankaihura@gmail.com 76
Abstract
Antibiotic resistant bacteria and antibiotic residues are a serious safety
problem for animal food products. Poultry products have been long recognized
as a reservoir for antibiotic resistant commensals and pathogens. Antibiotic
residues ingested via food animal products expose gut micro-flora to low
concentrations of antibiotics, which promote antibiotic resistance. However,
there is limited knowledge regarding the potential of chicken products to act as a
transmission corridor for the spread of the antibiotic resistant bacteria and
antibiotic residues. The present study aimed at profiling antibiotic resistant
bacteria and antibiotic residues in raw chicken products sold around Kenyatta
University, Kenya. A total of 32 meat and egg samples were randomly collected
from two study sites; KM and KU. Antibiotic residues in the study samples were
detected using two microbiological techniques with Bacillus subtilis ,
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli , and Salmonella typhi as test organisms.
Selective and differential media were used to isolate Escherichia coli , Salmonella
and Shigella from the samples. Antibiotic susceptibility testing of these isolates
against commonly used antibiotics was done using Kirby-Bauer antibiotic discs
diffusion method. Of the total samples tested, 87.50% meat and 100% egg
samples showed presence of antibiotic residues. The mean colony forming units
(CFUs) of meat samples from KM (190.25 x 10² CFU) was higher than that of KU
(104.96 x 10² CFU). Eggs from KM showed contamination (158.88 x 10² CFU) than
those sampled (108.29 x 10² CFU) within the university outlets. Escherichia coli ,
Salmonella and Shigella, were resistant to ampicillin. Escherichia coli showed
intermediate resistance to tetracycline while Escherichia coli and Shigella
showed intermediate resistance to amikacin. This study reveals the presence of
antibiotic residues and antibiotic resistant bacteria in chicken meat and eggs sold
in the study area. Knowledge generated from this study is helps to develops
effective strategies to control antibiotic resistance.
ISSN : 2580-2410
eISSN : 2580-2119
Profiling Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria and Antibiotic Residues in
Raw Chicken Products Sold around Kenyatta University, Kenya
Daniel Kamua Nganga1*, Harry Asena Musonye1, Patrick Kamau Kamande2, Lucy Muthoni
Kamau 3
1 Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology, Kenyatta University,
Nairobi, Kenya
2 Department of Food Nutrition and Dietetics, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya
3 Department of Animal Health and Production, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya
Introduction
The burden of antibiotic resistance (ABR) has a negative impact on the health and
socio-economic status of the people (Ferri et al., 2017). The emergency and spread of ABR is
OPEN ACCESS International Journal of Applied Biology
Keyword
antibiotics; antibiotic
resistance; antibiotic
residues
Article History
Received 10 August 2020
Accepted 31 December 2020
International Journal of Applied Biology is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2. International Journal of Applied Biology, 4(2), 2020
77
associated with the selective pressure exerted by antibiotic use in the community, farm
agriculture, veterinary health, aquaculture, hospitals, and the environment. The World
Health Organization has warned that inappropriate use of antibiotics in agriculture and food
systems may lead to increased food insecurity and food safety hazard (WHO, 2017). The
most substantial use of antibiotics worldwide is in the production of animals where they are
used for therapeutics, prophylaxis or growth promoters in animal feed (Silbergeld et al.,
2008; Cháfer-Pericás et al., 2010; Abdullahi et al., 2015). The practices risk exposure of
human consumers to ABR food-borne pathogens and commensals via animal food products
and the environment. Already, about 95% of the world food-borne infections are associated
with ingestion of contaminated animal food products, poultry products and seafood
products (Akbar and Anal, 2011; Jans et al. 2018; Sugrue et al., 2019).
Furthermore, incorrect application of antibiotics has led to noticeable deposits of
xenobiotics in meat, milk, eggs, cheese and other livestock products. Chronic exposure of
antibiotics and their derivatives to commensal microorganisms has triggered the
development of resistant strains of bacteria because of bioaccumulation of antibiotic
residues in animal tissues (Pavlov et al., 2008). Although humans are not the target
organism for these drugs, they consume copious amounts of them as residues in food,
which potentially destabilizes and eliminate normal intestinal microflora. Other possible
pathological effects of these xenobiotics include allergies, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity,
teratogenicity, nephropathy, immunological disorders, hepatoxicity, and reproductive
disorders (Panigrahi et al., 2017).
Commensal bacteria like Escherichia coli and Salmonella found in livestock are
frequently present in fresh meat products and they may serve as reservoirs for resistant
genes that could potentially be transferred to pathogenic organisms in humans. In other
cases, the intestinal microflora adapts to these antibiotics and their metabolites by
developing resistance and consequently transfer antimicrobial resistance genes to clinically
relevant pathogens (Manyi-Loh et al., 2018). The pathogens can be transferred from animals
to humans, indirectly through food or directly during handling and processing, thereby
posing a threat to public health (Nyamboya et al., 2013). Mathur and Singh (2005) noted
that the food chain is a major route of antibiotic resistance transmission between animals
and human populations. Subsequently, commensal bacteria are suspected of serving as
resistance reservoirs as they can transfer resistance genes to pathogenic bacteria.
Poultry farming is one of the most important small-scale agricultural businesses in
sub-Sahara Africa. The population in this region depends partially on poultry farming for
home consumption and monitory value from the sale of poultry and poultry products. In
Kenya, small scale poultry farming is practiced in most cities with a per capita consumption
of poultry meat and eggs at 1.1 Kg and 37.5 Kg per annum respectively (McCarron et al.,
2015). Nonetheless, poultry production in Kenya is still constrained by ABR. Antibiotics are
used indiscriminately on poultry treatment and in their feed, raising a lot of concern over
their effects on the quality of poultry products. While antibiotic use in food animals may
represent a risk to human health, the degree and relative efforts to combat this have not
offered optimum solution (Darwish et al., 2013). Accurate information on the flow of ABR
strains in food products is still lacks in Kenya. There is a need to carry out investigation
whose results can help understand the local ABR and antibiotic residues in poultry food
products to ensure food safety and food security.
3. International Journal of Applied Biology, 4(2), 2020
78
Materials and Methods
Study area
Sample collection was carried out at Kenyatta University and adjacent Kiwanja
market in Nairobi, Kenya (1°10'59.0"S; 36°55'34.0"E) (Geographic positioning system (GPS,
eTrex, USA). These sites constitute the leading vendors of chicken meat and poultry
products to the University community of more than 70,000 people. The chicken used for
meat and other poultry products in the study area are outsourced from small scale farmers
and other national suppliers across the country.
Sample collection
Overall, 32 samples of which 16 raw chicken meat and 16 eggs were collected from
randomly selected outlets in KM open market and KU. The samples were collected in sterile
zip-lock bags for two weeks. The samples were labelled and immediately placed in a cool
box and transported to Kenyatta University Microbiology Research Laboratory for analysis.
All the samples collected were within the required date for consumption.
Detection of antibiotic residues in chicken meat
First, 10 g of each meat sample was soaked in 100 ml ethyl acetate and crushed
using a pestle in a sterile mortar. The solvent was then centrifuged at 6000 revolutions per
minute (rpm) for 10 minutes. The supernatant was then transferred into a fresh sterile bijou
bottle and sterile filter paper discs placed inside. The set up was left to stand until the
solvent completely evaporated. These paper discs were then placed on spread plates of
Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli and incubated
for 18 hours at 37°C (Kehinde et al., 2012). Paper discs dipped in ethyl acetate and
subsequently evaporated were used as a negative control. In the second method, 1 mg
pieces of fresh meat samples were cut and placed directly on spread plates containing the
test organisms and incubated at 37°C overnight. Inhibition zones were observed and
measured in millimeters (Myllyniemi et al., 2001).
Detection of antibiotic residues in chicken eggs
Presence of antibiotic residues on eggs was done using two methods. First, pieces of
the eggshells were placed on spread plates containing the test organisms and incubated at
37°C for 24 hours. In the second method, wells were punched into spread plates of Muller
Hinton agar with the test organism. A 0.1ml of egg albumen from each egg sample was
placed in the wells. The plates were then incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. Zones of inhibition
around the agar wells on each plate were observed and the absence or presence of
antimicrobial residues recorded (Idowu et al., 2010).
Bacterial counts in raw chicken meat and eggs
One gram of the meat sample was aseptically homogenized in 99 ml of 0.85% saline;
this effected a 10-2 dilution which was further serial diluted to effect a 103 diluent. From
the homogenate, 0.1 ml was spread plated on nutrient agar plates in triplicate and
incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. The colony forming units (CFUs) were then counted from
each plate using a colony counter (Akusu and Wemedo, 2016). For microbial contamination
of eggs, each was placed in a separate sterile plastic bag. A 100 ml sterile isotonic saline was
added and washed thoroughly. A 0.1 ml of the washing was then spread plated on nutrient
agar plates and incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. Viable cell counts were determined by
4. International Journal of Applied Biology, 4(2), 2020
79
counting the CFU. The washing was also used for microbiological isolation of other
contaminating organisms (Englmaierová et al., 2014).
Isolation and identification of Salmonella, Shigella and Escherichia coli
The fresh meat and egg washing from samples were each pre-enriched in buffered
peptone water at 370C for 16 hours. The pre-enriched samples were sub-cultured and
incubated for 24 hours at 37°C in Selenite F broth for selective enrichment of Salmonella
and Shigella. This was then followed by plate streaking on DCA and Salmonella agar (Oxoid,
Basingstokes, UK) and incubation was done at 37°C for 24 hours. To isolate Escherichia coli,
the samples were enriched in lactose broth and after incubation sub-cultured on EMB agar
(Oxoid, Basingstokes, UK) at 37°C for 24 hours. Typical characteristic colonies of Escherichia
coli, with a green metallic sheen on EMB agar (Oxoid, Basingstokes, UK) and those of
Salmonella and Shigella on DCA were purified by sub-culturing on nutrient agar (HiMedia,
Mumbai India). The identity of the isolates was further confirmed by subjecting them to
biochemical tests; Urease test, Triple Sugar Iron and IMViC (Indole, Methyl red, Voges-
Proskauer and Citrate). All the media were inoculated with suspected isolates and incubated
at 37°C for 18-48 hours, and the result interpreted according to the manufacturer’s
instructions (Kyung-Min et al., 2015).
Antibiotic sensitivity testing
Disc diffusion technique was used to determine the susceptibility of isolates to
commonly used antibiotics in animal and human medicine as recommended by the Clinical
and Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines (CLSI, 2015). The antibiotic-impregnated discs
used include tetracycline (TE 30), chloramphenicol (C 50), ciprofloxacin (CIP 5) ampicillin (AX
10), Amikacin (AK 30) and gentamycin (GEN 10). Representatives of the isolates were spread
plated on Muller Hinton agar and antibiotic discs placed on the agar and incubated at 370C
for 24 hours. After incubation period, the diameter of the zones of inhibition was measured
to the nearest millimeter using a digital calliper (0-150 mm).The isolates were classified as
resistant, susceptible or intermediate.
Data analyses
Antibiotic susceptibility means of inhibition zones, values for the abundance of the
isolated pathogen and bacterial load values were subjected to ANOVA with significant
difference determination among means using Tukey’s Honesty Significant Difference test at
P≤ 0.05. The analysis was done using Statistical Analysis System version 9.1 (SAS Institute,
Cary, NC).
Results
Antibiotic residues in chicken meat
Bacillus subtilis and Staphyloccocus aureus were inhibited (Plate 1). Of the total
meat samples, 14 (87.50%) showed inhibition zones on Bacillus subtilis , 7 from each
sampling site. This was observed on both meat pieces tested and the paper discs, although
the paper discs showed more distinct and clear inhibition zones. Out of the total meat
samples, 6 from KU and 5 from KM showed inhibition against Staphyloccocus aureus (Figure
1.1).
5. International Journal of Applied Biology, 4(2), 2020
80
Figure 1.1 Percentage levels of inhibiting samples of antibiotic residues in chicken meat.
Antibiotic residues in chicken egg albumen and shells
Egg albumen of all the sampled eggs showed 100 % inhibition when tested against
Bacillus subtilis and Staphyloccocus aureus (Plate 2). Of the total egg sampled, only two
(6.25%), from different outlets, revealed inhibition against Escherichia coli. None of the
samples inhibited the growth of Salmonella typhi (Figure 1.2). The eggshells did not show
any inhibition when subjected to the test organisms.
6. International Journal of Applied Biology, 4(2), 2020
81
Figure 1.2. Percentage levels of inhibiting samples of antibiotic residues in egg albumen/
Bacterial counts of meat samples
The mean CFUs for chicken meat from KU and KM were 104.96 x 103/gm and
190.250 x103/gm, respectively (P≤0.05). Samples obtained from KM were significantly
contaminated as compared to those obtained from KU. The highest bacterial load (288.00 x
103) was recorded in samples obtained from KM (P < 0.001). The highest bacterial load of
the samples obtained from KU was recorded at 157.00 x 103 (P < 0.001). The least
contaminated sample had a bacterial load of 57 x 103gm at P <0.001 and was from KU
(Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Mean values breakdown of CFUs of meat samples for KU and KM
KU KM
Meat sample Mean ± SE Meat sample Mean ± SE
MU1 111.667 x 103±3.28cdef MM1 127.333 x 103±4.67cde
MU2 125.000 x 103±12.34cde MM2 288.000 x 103±5.03a
MU3 70.000 x 103±7.10fg MM3 242.00 x 103±26.62ab
MU4 100.667 x 103±2.19edfg MM4 286.333 X 103±5.93a
MU5 157.000 x 103±6.43c MM5 142.667 x 103±3.76cd
MU6 131.667 x 103±4.49cde MM6 210.333 x 103±3.53b
MU7 57.000 x 103±2.52g MM7 86.333 x 103±7.62efg
MU8 86.667 x 103±7.42efg MM8 138.333 x 103±4.67cd
Site mean 104.96 x 103±6.77b Site mean 190.25 x 103±15.37a
P-value< 0.001 P-value < 0.001
Key: MU; KU meat, MM; KM meat. Means values followed by the same letter within the
columns are not significantly different according to Tukey’s Honest Significance Difference
(HSD) at 5% level
Bacterial counts on eggs
There was a significant difference the between bacterial population of egg samples
obtained from KU and KM at P≤0.05 (Table 1.2). The mean bacterial count from egg washing
of samples obtained from KU was 108.292 x 103 while that from egg washing of samples
7. International Journal of Applied Biology, 4(2), 2020
82
obtained from KM was 158.875 x 103 both at P < 0.001. The highest bacterial load (286.667
x 103) was recorded at KM while the lowest bacterial load (52.667 x 103) was recorded at KU
(P < 0.001).
Table 1.2: Mean values ± SE breakdown of CFUs of egg samples for the two study sites
KU KM
Egg sample Mean ± SE Egg sample Mean ± SE
EU1 86.667 x 103
±2.91hi
EM1 286.667 x 103
±6.36a
EU2 145.333 x 103
±6.36cde
EM2 156.667 x 103
±1,76cd
EU3 117.667x 103
±5.90efg
EM3 93.000 x 103
±6.56gh
EU4 52.667 x 103
±1.76j
EM4 247.333 X 103
±4.33b
EU5 170.333x 103
±3.84cd
EM5 115.667 x 103
±5.04fg
EU6 150.667 x 103
±7.69cd
EM6 136.333 x 103
±4.49def
EU7 81.000 x 103
±8.33hi
EM7 156.000 x 103
±6.43cd
EU8 62.000 x 103
±3.46ij
EM8 79.333 x 103
±3.53hij
Site 108.292 x 103
±8.74b
Site 158.875 x 103
±14.30a
P-value < 0.001 P-value < 0.001
Key: EU; KU eggs, EM; KM eggs, 1-8 sampling points. Mean values followed by the same
letter within the columns are not significantly different according to Tukey’s Honest
Significance Difference (HSD) at 5% level.
Total isolated pathogens
Of the total samples analyzed, 14 (43.75%) were positive for Salmonella. Eight of
these isolates were from chicken meat samples while six isolates were from the surfaces of
eggs samples. About 6 (18.75%) of the samples were positive for Shigella. Three of the
isolates were from chicken meat samples while the other three isolates were from eggs
samples. Twenty-one samples (62.63%) were contaminated with Escherichia coli. Out of
this, 12 were from chicken meat samples, while 9 were from egg samples (Table 1.3).
Table 1.3: Bacterial pathogens isolated from both sites
Site Sample Salmonella sp. Shigella sp. E. coli
KU
Meat (n = 8) 5 1 6
Eggs (n = 8) 3 2 4
KM
Meat (n = 8) 3 2 6
Eggs (n = 8) 3 1 5
Percentage 43.75% 18.75% 62.63%
The abundance of the isolated pathogen
The detection level of the isolated bacteria varied across the sampled outlets within
KU at P≤0.05. The abundance of pathogens isolated from KU was significantly different (P=
0.0282). Escherichia coli were the most abundant at an average mean of 15.6 followed by
Salmonella and Shigella. The abundance trend of isolates from KM samples was similar to
that of KM isolates with E. coli registering the highest abundance (17.19). Shigella was the
least abundant in KM with a mean of 4.69. Overall, the abundance of the isolates between
KU and KM was not significant with both having a mean of 8.203 and 8.984, respectively
(Table 1.4).
8. International Journal of Applied Biology, 4(2), 2020
83
Table 1.4: Abundance of pathogenic bacteria isolated from the study sites
Key: Mean values followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different
according to Tukey’s Honest Significance Difference (HSD) at 5% level.
Antibiotic sensitivity testing
The results showed that within each isolated bacterial genus, the inhibition was
significantly different (P≤0.05) against the tested antibiotics. All the isolates showed
significant zones of inhibition against ciprofloxacin, followed by chloramphenicol (Table 1.5).
The isolates were 100% susceptible to ciprofloxacin and gentamicin. None of the isolates
was susceptible to ampicillin. All Escherichia coli species and Shigella species were resistant
to ampicillin, while 83% Salmonella were resistant to ampicillin (Table 1.5)
Table 1.5. Inhibition zones in mm of the isolates to the tested antibiotics
Antibiotic Test organism
Salmonella sp. E. coli Shigella sp.
Amikacin (30) 17.5±0.55b 16.833±0.75b 17.333±1.53b
Ampicillin (30) 7.33±3.27c 6.000±0.00c 8.67±4.62c
Chloramphenicol (50) 28.667±1.12a 29.667±1.03a 30.667±0.58a
Ciprofloxacin (30) 30.667±1.21a 29.33±4.23a 30.00±4.36a
Gentamycin (10) 19.333±1.21b 19.5±1.23b 19.333±0.58b
Tetracycline (50) 19.333±1.21b 19.17±4.26b 18.333±1.53b
P-VALUE < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
Key: Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different
according to Tukey’s Honest Significance Difference (HSD) at 5% level.
Table 1.6. Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of the isolates
Key: S=sensitive; I=intermediate; R=resistant; n=number of tested isolates
Isolate KU KM
E. coli 15.63±3.13a 17.19±1.56a
Salmonella sp 12.5±3.13ab 9.38±2.56ab
Shigellasp 4.69±0.56ab 4.69±0.56ab
P-value 0.0282 0.0312
SITE 8.203±2.50 8.984±2.16
P-value 0.0729
Percentage inhibition of all the isolates tested
Antibiotic
Salmonella sp.
(n=6)
Escherichia coli
(n=6)
Shigella sp.
(n=6)
S I R S I R S I R
Ciprofloxacin(30) 100 0 0 100 0 0 100 0 0
Tetracycline (30) 100 0 0 84 16 0 100 0 0
Gentamicin (10) 100 0 0 100 0 0 100 0 0
Chloramphenicol
(50) 100 0 0 100 0 0 100 0 0
amikacin (30) 100 0 0 67 33 0 67 33 0
Ampicillin (10) 0 17 83 0 0 100 0 0 100
9. International Journal of Applied Biology, 4(2), 2020
84
Discussion
The current findings revealed Bacillus subtilis as the highly susceptible bacteria to
most of the samples of chicken meat and egg albumen. These results correspond with those
of a study carried out in Khartoum by Elnasri et al. (2014) who reported susceptibility of
Bacillus subtilis to most of the samples of chicken tissue. These results also suggest that the
test organisms were subjected to samples which contained unspecific inhibitory substances
(Myllyniemi et al., 2001). The potential of chicken meat and egg albumen to inhibit the
growth of Bacillus subtilis, Staphyloccocus aureus and Escherichia coli depicts poultry
products as have unspecified antibiotic residues and therefore, potential reservoir of
antibiotic resistance. Susceptibility of these bacteria to the chicken meat and egg albumen
could be linked to the use of antibiotics in poultry production (Mund et al., 2017).
Samples obtained from KM were significantly contaminated as compared to those
obtained from KU. The samples evaluated in this study came from two different sites whose
outlets serve almost the same clients. The difference in the contamination could be
attributed to poor handling of poultry food products. According to Jans et al. (2018),
transmission of bacteria between food animals and humans occurs during the handling of
animal food products at production, distribution, and household levels. There is limited
sanitary knowledge for most food handlers at KM as opposed to KU food handlers who have
some level of knowledge in sanitation as trained caterers. In a related study carried out in
Kumasi, Ghana, it was found that street food was more contaminated with bacteria,
especially enteric bacteria caused by improper handling of food (Feglo and Sakyi, 2012).
The most common bacterial contaminant in this study was Escherichia coli, followed
by Salmonella, and Shigella, which gives evidence of the presence of enteric bacterial
contamination in the tested samples within the study areas. Wong et al. (2009) documented
that Salmonella mostly contaminate meat from faecal material during slaughter and
processing. The authors added that Salmonella sometimes might be present internally in
meat tissue of infected animals. The difference in bacterial contamination of samples in the
current study can be associated with the preservation methods used. During sampling, most
of the meat samples from KM were not refrigerated, while in KU all the samples were kept
in a cold room. In a related study, Mensah et al. (2002) who investigated the microbial
quality of foods sold on streets of Accra, Ghana and factors predisposing to their
contamination reported similar findings. Rane, (2011) reported that in developing countries,
food sold in open-air markets are mostly contaminated with Salmonella sp., Escherichia coli,
and Shigella sp. The researcher associated this with poor handling techniques of food and
lack of proper storage facilities.
The results revealed a high percentage of Salmonella, Escherichia coli and Shigella
resistance to ampicillin and high susceptibility to ciprofloxacin, gentamicin and
chloramphenicol. This result corresponds with those of Nyamboya et al. (2013) who
reported high resistance against ampicillin and susceptibility to chloramphenicol and
gentamicin by bacteria isolates from different abattoirs in Nairobi. Tetracycline and
amikacin were moderately resisted by Shigella and Escherichia coli. The existence of
resistant bacteria in the chicken meat and egg albumen samples reflect the potential spread
of these bacteria in human consumers as well as the transfer of resistant components
among the bacteria in the environment (Singer et al., 2016). The incidence of antibiotic
resistant bacteria in poultry products as shown in the current study is a threat to public
health as the bacteria could disseminate antibiotic resistant genes to other bacteria of
human clinical significance (Woolhouse et al., 2015). Poultry products could, therefore, act
10. International Journal of Applied Biology, 4(2), 2020
85
as conduits for the dissemination of clinically relevant antibiotic resistance to the
environment.
Conclusions
There is a high level of antibiotic residues in chicken meat and eggs sold in KU and
KM. These residues are in contact with commensals and clinically relevant bacteria on the
same chicken products. There is, therefore, a high risk of these microbes adapting to the
presence of the antibiotics and thus developing resistance to them. The chicken products in
the study area are contaminated with bacteria pathogens; Escherichia coli, Salmonella and
Shigella, which pose a health risk to the population. The isolates were resistant to ampicillin
and relatively resistant to tetracycline. This study findings form the basis upon which
intervention tools for monitoring the influence of animal origin food on the development of
antibiotic resistant bacteria in the environment can be developed.
Consent for publication
Not applicable
Availability of data and materials
The datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding
author on reasonable request
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Funding
Not applicable
Author contributions
DKN and LMK conceived the idea for the study and designed the experiment. DKN
and PKK collected data, performed the experiments and analyzed data. DKN and HAM
prepared and reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge meat and eggs vendors for agreeing to participate and
consent for us to collect chicken meat and eggs. We thank the Department of Biochemistry,
Microbiology and Biotechnology of Kenyatta University for allocating laboratory space for
sample analysis..
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