This study evaluated the antibacterial activity of methanol and aqueous extracts of Quercus infectoria galls against pathogens that cause urinary tract infections. Both extracts showed inhibitory effects against tested bacteria at a concentration of 5 mg/disc, with the exception of some bacteria. The minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration were determined for the extracts. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis identified pyrogallol as the major compound in both extracts. The results suggest that Q. infectoria gall extracts have potential as an antibacterial agent for preventing and treating urinary tract infections.

1. Nur Saeida Binti Baharuddin, et al / Int. J. of Res. in Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics Vol-3(3) 2014 [184-191]
www.ijrpp.com
~ 184~
ISSN Print: 2278 – 2648 IJRPP |Vol.3 | Issue 3 | July-Sep-2014
ISSN Online: 2278-2656 Journal Home page: www.ijrpp.com
Research article Open Access
Potential use of Quercus infectoria gall extracts against urinary tract
pathogenic bacteria
*Nur Saeida B, Hasmah A,Wan Nor Amilah WAW
School of Health Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150, Kubang
Kerian, Kelantan, MALAYSIA.
.* Corresponding author: Nur Saeida Binti Baharuddin.
E-mail id: nursaeida@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Galls of Quercus infectoria have been traditionally used by Malaysian women as a remedy after childbirth and also
to prevent various infections including urinary tract infection (UTI). This study aimed to evaluate the in vitro
antibacterial activity of Q. infectoria gall extracts against several bacterial pathogens of the urinary tract. Methanol
and aqueous extracts of Q. infectoria galls were screened against 4 Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus
saprophyticus ATCC 49907, Streptococcus agalactiae ATCC 13813, Streptococcus pneumoniae ATCC 27336, and
Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212) and 4 Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Klebsiella
pneumoniae ATCC 1706, Proteus mirabilis ATCC 12453 and Proteus vulgaris ATCC 49132) using disc diffusion
method. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) were determined using the two-fold serial micro dilution
technique at concentrations ranging from 0.01 mg/ml to 10 mg/ml. Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC)
were determined by sub culturing the wells which showed no turbidity after overnight incubation at 37°C on the
agar plate. Both extracts displayed similar inhibitory effects against each tested bacteria at a concentration of 5
mg/disc except for P. vulgaris, E. coli and K. pneumoniae. The extracts were also considered bactericidal against the
tested bacteria (undetermined for S. pneumoniae) based on calculated MBC/MIC ratio. Gas Chromatography-Mass
Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis showed that the major compound in both extracts was pyrogallol. These data
suggested that Q. infectoria galls are potentially effective as an antibacterial agent for the prevention and treatment
of UTI.
Keywords: Quercus infectoria gall extracts, Urinary tract pathogens, Antibacterial activity.
INTRODUCTION
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are considered to be
the most common type of bacterial infections
affecting the urinary tract [1]
. Annually, it is estimated
that one billion women around the world suffer from
UTI[2]
.Women are likely to suffer from UTI and a
higher risk occurs during pregnancy or following
childbirth necessitating an appropriate antimicrobial
therapy [3]
. Acute uncomplicated UTI are infections
of the lower urinary tract in healthy, non-pregnant
and adult women. Pathogens that commonly
contribute to the infection include Escherichia coli,
International Journal of Research in
Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics

2. Nur Saeida Binti Baharuddin, et al / Int. J. of Res. in Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics Vol-3(3) 2014 [184-191]
www.ijrpp.com
~ 185~
Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris, and Enterococcus
spp. [4]
. Resistance towards antibiotic is significantly
increasing [2]
and alternative method using medical
herbs is one of option to overcome the problems.
There are many claims about the beneficial effects of
dietary supplements and natural products for the
prevention of UTI [5]
. Medicinal plants have been
used in traditional health world wide as they are
considered to be less toxic and free from side effects
compared to the synthetic drugs [6]
. Quercus
infectoria galls, locally known as “Manjakani” is one
of the popular medicinal plants used to treat various
ailments. It is a deciduous, small tree or shrubs that
grow only up to the height of 2 metres and is mainly
found in Asia, Greece, and Iran [7]
.
The galls of Q. infectoria are round-shaped abnormal
growth found arising on young branches of the oak
tree due to the attack by the gall-wasp Adleria gallae-
tinctoria [8]
. Pharmacologically, the galls have been
documented to possess astringent and antibacterial
properties [9-10]
. The astringent properties are mainly
derived from tannin, the main compound constituting
50-70% of Q. infectoria galls [11]
. Tannin has
displayed their antibacterial action by several studies
[9, 12]
. Galls of Q. infectoria also contain some sugar,
starch [13]
as well as gallic acid and ellagic acid [14]
.
In recent times, microorganisms developed resistance
to many antibiotics due to the indiscriminate use of
antimicrobial drugs in the treatment of infectious
diseases [15]
. Therefore, development of alternative
antimicrobial agents is required, and local medicinal
plants are considered the important sources of novel
anti- microbial agents [16]
. Extract of Q. infectoria
galls contains natural antimicrobial properties [12]
that
are potentially effective in preventing the bacterial
infection around the reproductive and urinary part of
humans [17]
. In the present study, methanol and
aqueous extracts of Q. infectoria gall have been
tested and compared for their antibacterial activities
towards the commonly isolated urinary tract
pathogens.
METHODOLOGY
Plant material
Q. infectoria Olivier gall was purchased from the
local herbal shop in Kota Bharu, Kelantan and
authenticated based on their physical appearances
which were globular in shape, 0.8 cm to 2.5 cm in
diameter, green-yellow in colour; odour is slight,
strongly pungent taste and tuberculated surface [18]
.
The galls were washed with distilled water, left dry at
room temperature before they were crushed and
ground prior to the extraction.
Preparation of gall extracts
The methanol extract was prepared by immersing 100
g of the Q. infectoria gall powder in 500 ml of
absolute methanol (Merck) for 72 hours at 50°C in
water bath. The mixture was filtered using Whatman
filter paper No 1 and the filtrates were concentrated
under reduced pressure using a rotary evaporator at a
temperature of 55°C. The resulting pellet was finally
pounded to dryness at 50°C for 48 hours to produce a
powdery and brown crude methanol extract.
The aqueous extract was prepared by immersing 100
g of the gall powder in 500 ml of sterile distilled
water for 72 hours at 50°C in water bath. The mixture
was then pre-filtered using coffee filter and then
filtered using Whatman filter paper No 1. The
filtrates were concentrated under reduced pressure
using a rotary evaporator at a temperature of 80°C.
The resulting pellet was freeze-dried at -50°C under
vacuum until a fine crystal-like crude aqueous extract
was obtained. The crude extracts were stored in
airtight jars at 4°C until further use.
The extracts were dissolved in sterile distilled water
to a final concentration of 100 mg/ml for disc
diffusion technique and 20 mg/ml for broth micro
dilution technique with slight modification [12]
. The
mixture was left to dissolve on rotary mixer. Prior to
antimicrobial activity assays, the diluted extract
solutions were sterilized through membrane filter size
0.2 µm. Blank discs (Oxoid) were impregnated with
the desired volume of each extract solution to a final
concentration of 5.0 mg/disc and allowed to dry in
sterile condition.
Microorganisms and preparation of inoculum
Eight ATCC strains of bacterial species were selected
in this study which comprised of a few Gram-positive
bacteria (S. saprophyticus ATCC 49907, S.
agalactiae ATCC 13813, S. pneumoniae ATCC
27336 and E. faecalis ATCC 29212) and Gram-
negative bacteria (K. pneumoniae ATCC 1706, E.
coli ATCC 25922, P. mirabilis ATCC 12453 and P.

3. Nur Saeida Binti Baharuddin, et al / Int. J. of Res. in Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics Vol-3(3) 2014 [184-191]
www.ijrpp.com
~ 186~
vulgaris ATCC 49132).The Gram-positive and
Gram-negative bacteria were subcultured and
maintained onto blood agar (Difco) and MacConkey
agar (Difco) respectively. The suspension of each
strain was prepared using colonies from an overnight
culture plate at a concentration of 108
cells/ml or
McFarland equivalent of 0.5 (standard test
inoculums) for disc diffusion test and microbroth
dilution assay.
Antibacterial activity
The procedures described for disc diffusion test and
determination of minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration
(MBC) values were according to the standard
antimicrobial susceptibility method provided by
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute [19]
.
The disc diffusion test was performed by streaking
the standard test inoculum onto the surface of
Mueller Hinton agar (MHA) or MHA with 5%
sheep’s blood (for S. pneumoniae and S. agalactiae)
using a sterile cotton swab. Extract discs were
positioned on the inoculated agar surface along with
negative and positive control within 15 minutes of
inoculation. Disc impregnated with sterile distilled
water was used as negative control while the standard
antibiotic disc was used as positive control. The test
was done in triplicate. All plates were incubated at
37°C for 18-24 hours. The antibacterial activity was
observed from the size of the inhibition zone
diameter surrounding the disc measured in
millimeters (mm).
The MIC values of each extract against the bacterial
strains were determined using two-fold serial micro
dilution of extracts in Mueller Hinton broth (MHB)
with concentration ranging from P 0.01 mg/ml to 10
mg/ml. For S. pneumoniae and S. agalactiae, MHB
supplemented with 5% of Laked Horse Blood (Oxoid
SR0048C) (MHBB) was used instead. The diluted
bacterial suspensions (final inoculums: 5 x 105
bacteria/ml) were added to each well and incubated at
37°C for 20-24 hours. Each test was assayed in
triplicate. The bacterial suspension was used as
positive control and MHB or MHBB was used as
negative control. The MIC values were taken as the
lowest concentration of the extracts in the wells of
the microtiter plate that showed no turbidity after 20-
24 hours of incubation at 37°C. Subsequently, wells
with no turbidity were subcultured onto blood agar
plates for MBC determination.
Phytochemical analysis
The phytochemical qualitative tests were carried out
on the methanol and aqueous Q. infectoria gall
extracts to detect the presence of tannin, saponin,
flavonoids and alkaloid using standard procedures [20-
21]
.
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-
MS) Analysis
The analysis was carried out at University Pendidikan
Sultan Idris, Perak. The GC system (Agilent 7890A)
was equipped with Triple Axis Detector (Agilent
5975C) and an Auto sampler (Agilent 7693). The
column temperature was programmed from an initial
temperature of 70°C to a final temperature of 280°C
with increased time at the 20°C/min. The injector
temperature was 280°C and injection volume was
5µL. Helium was used as the carrier gas (1mL/min).
Identification of phytochemical components was
performed by diluting 1 g of methanol and aqueous
extracts into 5 mL of methanol and distilled water
respectively. Total running time was 48 min.
Statistical Analysis
Data entry and statistical analysis were performed
using IBM SPSS software version 20. Student’s t-test
was used for statistical comparison of zone sizes
between methanol and aqueous extracts and p-values
< 0.05 were regarded as significant.
RESULTS
Table 1 shows the results of antibacterial activity of
both extracts against urinary tract bacterial species
obtained by screening disc diffusion test. The
antibacterial activity of most species was moderately
observed at optimal concentration of 5 mg/disc.
Methanol extract exhibited inhibitory effects on both
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria species
while aqueous extract inhibited the growth of most
tested bacteria except E. coli and K. pneumoniae.
Among all bacteria, both extracts displayed largest
inhibitory zone sizes against S. saprophyticus.
The results of MIC and MBC were summarized in
Table 2. The MIC values ranged from 0.31 mg/ml to
2.50 mg/ml for methanol extract and from 0.16
mg/ml to 10.00 mg/ml for aqueous extract. The

4. Nur Saeida Binti Baharuddin, et al / Int. J. of Res. in Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics Vol-3(3) 2014 [184-191]
www.ijrpp.com
~ 187~
MBC/MIC ratio for both extracts against all tested
bacterial species were less than or equal to 4 except
S. pneumoniae. MIC determination was not feasible
for S. Pneumoniae due to the intense background
colour of the extract and MHBB that masked
microbial growth observation.
Preliminary qualitative phytochemical screening for
both methanol and aqueous gall extracts showed
positive detection of tannins (Table 3). Following
phytochemical screening, GC-MS analysis showed
two major compounds scanned by the NISTO5a.L
database. Figure 1 shows the active principle,
retention time (RT), molecular weight and molecular
structure of the compound. 1, 2, 3 - Benzenetriol
(pyrogallol) in both methanol and aqueous extracts of
Q. infectoria gall was identified in high percentage
which accounted for 81.66% and 100% of the total
respectively.
Table 1: Antibacterial activity of Q. infectoria gall extracts by disc diffusion test
Species
Inhibition zone diameter (mm±SEM)†
Positive control
(10 µg/disc)
Methanol extract
(5.0 mg/disc)
Aqueous extract
(5.0 mg/disc)
P-value*
P. mirabilis ATCC 20.67±1.15 14.33±0.57 13.33±0.57 0.101
P. vulgaris ATCC 18.67±0.57 17.00±0.00 15.67±0.57 0.016
E. coli ATCC 18.33±0.57 12.33±0.57 - 0.0001
K. pneumoniae ATCC 17.00±0.00 9.33±0.57 - 0.0001
S. saprophyticus ATCC 26.00±1.00 18.00±0.00 17.00±1.00 0.158
E. faecalis ATCC 17.67±0.57 13.67±1.15 12.67±1.15 0.348
S. agalactiae ATCC 18.67±0.57 11.33±0.57 11.00±0.00 0.373
S. pneumoniae ATCC 21.00±0.00 12.00±0.00 11.33±0.57 0.116
†
Mean values of three determinations, each from different plates
* Student’s t-test for comparison of zone sizes diameter between methanol and aqueous extracts
ATCC: American Type Culture Collection
- No inhibition
Table 2: MIC and MBC values of Q. infectoria gall extracts against tested bacterial species
Species Methanol Extract Aqueous Extract
MIC
(mg/ml)
MBC
(mg/ml)
MBC/MIC ratioMIC
(mg/ml)
MBC
(mg/ml)
MBC/MIC ratio
P. mirabilis ATCC 0.63 0.63 1 0.31 0.63 2
P. vulgaris ATCC 0.31 0.63 2 0.16 0.31 2
E. coli ATCC 1.25 2.50 2 10.00 10.00 1
K. pneumoniae ATCC 5.00 5.00 1 10.00 10.00 1
S. saprophyticus ATCC 0.63 0.63 1 0.31 1.25 4
E. faecalis ATCC 0.63 1.25 2 0.63 0.63 1
S. agalactiae ATCC 0.63 2.50 4 0.63 2.50 4
S. pneumoniae ATCC ND 2.50 ND ND 2.50 ND
ATCC: American Type Culture Collection
ND: Not determined

5. Nur Saeida Binti Baharuddin, et al / Int. J. of Res. in Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics Vol-3(3) 2014 [184-191]
www.ijrpp.com
~ 188~
Table 3: Phytochemical screening of Q. infectoria gall extracts
Compound Methanol Extract Aqueous Extract
Tannins + +
Flavonoid - -
Saponin - -
Alkaloid - -
+: detected, -: not detected
Figure 1: Chromatogram of methanol extract (A) and aquoeus extract (B) of Q. infectoria galls by GC-MS analysis.
The GC-MS spectrum at RT 14.50 min of major compound of the 1,2,3-Benzenetriol (pyrogallol) with molecular
formula of C6H6O3 and molecular weight of 126.0 g/mol (C).
DISCUSSION
UTI is among the most common bacterial infections
that lead patients to seek medical care. Besides
antibiotic consumption, other alternative measures
such as the use of herbal plant has been one of the
promising therapeutic approach to human disease [22]
as well as providing safe, cheap and effective
antibacterial treatment [23]
.
Various solvents are available and can be used to
extract the active compounds from this plant.
Aqueous solvent was used in this study because
water is a universal solvent which was used
traditionally to extract most plant products with
antimicrobial activity [24]
. Organic extract of plants
was reported to have high antimicrobial activity [7, 25]
and relatively low toxicity to the test organisms [26]
.
Therefore we compared both extracts to establish
their potential inhibitory effects on the commonly
isolated species of uropathogens.
In this study, it is interesting to observe that the
growth of S. saprophyticus was largely inhibited by
both extracts. Methanol extract of Q. infectoria galls
has also been reported to have higher inhibition on
microorganisms [15, 27]
.We found them ethanol extract
displayed relatively better inhibitory activity towards
all tested urobacterial species and significantly

6. Nur Saeida Binti Baharuddin, et al / Int. J. of Res. in Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics Vol-3(3) 2014 [184-191]
www.ijrpp.com
~ 189~
inhibited the growth of the Gram-negative bacteria
compared to the aqueous extract.
For the aqueous extract, a relatively weak
antibacterial activity was observed for both E. coli
and K. pneumoniae. The MIC values of E. coli and K.
pneumoniae were comparatively higher (10.0 mg/ml)
than the MIC observed in other Gram-negative and
Gram-positive bacteria. E. coli and K. pneumoniae
are known as highly resistance [28, 29]
as compared to
the Gram-positive bacteria due to the difference in
cell wall content and arrangement [30]
. Previous
research studying on antibacterial activity of Q.
infectoria gall extract had also reported that Gram-
positive bacteria were relatively more susceptible
compared to Gram-negative bacteria [12]
.
MBC is one of various in vitro microbiological
techniques to determine the bactericidal activity of
antimicrobial agents. Microbiological definition of
bactericidal activity has been taken arbitrarily as a
ratio of MBC to MIC of 4 or less [31, 32]
. In this study,
the MBC values of the extracts ranged from 0.31
mg/ml to 10.00 mg/ml. Both extracts were regarded
as bactericidal against all tested bacterial species
based on the calculated MBC/MIC ratio. Previous
study also reported similar findings when the extracts
were tested against Gram-positive bacteria [17]
.
Therefore Q. infectoria gall extracts might be
potentially considered as a bactericidal agent. A cidal
activity would be preferable [33]
to treat urinary
bacterial infections.
The phytochemical screening analysis in this study
has identified tannins in both extracts. Tannins which
is the main component found in Q. infectoria [11]
are
soluble in polar compound and water [34]
thus it is
possible that the active constituents were available in
both extracts. Tannin may prevent bacteria from
adhering to cells because it is believed that the
hydrolysable tannins contain structures similar to the
bacterial-binding receptors found on the surface of
urinary tract cells and thereby preventing adherence
of the bacteria to the cell surface receptors [35]
.
Without binding to the cells, the bacteria cannot
multiply and this is apparently necessary to cause a
bacterial infection. The effect of tannins on microbial
metabolism can be measured by their action on
membranes which they can cross the cell wall,
composed of several polysaccharides and proteins,
and bind to its surface [36]
.
Pyrogallol is known as one of hydrolysable tannin [37]
and has been found as the major compound of Q.
infectoria galls in this study.The presence of
hydroxyl groups and alpha-beta double bonds in a
phenolic compound (Figure 2) plays an important
role towards the antimicrobial activity [39]
. Those
activities were possibly triggered by the presence of
three hydroxyl groups in the structure which
eventually affects the biosynthesis of cell wall and
cell membrane [40]
. Changes in the permeability of
cell membrane could cause a decrease in cell volume,
thus abnormalities may attribute to cell membrane
alterations [41]
.
Figure 2: Chemical structure of pyrogallol (1, 2, 3 – Benzenetriol) [38]
.
However, the use of tannins or pure bioactive
compounds in elucidating maximum antimicrobial
activity is doubtful because it has been found that
whole herbal extracts are more effective than isolated
Phytochemicals due to a synergistic effect among the
phytochemical components [42]
.
In conclusion, extracts of Q. infectoria galls hold
antimicrobial potential, which might be further
explored in the treatment and control of some
bacterial infections. It is intriguing to note that crude
extracts of this medicinal plant showed good
antimicrobial activity against the most commonly
isolated species in UTI. Further studies are needed to
develop a standardized Q. infectoria gall extract and
to understand its mechanism of antibacterial activity.

7. Nur Saeida Binti Baharuddin, et al / Int. J. of Res. in Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics Vol-3(3) 2014 [184-191]
www.ijrpp.com
~ 190~
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was financially funded by Short Term
Internal Grant, Universiti Sains Malaysia
(304/PPSK/61312061). We would like to thank Siti
Kurunisa Mohd Hanafiah and Wan Razlin Wan
Zaabar from Biomedicine Programme, School of
Health Sciences for their technical assistance.
Authors also would like to thank Prof. Madya
Dr.Kartini Ahmad, the Head Department of Chemical
Sciences, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak
for providing technical support in GC-MS analysis.
REFERENCES
[1] Foxman B. Epidemiology of urinary tract infections: incidence, morbidity, and economic costs. Am J
Med.113, 2002, 5S – 13S.
[2] Reid G, Bruce AW. Urogenital infections in women: can probiotics help?. Postgrad Med J.79, 2003, 428-
432.
[3] Khandaker GM, Zimbron J, Lewis G, Jones PB. Prenatal maternal infection, neurodevelopment and adult
schizophrenia: a systematic review of population-based studies. Physocol Med. 43, 2013, 239-257.
[4] Valiquette L. Urinary tract infections in woman. Can J Urol. 8, 2001, 6-12.
[5] Shmuely H, Ofek I, Weiss EI, Rones Z, Houri-Haddad Y. Cranberry components for the therapy of
infectious disease. CurrOpin Biotech. 23, 2012, 148-152.
[6] Dubey NK. Global promotion of herbal medicine: India’s opportunity. Curr Sci. 86, 2004, 37-41.
[7] Satirapathkul C,Leela T. Growth inhibition of pathogenic bacteria by extract ofQuercus infectoria Galls. Int
J BiosciBiochemBioinforma. 1, 2011, 26-31.
[8] Samuelsson G. Drugs of natural origin. Stockholm, Sweden: Swedish Pharmaceuticals Press, 1999.
[9] Digrak M, Alma MH, Ilcim A, Sen S. Antibacterial and antifungal effects of various commercial plant
extracts. Pharm Biol. 37, 1999, 216-220.
[10]Fatima S, Farooqi AHA, Kumar R, Kumar TRS,Khanuja SPS. Antibacterial activity possessed by
medicinal plants used in tooth powders. J Med Aroma Plant Sci. 22, 2001,187-189.
[11]Ikram M, Nowshad F. Constituents of Quercus infectoria. Planta Med. 31, 1977, 86-87.
[12]Basri DF, Tan LY, Zaleha S, Noraziah MZ. In vitro antibacterial activity of Q. infectoria olivier against
oral pathogens. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2012, 2011, 1-6.
[13]Charles DFP. Materiamedica and therapeutics-vegetable kingdoms. New York: William Wood and
Company, 1879.
[14]Wiart C, Kumar A. Practical handbook of pharmacognosy. Malaysia: Pearson Education Malaysia SdnBhd,
2001.
[15]Vermani A, Navneet, Prabhat. (2009). Screening of Quercus infectoria gall extracts as anti-bacterial agents
against dental pathogens. Indian J Dent Res. 20, 2009, 337-339.
[16]Cowman MM. Plant products as antimicrobial agents. ClinMicrobiol Rev. 12, 1999,564-82.
[17]Basri DF, Fan SH. The potential of aqueous and acetone extracts of galls of Quercus infectoria as
antibacterial agents. Indian J Pharmacol. 37, 2005, 26-29.
[18]Ansari AM, Haque MR, Kalam N. Standardization and contamination studies on nutgalls of Quercus
Infectoria olivier. Int Res J Pharm. 3, 2012, 149-152.
[19]Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute. Reference method for broth dilution antifungal susceptibility
testing of yeast. Approved standard. CLSI document M27-A3. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute,
Wayne; Pennsylvania USA, 2012.
[20]Manjamalai A, Sardar R, Singh S, Guruvayoorappan C, Grace VMB. Analysis of phytochemical
constituents and anti-microbial activity of some medicinal plants in Tamil Naidu, India. Global J Biotech
Biochem. 5, 2010, 120-128.
[21]Harborne JB. (1998). Phytochemical methods: a guide to modern techniques of plant analysis. 3rd Edition,
Chapman and Hall, London, 1998, p. 302.

8. Nur Saeida Binti Baharuddin, et al / Int. J. of Res. in Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics Vol-3(3) 2014 [184-191]
www.ijrpp.com
~ 191~
[22]Rishton GM. Natural Products as a Robust Source of New Drugs and Drug leads: Past Successes and
Present Day Issues. Am J Cardiol. 101, 2008, 43-39.
[23]Harvey AL. Natural products in drug discovery. Drug Discov Today. 13, 2008, 894-901.
[24]Parekh J, Chanda S. Antibacterial and phytochemical studies on twelve species of Indian medicinal plants.
Afr J Biomed Res. 10, 2007, 175-181.
[25]Chusri S, Voravuthikunchai SP. Quercus infectoria: A candidate for the control of methicilin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus infections. Phytother Res. 22, 2008, 560-562.
[26]Eloff JN. A sensitive and quick microplate method to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration of
plant extracts for bacteria. Planta Med. 64, 2008, 711-713.
[27]Muskhazli M, Nurhafiza Y, Nor Azwady AA, NorDalilah. Comparative study on the in-vitro antibacterial
efficacy of aqueous and methanolic extracts of Quercus infectoria gall against
Cellulosimicrobiumcellulans. Int J Biol Sci. 8, 2008, 634-638.
[28]Sharma J, Sharma M, Ray P. Detection of TEM and SHV genes in Escherichia coli&Klebsiella
pneumoniae isolates in a tertiary care hospitals from India. Indian J Med Res. 132, 2009, 223-226.
[29]Wagate CG, Mbaria JM, Gakuya DW, Nanying MO, Kareru PG, Mjuguna A, Gitahi N, Macharia JK,
Njonge, FK. Screening of some Kenyan medicinal plants for antibacterial activity. Phytother res. 24, 2010,
150-153.
[30]Yao J, Moellering R. Antibacterial agents. In: Manual of clinical microbiology. ASM Publisher,
Washington DC, 1995.
[31]Pankey GA, Sabbath LD. Clinical revelance of bacteriostatic versus bactericidal mechanism of actions in
the treatment of Gram-positive bacterial infections. ClinInfect Dis.38, 2004, 864-870.
[32]French GL.Bactericidal agents in the treatment of MRSA infections-the potential role of daptomycin. J
AntimicrobChemother. 58, 2006, 1107-1117.
[33]Andes D. In vivo pharmacodynamics of antifungal drugs in treatment of Candidiasis. Antimicrob Agents
Chemother. 47, 2003, 1179-1196.
[34]Haslam E. Natural polyphenols (vegetable tannins) as drugs and medicines: possible modes of action.J Nat
Prod. 59, 1996, 205-215.
[35]Gupta K, Chou MY, Howell A, Wobbe C, Graddy R, Stapleton AE. (2013). Cranberry products inhibits
adherence of P-fimbriatedEsherichia coli to primary cultured bladder and vaginal epithelial cells.J
Urol.177, 2013, 2357-2360.
[36]Vasconcelos LCS, Sampaio FC, Sampaio MCC, Pereira MSV, Higino JS, Peixoto MHP. Minimum
inhibitory concentration of adherence of Punicagranatum Linn (pomegranate) gel against S. mutans, S.
mitisand C. albicans. Braz Dent J.17, 2006, 223-337.
[37]Khanbabaee K, van Ree T. Tannins: classification and definition. Nat Prod Rep.18, 2011, 641-649.
[38]Tor ER, Francis TM, Holstege DM, Galey FD. (1996). GC/MS Determination of pyrogallol and gallic acid
in biological matrices as diagnostic indicators of oak exposure. J Agric Food Chem.44, 1996, 1275-12799.
[39]Ultee A, Bennik, MH, Moezelaar R. (2002). The phenolic hydroxyl group of carvacrol is essential for
action against the food-borne pathogen Bacillus cereus. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68, 2002,1561–1568.
[40]Lim SH, DarahI,JainK.Antimicrobial activities of Tannin extracted from RhizophoraApiculata Barks.
JTropFor Sci. 18, 2006, 59-65.
[41]Suraya S, DarahI. SEM and TEM studies of the structural modifications of Candida albicans cells after
treatment with extract from CuculigolatifoliaDryand. Proceeding of the Fourth Regional IMT-GT UNINET
Conference. Penang, Malaysia, 2002.
[42]Ismail Z. Standardisation of herbal products: A case study. In a two and half day course of herbal and
phytochemical processing, CEPP short course notes. Chemical Engineering Pilot Plant, UTM Skudai, 2003