PLUS: THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS
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We selected a six step decision making process that synthesized the decision making models
used in existing training, not just ethics training.
The model is descriptive of how people intuitively make decisions and makes the steps
explicit.
The six steps of this natural, intuitive decision-making process are:
• Step 1:
Define the problem (#1)
• Step 2:
Identify available alternative solutions to the problem (#2)
• Step 3:
Evaluate the identified alternatives (#3)
• Step 4:
Make the decision (#4)
• Step 5:
Implement the decision (#5)
• Step 6:
Evaluate the decision (#6)
Step 1: Define the problem
The most significant step in any decision making process is describing why a decision is called for and identifying the
most desired outcome(s) of the decision making process.
One way of deciding if a problem exists is to couch the problem in terms of what one wanted or expected and the actual
situation. In this way a problem is defined as the difference between expected and/or desired outcomes and actual
outcomes.
This careful attention to definition in terms of outcomes allows one to clearly state the problem. This is a critical
consideration because how one defines a problem determines how one defines causes and where one searches for
solutions.
The limiting aspect of the problem definition step is not widely appreciated. Consider this example.
Your company owns an old, downtown office building. Tenants are complaining that their employees are getting angry
and frustrated because there is always a long delay getting an elevator to the lobby at rush hour.
You are asked for a reaction on how to solve this problem. As with most problem situations there are several ways to
define the situation and several solutions that suggest themselves.
This scenario has been presented to over 200 groups in a training environment. The most common alternatives these
groups offered were:
• Flexible hours- so all the tenants' employees wouldn't be at the elevators at the same time.
• Faster elevators - so each elevator could carry more people in a given time period.
• Bigger elevators - so each elevator could carry more people per trip.
• Elevator banks- so each elevator would only stop on certain floors, increasing efficiency.
• Better elevator controls - so each eltor would be used more efficiently.
• More elevators - so that overall carrying capacity could be increased.
• Improved elevator maintenance - so each elevator would be more efficient.
• Encourage employees to use the stairs - so fewer people would use the elevators.
PLUS: The Decision Making Process | Ethics Resource Center
If you examine each alternative you will see that several different definitions of the problem must have existed.
• If the solution is "flexible hours" the problem must have been defined as, "Too many people getting off work at a
given ti.
Seven Steps to Ethical Decision Making– Step 1 Define the p.docxedgar6wallace88877
Seven Steps to Ethical Decision Making
– Step 1: Define the problem (consult PLUS filters)
– Step 2: Seek out relevant assistance, guidance and support
– Step 3: Identify alternatives
– Step 4: Evaluate the alternatives (consult PLUS filters)
– Step 5: Make the decision
– Step 6: Implement the decision
– Step 7: Evaluate the decision (consult PLUS filters)
Introduction
Organizations struggle to develop a simple set of guidelines that makes it easier for
individual employees, regardless of position or level, to be confident that his/her
decisions meet all of the competing standards for effective and ethical decision-making
used by the organization. Such a model must take into account two realities:
Every employee is called upon to make decisions in the normal course of doing
his/her job. Organizations cannot function effectively if employees are not
empowered to make decisions consistent with their positions and responsibilities.
For the decision maker to be confident in the decision’s soundness, every
decision should be tested against the organization’s policies and values,
applicable laws and regulations as well as the individual employee’s definition of
Membership Knowledge Center Resources Training & Certification
Services Events About ECI !
SIGN IN
This website uses cookies and
third party services. Settings "
OK
11/10/19, 10:28 PM
Page 1 of 9
what is right, fair, good and acceptable.
The decision making process described below has been carefully constructed to be:
Fundamentally sound based on current theories and understandings of both
decision-making processes and ethics.
Simple and straightforward enough to be easily integrated into every employee’s
thought processes.
Descriptive (detailing how ethical decision are made naturally) rather than
prescriptive (defining unnatural ways of making choices).
Why do organizations need ethical decision making?
See our special edition case study, #RespectAtWork,
to find out.
11/10/19, 10:28 PM
Page 2 of 9
Email
First Name
Last Name
SEE THE CASE STUDY.
Step 1: Define the problem
The most significant step in any decision-making process is to determine why a
decision is called for and identify the desired outcome(s). How you define a problem
shapes your understanding of its causes and where you will search for solutions.
First, explore the difference between what you expect and/or desire and the current
reality. By defining the problem in terms of outcomes, you can clearly state the
problem.
Consider this example: Tenants at an older office building are complaining that their
employees are getting angry and frustrated because there is always a long delay
getting an elevator to the lobby at rush hour. Many possible solutions exist, and all are
predicated on a particular understanding the problem:
11/10/19, 10:28 PM
Page 3 of 9
Flexible hours – so all the tenants’ employees are not at the elevators at the
same time.
Faster elevators – so each elevator can carry more peopl.
Decision Making
Essay on Decision Making Strategies
Decision Making Thesis
Essay on Decision Making
Decision Framing
Decision-Making Essay
Decision Making Models Essay example
Essay on Decision Making
Business opportunities of moderate to even light complexity often expose decision makers to hundreds, if not tens of thousands, of coordinated decision options that should be considered thoughtfully before making resource commitments. That complexity is just overwhelming! Unfortunately, the typical response is either analysis paralysis or "shooting from the hip," both of which expose decision makers to unnecessary loss of value and risk. This tutorial teaches decision makers how to tame option complexity to develop creative, valuable decision strategies that range from "mild to wild" with three simple thinking tools.
Written Case Analysis ModelStep 1. Problem Identification. The f.docxericbrooks84875
Written Case Analysis Model
Step 1. Problem Identification. The first step in your written analysis is to explicitly identify the major problem(s) in the case in one or two clear and precise sentences. For example, "The major problem in this case is a 15 percent increase in employee turnover compared to last year's rate." Herbert Simon, who received a Nobel Prize for his work on management decision making, has defined a problem as "a deviation from a standard." In other words, one way to identify a problem is to compare some desired state or objective with the actual situation. A problem or series of problems may prevent the organization from reaching its objectives or goals. A key point here is that in order to define a problem, there must be some type of standard for comparison. Possible standards include the organization's stated objectives or goals, objectives or goals of competing organizations, or standards based on normative prescriptions from human resource management theory.
It is important to remember that problems reside in the present. The problem is here and now!
Step 2. Identify the Causes of the Problem. Before proposing alternative solutions, the decision maker must have a clear understanding of the underlying causes of the problem. HRM problems are usually embedded in a larger context. This means the decision maker must examine internal and external environmental factors over time to isolate causal factors. Causes of problems tend to be historical in nature. To formulate a solid understanding of the specific causes, you should search for root causes and use relevant course concepts and theories to better define them. The "question syndrome" approach may be beneficial here: Why did the problem occur? When did it begin? Where does it occur? Where doesn't it occur? What effective HRM practices should the organization be using? What has the organization failed to do? What are the antecedents of the problem? Posing these questions will help you to probe beyond the symptoms to the root causes of the problem.
The process of identifying the causes of a problem is very much like hypothesis testing. You should set forth possible causes and then test them against the facts in the case. In writing this section, it is important to present a plausible discussion of the causes so as to convince the reader that your analysis is correct.
Step 3. Select Criteria. Your decision criteria serve to allow you the opportunity to evaluate each of your alternatives using the same measures. Many of the criteria that you will utilize in making HR decisions are qualitative in nature. There is a short list presented in your packet. In reality, all of these come into play. But importance to any problem will be different, which will require you to prioritize these for each different case. We will prioritize this list and use the most important three for each set of alternatives.
Step 4. Alternative
Solution
s. This step involves developing alternative.
Seven Steps to Ethical Decision Making– Step 1 Define the p.docxedgar6wallace88877
Seven Steps to Ethical Decision Making
– Step 1: Define the problem (consult PLUS filters)
– Step 2: Seek out relevant assistance, guidance and support
– Step 3: Identify alternatives
– Step 4: Evaluate the alternatives (consult PLUS filters)
– Step 5: Make the decision
– Step 6: Implement the decision
– Step 7: Evaluate the decision (consult PLUS filters)
Introduction
Organizations struggle to develop a simple set of guidelines that makes it easier for
individual employees, regardless of position or level, to be confident that his/her
decisions meet all of the competing standards for effective and ethical decision-making
used by the organization. Such a model must take into account two realities:
Every employee is called upon to make decisions in the normal course of doing
his/her job. Organizations cannot function effectively if employees are not
empowered to make decisions consistent with their positions and responsibilities.
For the decision maker to be confident in the decision’s soundness, every
decision should be tested against the organization’s policies and values,
applicable laws and regulations as well as the individual employee’s definition of
Membership Knowledge Center Resources Training & Certification
Services Events About ECI !
SIGN IN
This website uses cookies and
third party services. Settings "
OK
11/10/19, 10:28 PM
Page 1 of 9
what is right, fair, good and acceptable.
The decision making process described below has been carefully constructed to be:
Fundamentally sound based on current theories and understandings of both
decision-making processes and ethics.
Simple and straightforward enough to be easily integrated into every employee’s
thought processes.
Descriptive (detailing how ethical decision are made naturally) rather than
prescriptive (defining unnatural ways of making choices).
Why do organizations need ethical decision making?
See our special edition case study, #RespectAtWork,
to find out.
11/10/19, 10:28 PM
Page 2 of 9
Email
First Name
Last Name
SEE THE CASE STUDY.
Step 1: Define the problem
The most significant step in any decision-making process is to determine why a
decision is called for and identify the desired outcome(s). How you define a problem
shapes your understanding of its causes and where you will search for solutions.
First, explore the difference between what you expect and/or desire and the current
reality. By defining the problem in terms of outcomes, you can clearly state the
problem.
Consider this example: Tenants at an older office building are complaining that their
employees are getting angry and frustrated because there is always a long delay
getting an elevator to the lobby at rush hour. Many possible solutions exist, and all are
predicated on a particular understanding the problem:
11/10/19, 10:28 PM
Page 3 of 9
Flexible hours – so all the tenants’ employees are not at the elevators at the
same time.
Faster elevators – so each elevator can carry more peopl.
Decision Making
Essay on Decision Making Strategies
Decision Making Thesis
Essay on Decision Making
Decision Framing
Decision-Making Essay
Decision Making Models Essay example
Essay on Decision Making
Business opportunities of moderate to even light complexity often expose decision makers to hundreds, if not tens of thousands, of coordinated decision options that should be considered thoughtfully before making resource commitments. That complexity is just overwhelming! Unfortunately, the typical response is either analysis paralysis or "shooting from the hip," both of which expose decision makers to unnecessary loss of value and risk. This tutorial teaches decision makers how to tame option complexity to develop creative, valuable decision strategies that range from "mild to wild" with three simple thinking tools.
Written Case Analysis ModelStep 1. Problem Identification. The f.docxericbrooks84875
Written Case Analysis Model
Step 1. Problem Identification. The first step in your written analysis is to explicitly identify the major problem(s) in the case in one or two clear and precise sentences. For example, "The major problem in this case is a 15 percent increase in employee turnover compared to last year's rate." Herbert Simon, who received a Nobel Prize for his work on management decision making, has defined a problem as "a deviation from a standard." In other words, one way to identify a problem is to compare some desired state or objective with the actual situation. A problem or series of problems may prevent the organization from reaching its objectives or goals. A key point here is that in order to define a problem, there must be some type of standard for comparison. Possible standards include the organization's stated objectives or goals, objectives or goals of competing organizations, or standards based on normative prescriptions from human resource management theory.
It is important to remember that problems reside in the present. The problem is here and now!
Step 2. Identify the Causes of the Problem. Before proposing alternative solutions, the decision maker must have a clear understanding of the underlying causes of the problem. HRM problems are usually embedded in a larger context. This means the decision maker must examine internal and external environmental factors over time to isolate causal factors. Causes of problems tend to be historical in nature. To formulate a solid understanding of the specific causes, you should search for root causes and use relevant course concepts and theories to better define them. The "question syndrome" approach may be beneficial here: Why did the problem occur? When did it begin? Where does it occur? Where doesn't it occur? What effective HRM practices should the organization be using? What has the organization failed to do? What are the antecedents of the problem? Posing these questions will help you to probe beyond the symptoms to the root causes of the problem.
The process of identifying the causes of a problem is very much like hypothesis testing. You should set forth possible causes and then test them against the facts in the case. In writing this section, it is important to present a plausible discussion of the causes so as to convince the reader that your analysis is correct.
Step 3. Select Criteria. Your decision criteria serve to allow you the opportunity to evaluate each of your alternatives using the same measures. Many of the criteria that you will utilize in making HR decisions are qualitative in nature. There is a short list presented in your packet. In reality, all of these come into play. But importance to any problem will be different, which will require you to prioritize these for each different case. We will prioritize this list and use the most important three for each set of alternatives.
Step 4. Alternative
Solution
s. This step involves developing alternative.
Building and sustaining ethical nonprofits toolkit (handout 1 of 1)Greenlights
Tom Sechrest, Ph.D., Program Director, Master of Science in Organizational Leadership and Ethics and Associate Dean, School of Management and Business, St. Edward's University and Ann Hume Wilson, Executive Director, Conspirare
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Making Difficult Decisions
Essay on Decision Making
Making Smart Decisions
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Decision Framing
Discussion QuestionWilliam Ford Jr., Chairman of Ford Motor C.docxedgar6wallace88877
Discussion Question:
William Ford Jr., Chairman of Ford Motor Co. said, "A good company delivers excellent products and services, and a great company does all that and strives to make the world a better place."
Supported by evidence from your textbook, the Starbucks case study, and other research, describes two forces that you believe shape the relationship between business and society. Provide two examples, one for each force you select. Be specific in your answer and discuss strengths and weaknesses via examples and applications. Be certain to cite in APA format all sources used. Respond to at least two of your classmates’ discussion posts.
MBA 525 - Module 4 AVP - Decision Making and Ethics
Slide 1
Title slide
Slide content:
MBA 525 Module 4
Slide 2
Slide title:
Decision Making and Ethics
Narrator:
In this presentation, we will discuss the decision making process and how it is informed by ethics. We will
highlight common errors in decision making, rationality, and ethical decision making.
Slide 3
Slide title:
Decision-Making Steps
Slide content:
• Define the task
• Delegate tasks
• Seek out information and determine its accuracy
• Establish criteria for evaluating specific courses of action
• Discover and evaluate alternative options
• Prepare and present the group’s choice persuasively to the target audience
Narrator:
There are six steps in the decision making process.
First, define the task.
Second, delegate tasks.
Third, seek out information and determine its accuracy.
Fourth, establish criteria for evaluating specific courses of action.
Fifth, discover and evaluate alternative options.
And lastly, prepare and present the group’s choice persuasively to the target audience.
Slide 4
Slide title:
Errors of Poor Decision Making
Slide content:
• Improper assessment of the situation
• The establishment of inappropriate goals and objectives
• Improper assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of various alternatives
• The establishment of a flawed information base
Narrator:
The most common errors in this process include:
Improper assessment of the situation,
The establishment of inappropriate goals and objectives,
Improper assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of various alternatives, and,
The establishment of a flawed information base.
Consider the last decision you made that was faulty. Reflect on which error in decision making was
present. We are all guilty of making the “wrong” decision at some point due to errors in judgment.
Slide 5
Slide title:
Steps of Rational Decision Making
Slide content:
• Recognize the problem
• Discuss the problem with all relevant persons
• Decide on alternative courses of action
• Choose an optimal solution and implement it
• Monitor the impact of the solution
Narrator:
The steps to rational decision making vary a bit from the general model. There are only five, not six steps.
First, recognize the problem. This is a different starting point. It is important to first understand the
problem.
Next, disc.
Essay on Emotions And Decision Making
The Process of Decision Making Essay
Decision Making
Decision-Making Model Analysis Essay example
Decision-Making Essay
Decision Making Models Essay example
Rational Decision Making Model Essay
Critical Thinking and Decision Making Essay
Essay on Business Decision Making
The Seven Step Model Of A Decision Making Model
Decision Making : An Evaluation
Essay on Decision Making
Biases in Decision Making
Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Essay
Essay on Decision Making
Clinical Decision Making Essay
Ethical Decision Making Essay
Reflective Essay On Decision Making
Nursing Decision-Making Essay
Evidence Based Decision Making Essay
Business Ethics Rubric—Mid-term Case StudyI will be looking fo.docxRAHUL126667
Business Ethics Rubric—Mid-term Case Study
I will be looking for the following items in your Case Study Analysis.
Case studies that can be used: Lifeboat, Thinking Critically 1.2, Thinking Critically 1.1, Thinking Critically 2.1, Thinking Critically 2.2, Thinking Critically 2.3, Thinking Critically 3.2 and Thinking Critically 3.3
I. Developing a Practical Ethical Viewpoint (Have you clearly picked and stated an Ethical Viewpoint) (You need to choose one for each case study)
A. Utilitarianism
B. Universal Ethics
C. Ethical Relativism
D. Virtue Ethics
II. To help you choose the ethical theory do the following (By looking at the moral situations):
A. Interpret what is right and wrong according to each of the four theories
B. Give an argument that each theory might provide
C. State your own assessment of the strengths of each theory
D. State the weakness of each theory
III. Step 1: Analyze the Consequences.
Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be harmed? What kind of benefits and harm are we talking about? Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be harmed?
Step 2: Analyze the actions
Consider all the options from a different perspective, without thinking about the consequences. How do the actions measure up against moral principles like honesty, fairness, equality, respecting the dignity of others, and people’s rights? (Consider the common good.) Are any of the actions at odds with those standards? If there’s a conflict between principles or between the rights of different people involved, is there a way to see one principle as more important than the others? Which option offers actions that are least problematic?
Step 3: Make a decision
Make a decision. Take both parts of your analysis into account, and make a decision. This strategy at least gives you some basic steps you can follow.
1. What are the facts? Know the facts as best you can. If your facts are wrong, you’re liable to make a bad choice.
2. 2. What can you guess about the facts you don’t know? Since it is impossible to know all the facts, make reasonable assumptions about the missing pieces of information.
3. 3. What do the facts mean? Facts by themselves have no meaning. You need to interpret the information in light of the values that are important to you.
4. 4. What does the problem look like through the eyes of the people involved? The ability to walk in another’s shoes is essential. Understanding the problem through a variety of perspectives increases the possibility that you will choose wisely.
5. 5. What will happen if you choose one thing rather than another? All actions have consequences. Make a reasonable guess as to what will happen if you follow a particular course of action. Decide whether you think more good or harm will come of your action.
6. 6. What do your feelings tell you? Feelings are facts too. Your feelings about ethical issues may give you a clue as to parts of your decision that your rational mind may overlook.
7. 7. What will you ...
Policy Research PaperResearch and write a 5 page academic .docxLeilaniPoolsy
Policy Research Paper
Research and write a 5 page academic research paper on one of the following policy related topics. Your research paper should fully address your chosen topic and be suitable for use as a policy brief distributed to an executive audience whose members are meeting to discuss IT Governance issues and policy needs within their respective organizations.
Your paper must present a summary of your research, discuss the applicability to IT governance, present a discussion of five or more policy issues related to the topic, and provide compelling reasons as to why busy executives should become more informed about these issues.
Your summary for the paper must address the question: How can this information be used to improve policy implementation? The summary should include five or more recommendations which you developed from your research.Preapproved Topics
· Assessment and Authorization Requirements for IT Systems
· Audit Requirements for Finance Systems (Sarbanes-Oxley, GLBA Compliance)
· Change Management (Configuration Control) for information systems and infrastructures.
· Implementing the NIST Risk Management Framework
· Information Security Metrics and Measurements (Audits and/or Governance)
· Information Sharing for Threats, Warnings, and Indicators (legal ramifications)
· Mobile Application Security
· Product Liability for Cybersecurity Products and Services
Requirements:
1. Your paper must be based upon 5 or more authoritative sources obtained from peer reviewed journals, published dissertations and theses, reports from public policy research organizations (e.g. Brookings, CSIS, PEW, etc.) or published government documents (not including Web pages). These authoritative sources must have been published within the last ten years.
2. You must submit your paper to Turn It In for originality checking. You must ensure that you have properly paraphrased and cited information obtained from your authoritative sources. Do not construct your paper by gluing together quotations.
3. Your paper must meet the APA formatting requirements as shown in the sample papers provided in the LEO classroom.
.
POL 101 – Political Science Portfolio Projec.docxLeilaniPoolsy
POL
101
–
Political
Science
Portfolio
Project
Portfolio
Project:
Country
Selection
&
The
Political
Environment
By
now
you
should
have
decided
on
a
country
for
your
Portfolio
Project.
Indicate
your
choice
in
the
Discussion
forum
called
“Country
Reports”.
As
you
read
the
material
in
this
week’s
module,
can
you
identify
any
philosophers
who
might
have
influenced
the
political
environment
in
your
country?
Include
this
information
in
your
Portfolio
Project.
The
underdeveloped
country
that
i
have
chosen
for
my
portfolio
project
is
Cambodia.
I
have
always
wanted
to
go
to
Cambodia
however
I
know
very
little
about
it.
Recently
I
came
across
this
documentary
that
covers
the
bombing
of
Cambodia
during
the
Vietnam
War
by
President
Nixon
and
Mr.
Kissinger.
http://vimeo.com/17634265
Cambodia
has
a
list
of
troubling
issues
such
as
human
rights,
prostitution,
child
prostitution,
human
trafficking,
corupt
government,
and
illegal
stripping
of
the
countries
natural
resources.
I
will
be
covering
these
issues
and
many
more
in
my
report.
http://vimeo.com/properniceinnit/cambodia
http://vimeo.com/thepinkroom/trailer
http://youtu.be/Ko7pggrFq4U
Portfolio
Project:
Supporting
Media
In
Week
2,
you
decided
on
a
country
for
your
Portfolio
Project.
Now,
in
Week
3,
find
a
film
or
URL
of
a
website
about
your
country
which
you
will
review
in
Week
4.
Paste
the
URL
or
film
title
in
the
Week
3
Discussion
forum
called
Supporting
Media.
As
you
read
the
material
in
this
week’s
module,
can
you
identify
any
philosophers
who
might
have
influenced
the
political
environment
in
your
country?
Include
this
information
in
your
Portfolio
Project.
The
official
tourism
site
of
Cambodia
is
found
at:
http://www.tourismcambodia.com
I
will
be
using
this
site
and
others
as
my
source
of
information
for
my
project.
chris
Callout
Entire Portfolio Project is Due
26 March 2014.
chris
Text Box
RED = MY RESPONSES TO INSTRUCTOR
By
now
you
should
be
examining
the
type
of
political
system
in
operation
in
your
selected
country.
As
part
of
your .
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William Ford Jr., Chairman of Ford Motor Co. said, "A good company delivers excellent products and services, and a great company does all that and strives to make the world a better place."
Supported by evidence from your textbook, the Starbucks case study, and other research, describes two forces that you believe shape the relationship between business and society. Provide two examples, one for each force you select. Be specific in your answer and discuss strengths and weaknesses via examples and applications. Be certain to cite in APA format all sources used. Respond to at least two of your classmates’ discussion posts.
MBA 525 - Module 4 AVP - Decision Making and Ethics
Slide 1
Title slide
Slide content:
MBA 525 Module 4
Slide 2
Slide title:
Decision Making and Ethics
Narrator:
In this presentation, we will discuss the decision making process and how it is informed by ethics. We will
highlight common errors in decision making, rationality, and ethical decision making.
Slide 3
Slide title:
Decision-Making Steps
Slide content:
• Define the task
• Delegate tasks
• Seek out information and determine its accuracy
• Establish criteria for evaluating specific courses of action
• Discover and evaluate alternative options
• Prepare and present the group’s choice persuasively to the target audience
Narrator:
There are six steps in the decision making process.
First, define the task.
Second, delegate tasks.
Third, seek out information and determine its accuracy.
Fourth, establish criteria for evaluating specific courses of action.
Fifth, discover and evaluate alternative options.
And lastly, prepare and present the group’s choice persuasively to the target audience.
Slide 4
Slide title:
Errors of Poor Decision Making
Slide content:
• Improper assessment of the situation
• The establishment of inappropriate goals and objectives
• Improper assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of various alternatives
• The establishment of a flawed information base
Narrator:
The most common errors in this process include:
Improper assessment of the situation,
The establishment of inappropriate goals and objectives,
Improper assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of various alternatives, and,
The establishment of a flawed information base.
Consider the last decision you made that was faulty. Reflect on which error in decision making was
present. We are all guilty of making the “wrong” decision at some point due to errors in judgment.
Slide 5
Slide title:
Steps of Rational Decision Making
Slide content:
• Recognize the problem
• Discuss the problem with all relevant persons
• Decide on alternative courses of action
• Choose an optimal solution and implement it
• Monitor the impact of the solution
Narrator:
The steps to rational decision making vary a bit from the general model. There are only five, not six steps.
First, recognize the problem. This is a different starting point. It is important to first understand the
problem.
Next, disc.
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The Seven Step Model Of A Decision Making Model
Decision Making : An Evaluation
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Clinical Decision Making Essay
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Evidence Based Decision Making Essay
Business Ethics Rubric—Mid-term Case StudyI will be looking fo.docxRAHUL126667
Business Ethics Rubric—Mid-term Case Study
I will be looking for the following items in your Case Study Analysis.
Case studies that can be used: Lifeboat, Thinking Critically 1.2, Thinking Critically 1.1, Thinking Critically 2.1, Thinking Critically 2.2, Thinking Critically 2.3, Thinking Critically 3.2 and Thinking Critically 3.3
I. Developing a Practical Ethical Viewpoint (Have you clearly picked and stated an Ethical Viewpoint) (You need to choose one for each case study)
A. Utilitarianism
B. Universal Ethics
C. Ethical Relativism
D. Virtue Ethics
II. To help you choose the ethical theory do the following (By looking at the moral situations):
A. Interpret what is right and wrong according to each of the four theories
B. Give an argument that each theory might provide
C. State your own assessment of the strengths of each theory
D. State the weakness of each theory
III. Step 1: Analyze the Consequences.
Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be harmed? What kind of benefits and harm are we talking about? Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be harmed?
Step 2: Analyze the actions
Consider all the options from a different perspective, without thinking about the consequences. How do the actions measure up against moral principles like honesty, fairness, equality, respecting the dignity of others, and people’s rights? (Consider the common good.) Are any of the actions at odds with those standards? If there’s a conflict between principles or between the rights of different people involved, is there a way to see one principle as more important than the others? Which option offers actions that are least problematic?
Step 3: Make a decision
Make a decision. Take both parts of your analysis into account, and make a decision. This strategy at least gives you some basic steps you can follow.
1. What are the facts? Know the facts as best you can. If your facts are wrong, you’re liable to make a bad choice.
2. 2. What can you guess about the facts you don’t know? Since it is impossible to know all the facts, make reasonable assumptions about the missing pieces of information.
3. 3. What do the facts mean? Facts by themselves have no meaning. You need to interpret the information in light of the values that are important to you.
4. 4. What does the problem look like through the eyes of the people involved? The ability to walk in another’s shoes is essential. Understanding the problem through a variety of perspectives increases the possibility that you will choose wisely.
5. 5. What will happen if you choose one thing rather than another? All actions have consequences. Make a reasonable guess as to what will happen if you follow a particular course of action. Decide whether you think more good or harm will come of your action.
6. 6. What do your feelings tell you? Feelings are facts too. Your feelings about ethical issues may give you a clue as to parts of your decision that your rational mind may overlook.
7. 7. What will you ...
Policy Research PaperResearch and write a 5 page academic .docxLeilaniPoolsy
Policy Research Paper
Research and write a 5 page academic research paper on one of the following policy related topics. Your research paper should fully address your chosen topic and be suitable for use as a policy brief distributed to an executive audience whose members are meeting to discuss IT Governance issues and policy needs within their respective organizations.
Your paper must present a summary of your research, discuss the applicability to IT governance, present a discussion of five or more policy issues related to the topic, and provide compelling reasons as to why busy executives should become more informed about these issues.
Your summary for the paper must address the question: How can this information be used to improve policy implementation? The summary should include five or more recommendations which you developed from your research.Preapproved Topics
· Assessment and Authorization Requirements for IT Systems
· Audit Requirements for Finance Systems (Sarbanes-Oxley, GLBA Compliance)
· Change Management (Configuration Control) for information systems and infrastructures.
· Implementing the NIST Risk Management Framework
· Information Security Metrics and Measurements (Audits and/or Governance)
· Information Sharing for Threats, Warnings, and Indicators (legal ramifications)
· Mobile Application Security
· Product Liability for Cybersecurity Products and Services
Requirements:
1. Your paper must be based upon 5 or more authoritative sources obtained from peer reviewed journals, published dissertations and theses, reports from public policy research organizations (e.g. Brookings, CSIS, PEW, etc.) or published government documents (not including Web pages). These authoritative sources must have been published within the last ten years.
2. You must submit your paper to Turn It In for originality checking. You must ensure that you have properly paraphrased and cited information obtained from your authoritative sources. Do not construct your paper by gluing together quotations.
3. Your paper must meet the APA formatting requirements as shown in the sample papers provided in the LEO classroom.
.
POL 101 – Political Science Portfolio Projec.docxLeilaniPoolsy
POL
101
–
Political
Science
Portfolio
Project
Portfolio
Project:
Country
Selection
&
The
Political
Environment
By
now
you
should
have
decided
on
a
country
for
your
Portfolio
Project.
Indicate
your
choice
in
the
Discussion
forum
called
“Country
Reports”.
As
you
read
the
material
in
this
week’s
module,
can
you
identify
any
philosophers
who
might
have
influenced
the
political
environment
in
your
country?
Include
this
information
in
your
Portfolio
Project.
The
underdeveloped
country
that
i
have
chosen
for
my
portfolio
project
is
Cambodia.
I
have
always
wanted
to
go
to
Cambodia
however
I
know
very
little
about
it.
Recently
I
came
across
this
documentary
that
covers
the
bombing
of
Cambodia
during
the
Vietnam
War
by
President
Nixon
and
Mr.
Kissinger.
http://vimeo.com/17634265
Cambodia
has
a
list
of
troubling
issues
such
as
human
rights,
prostitution,
child
prostitution,
human
trafficking,
corupt
government,
and
illegal
stripping
of
the
countries
natural
resources.
I
will
be
covering
these
issues
and
many
more
in
my
report.
http://vimeo.com/properniceinnit/cambodia
http://vimeo.com/thepinkroom/trailer
http://youtu.be/Ko7pggrFq4U
Portfolio
Project:
Supporting
Media
In
Week
2,
you
decided
on
a
country
for
your
Portfolio
Project.
Now,
in
Week
3,
find
a
film
or
URL
of
a
website
about
your
country
which
you
will
review
in
Week
4.
Paste
the
URL
or
film
title
in
the
Week
3
Discussion
forum
called
Supporting
Media.
As
you
read
the
material
in
this
week’s
module,
can
you
identify
any
philosophers
who
might
have
influenced
the
political
environment
in
your
country?
Include
this
information
in
your
Portfolio
Project.
The
official
tourism
site
of
Cambodia
is
found
at:
http://www.tourismcambodia.com
I
will
be
using
this
site
and
others
as
my
source
of
information
for
my
project.
chris
Callout
Entire Portfolio Project is Due
26 March 2014.
chris
Text Box
RED = MY RESPONSES TO INSTRUCTOR
By
now
you
should
be
examining
the
type
of
political
system
in
operation
in
your
selected
country.
As
part
of
your .
POL 123 – Case Analysis 5 Fact Patterns Write an analysis for .docxLeilaniPoolsy
POL 123 – Case Analysis 5 Fact Patterns
Write an analysis for each scenario below. See the Case Analysis Instructions for further information about completing the assignment.
1. Jonas is 18 and recently finished high school. He lives at home with his mom and dad. While collecting dirty laundry in his room one day, Jonas’ mother discovered some of Jonas’ clothing with dried blood on them. She also found a bloody survival knife and muddy boots under his bed, as well as a bracelet that said “Lynn.” A few days earlier, police had discovered the missing body of Jonas’ high school sweetheart, Lynn, in the woods. Lynn had recently broken up with him. The medical examiner had determined that Lynn had died from repeated stabbing. When Jonas had been questioned by the police at the station, he claimed he knew nothing of the incident, and the police have no evidence tying Jonas to the disappearance or murder. Analyze these facts using ethical concepts or concerns from Module 8. (You are not evaluating elements of murder, or due process issues for example.)
2. District Attorney Schultz has brought charges against three players of the University football team. They have been charged with raping a stripper at a party attended by team members. The case has received much publicity and the media have discovered that the three players have a history of violence towards women. (Last year, two other women claimed they had been raped, but the cell phone video showing the forced sex had been excluded based on an illegal police search, and the players were found "not guilty.”) Shultz believes these players are guilty, and has given approximately 60 media interviews on the case. Schultz has also been campaigning for reelection, and a conviction here would go a long way. Unfortunately for Schultz, the DNA tests he ran do not match any of the three players to the victim’s assault. When he questioned her about this, the victim made contradictory statements, and she had no other evidence to corroborate the events. In fact, while her statements confirm that they raped her, she admitted to having consensual sex with two other men at the party, which weakens the case. Schultz decides to not tell anyone about the DNA results unless asked, and instructs the victim/witness to deny the other sexual encounters at trial. Analyze these facts using ethical concepts or concerns from Module 8. (You are not evaluating elements of rape or due process issues for example.) Assuming that Schultz had a strong belief that the defendants were guilty, include in your analysis whether this affects the moral and legal permissibility of his conduct.
3. Michelle worked two jobs as a security guard in Phoenix, Arizona. She was walking outside the building where she works at 6:30 AM, Monday, when two bundles of money fell out of an armored truck en route to a bank. Inside the bundles was approximately $500,000. Michelle had an inheritance that would post to her bank account on Wednesday. She .
Polk Company builds custom fishing lures for sporting goods stores.docxLeilaniPoolsy
Polk Company builds custom fishing lures for sporting goods stores. In its first year of operations, 2012, the company incurred the following costs.
Variable Cost per Unit
Direct materials
$7.95
Direct labor
$2.60
Variable manufacturing overhead
$6.10
Variable selling and administrative expenses
$4.13
Fixed Costs per Year
Fixed manufacturing overhead
$249,424
Fixed selling and administrative expenses
$254,506
Polk Company sells the fishing lures for $26.50. During 2012, the company sold 80,300 lures and produced 95,200 lures.
Assuming the company uses variable costing, calculate Polk’s manufacturing cost per unit for 2012. (Round answer to 2 decimal places, e.g.10.50.)
Manufacturing cost per unit
$
Prepare a variable costing income statement for 2012.
POLK COMPANY
Income Statement
For the Year Ended December 31, 2012
Variable Costing
$
$
$
(2)
For Turgo Company, variable costs are 63% of sales, and fixed costs are $179,100. Management’s net income goal is $54,074.
Compute the required sales in dollars needed to achieve management’s target net income of $54,074.
Required sales
$
(3)
For Kozy Company, actual sales are $1,208,000 and break-even sales are $785,200.
Compute the margin of safety in dollars and the margin of safety ratio.
Margin of safety
$
Margin of safety ratio
%
(6)
For the quarter ended March 31, 2012, Maris Company accumulates the following sales data for its product, Garden-Tools: $318,000 budget; $335,300 actual.
Prepare a static budget report for the quarter.
MARIS COMPANY
Sales Budget Report
For the Quarter Ended March 31, 2012
Product Line
Budget
Actual
Difference
Garden-Tools
$
$
$
(7)
Gundy Company expects to produce 1,301,760 units of Product XX in 2012. Monthly production is expected to range from 86,150 to 123,950 units. Budgeted variable manufacturing costs per unit are: direct materials $3, direct labor $8, and overhead $10. Budgeted fixed manufacturing costs per unit for depreciation are $6 and for supervision are $2.
Prepare a flexible manufacturing budget for the relevant range value using 18,900 unit increments. (List variable costs before fixed costs.)
GUNDY COMPANY
Monthly Flexible Manufacturing Budget
For the Year 2012
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
.
Political/Legal Issues - Parth Vyas
I. Overview
A. Issues
1. Political, social, cultural, legal
2. Modern technology
II. The Issues and Their Relationships
A. Political Issues
1. developed countries
2. undeveloped countries
B. International Policies
C. Technology
1. Innovation – development and manufacturing
2. Social and economic development
a. environmental pollution
b. increasing prices
This is the outline……
.
Political corruption is epidemic in Russia today. What e.docxLeilaniPoolsy
Political corruption is epidemic in Russia today. What effect does this have on Russian economy? Compare and contrast bureaus and business firms.
In your opinion, what types of optional benefits have come to be “expected” by employees, and why would it be a good idea for employers to offer them as part of their benefits package?
Compare and contrast the three common types of retirement plans offered by employers, and indicate whether they are contributory or noncontributory plans. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each one to the employee and to the employer?
What benefits are included in Social Security, who may receive benefits, and who pays for Social Security?
.
POLA43Describe the governor’s roles in influencing the budgetary.docxLeilaniPoolsy
POLA43
Describe the governor’s roles in influencing the budgetary process.
· Response should be at least 500 words in length, include an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
· APA Style Format
· Use attached files
· At least one in-text citation from attached files
· Use the following reference when citing from attached files
Dye, T. R., & MacManus, S. A. (2012). Politics in states and communities (14th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
· Any other source material must be referenced
Running head: Abbreviated title (<50 characters) 1
Abbreviated title (<50 characters) 3
Title of paper
Author name
Institution
Instructions
This document serves two purposes. Firstly, it is a template for the Method section. If you use this document to create your Method section without changing the formatting or deleting section headers, you should have a correctly formatted Method section. You will obviously need to replace much of the text here with your own writing, but leave the section headers untouched and follow the directions and you should be good to go.
Secondly, the text within the body of this document offers advice and suggestions on what to write within each section. They are intended to help you make sure that the appropriate material appears in the appropriate sections. This is text that must be replaced by your own writing, but you should find it helpful.
A final bit of advice: the Method section is like a recipe’s instructions. A recipe lists the ingredients needed very precisely and comments on possible variations (if one is at high altitudes, cooking time may be longer, etc). Similarly, the Participants, Materials, Measures, and Ethical Considerations sections list the ingredients and important issues for the research study very precisely. A recipe will also give the step-by-step process of how to create the dish, just as the Procedure gives step-by-step instructions on how to do the research.
This instruction page should be deleted entirely.
Method
Participants
Begin this section by talking about the population of people that will be needed for this study. Indicate anything necessary to permit the reader to know what sort of person is needed: do they have a disorder? Does it have a specific severity or range of severities? Is there an age range? Are factors such as gender, race, first language or others important or controlled?
Will there be any screening done, such as a questionnaire or a performance test? Will the results of these determine whether a potential participant is eligible to take part? Will these results determine which level of the predictor variable that the participant falls into? For example, if the person has an autism spectrum disorder, an assessment might be made to determine the severity of the disorder in order to classify them as mild, moderate, or severe for the purposes of the research study.
How will the participants be recruited? One can’t simply say: “They will be r.
POL 201 Week 5 DQ 2PreparePrior to beginning your reflection,.docxLeilaniPoolsy
POL 201 Week 5 DQ 2
Prepare:Prior to beginning your reflection, review all course readings and videos as required.
Reflect:The U.S. national government is based on the framework detailed in the U.S. Constitution. The process that the Founding Fathers used to map out our national government is fascinating and illuminating. The Constitution creates a system of checks and balances and separation of powers that have been focal points for class discussions. In addition, the Constitution identifies three main branches for the national government: the legislative, executive, and judicial, which are tasked, respectively, with the creation of the legislation to guide the country, the implementation and execution of that legislation, and the review of that legislation for constitutionality and legality. Interacting with the federal government includes a variety of different actors and political processes such as the states, political parties, interest groups, and federal elections. All these features create a vibrant and healthy democracy.
Write: In your initial post of at least 200 to 250 words, explain how and why one feature of the U.S. government is the most important for America’s democracy. Choose one feature below to discuss in detail:
· Written, detailed, flexible Constitution.
· Robust checks and balances.
· Explicit separation of powers.
· Expansive interaction by different political actors and processes with the federal government.
Use real-world examples and details to support your arguments. Support your position with APA citations from two or more of the assigned resources required for this discussion. Please be sure that you demonstrate understanding of these resources, integrate them into your argument, and cite them properly.
Surname: 1
Student’s name:
Lecturer’s name:
Course:
Date:
Stanley my role model
The secret to a healthy life is the feeling of love and peace. Affiliations in our everyday lives play a very crucial role. They serve to satisfy our social needs of being associated with other people and our needs of love. Sages put it that "Blood is thicker than water". A person's relatives serve a great role in their life. These are the people who never leave us in our ups and downs. They indeed are good friends through whom we are bonded by blood.
Stanley is a great friend and a brother to me. He is a person of sound character who quickly mingles with anyone in the society. He is down to earth in making and a composed young lad who does not rush to drawing conclusions when challenged by daily circumstances. His charisma culminated with his education moves all and sundry in subscribing to his viewpoints. Whenever there is need for imparting a young mind with information he does so without hesitance. He is a great source of inspiration and motivation. Stanley's character is worthy emulating. I dearly love and admire him.
Back at home, Stanley is highly appreciated by our parents in his undertakings. He is very generous and ne.
POL110 Week 10 Scenario Script Domestic, Foreign and Military Pol.docxLeilaniPoolsy
POL110 Week 10 Scenario Script: Domestic, Foreign and Military Policy
Slide #
Scene/Interaction
Narration
Slide 1
Introductory screen, containing the environment (an outside view of a government office building) and a title showing the scenario topic. There will be a “begin” button on the screen allowing students to begin the scenario.
Slide 2
Scene 1
Amanda and Dr. Ryan standing in Dr. Ryan’s office.
Dr. Ryan: Hello. It’s good to see you again.
Last week we saw how the bureaucracy and the judiciary functioned within the federal government. This week, we’ll assess how domestic, foreign, and military policies are integrated.
What do you think about these policies, Amanda?
Amanda: This is an immensely broad set of subjects, Dr. Ryan, so I hope I can do them justice.
Dr. Ryan: Well, Amanda, go ahead and give it your best shot.
Amanda: Okay, here I go.
I think we could begin by defining institutions as systems that help form a government and make it function. They include the armed forces, the church, the executive office, the bureaucracy, the judiciary, the voting public, the economy, and the political process itself. If institutions are strong and respond to public’s will, then the government will function smoothly.
But they could also be extractive. This is when they are used by elites to extract resources for their own benefit. Extractive institutions cause the state to be weak.
Slide 3
Interaction Slide
This will be a tabbed interaction that outlines ways of changing Social Security policies in the U.S.
Social Security could:
· Raise the retirement age
· Reduce benefits for high earners
· Raise taxes
· Increase wage cap
· Individual Investments
Button 1: There are several ways that the government could ensure that Social Security continues to support retirees in the U.S. The first way would be to raise retirement age until 70 years old, so that the long-term funding gap would close.
Button 2: The government could also reduce benefits for high earners, by cutting their monthly funds by about ten percent.
Button 3: Taxes could be raised from twelve-point-four percent to thirteen-point-four percent, so as to cover the ever-increasing cost of social security.
Button 4: Increasing the wage cap would mean that workers would pay Social Security taxes on a greater amount of what they earn.
Button 5: Finally, the government could let individuals invest some or all of their Social Security funds into approved, safe mutual funds.
Slide 4
Scene 2
Amanda and Dr. Ryan do a visual tour of a museum or historical exhibit in Capitol Hill that showcases the material that is covered. This is sort of a visual tour of Washington D.C. as well as a visual component to the conversation.
Dr. Ryan: Institutions can be so weak and corrupt that they can lead to state failure like you see in Sierra Leone, Zimbabwe, and Somalia.
Now, can you see how this applies to our own government?
Amanda.
Political Science 100 Introduction to American GovernmentCOURSE DES.docxLeilaniPoolsy
Political Science 100: Introduction to American GovernmentCOURSE DESCRIPTION AND LEARNING GOALS:
100 American Government (3)
People, their politics, and power; contemporary issues, changing political styles and processes, institution and underlying values of the American political system. Satisfies state requirements in U.S. Constitution and California State and local government. One or more sections offered online.
This course is a college level introduction to American government. Students will begin to develop the body of knowledge necessary for informed civic participation. More specifically, students will learn about democratic principles, the structure and institutions of government, the role that ethnicity, race, gender, class, culture and the economy play in shaping the political landscape in America.
By the end of the course students will have learned:
· what the fundamental characteristics of American government are and how the U.S. Constitution affects the organization of government, the relationship between national and state governments, and the relationship between government and citizens.
· understand human political behavior as it is expressed individually, collectively, and in groups.
· how the executive, legislative and judicial branches are organized and the role they play in the policymaking process.
· the institutions and politics of California.
· how to effectively use this knowledge as thoughtful citizens participating in civil society.
COURSE ASSIGNMENTS/REQUIREMENTS:
Exams. There will be three exams in this class. The two midterm exams are worth 100 points each and will cover distinct units identified on the course schedule below. The final exam will be comprehensive. All exams will include multiple choice and essay questions. Students must bring a blank Scantron form #882-E and a blank Bluebook to each exam (both can be purchased at the bookstore).
Quizzes. There will be weekly quizzes in multiple choice format. Scantron form 882E is required for each of the quizzes.
Students will also be graded on a short newspaper report. The objective of the report is to take something you learned in class and apply it to current events. As such, students will be required to write a 5 page paper on a newspaper article, where students analyze the article and discuss how it applies to or incorporates a key concept covered in the course. A more detailed description of this assignment will be passed out to students later on in the semester.
Attendance and Participation. Learning is an active exercise. Students at all levels of learning and accomplishment benefit when they become actively engaged in class. Therefore, weekly quizzes will be given in order to ensure attendance and to make sure students keep abreast of the readings,
Grading:
Midterm One: 20% of course grade
Midterm Two: 20% of course grade
Weekly Quizzes 20% of course grade
Writing Assignment: 20% of course grade
Final Exam: 20% of course grade
Grading Stand.
Policy implementation gridStakeholder Stake or inter.docxLeilaniPoolsy
Policy implementation grid
Stakeholder
Stake or interest
resources
Action channels open to stakeholder
Probability of participation and the manner of doing so
Influence as a product of resources and participation
Implication for implementation strategy
Action plan elements
Supportive stakeholders
Opposing stakeholders
Running head: 1
STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS 6
Developing Strategic Leadership In The Public Sector
Stakeholder Analysis
Anise Hawkins
Capella University
DPA 840
Introduction
Sustainable development is dependent on the effective function of the public institutions. The public institutions shape the living standards of the people. When the public institutions are successful the people have high quality services raising their living standards. It is Essential for organizations to identify the public who affect or are affected by the organizations decision. An organization cannot function alone and it requires the support of all the stakeholders. A critical element of developing strategic leadership is the analysis of the stakeholders. It helps to determine how to strengthen the relationship for optimum gain (Joyce & JOYCE, 1999, p. 32).
There are two broad types of stakeholders, internal and external stakeholders. Internal stakeholders impact the organizational function from within. For instance, employees and board members are internal stakeholders. External stakeholders influence the organization from without. Examples of external stakeholders are communities and the media. They have a stake in determining the value of the organization. The level of influence, amount of power, level of interest and capabilities of the stakeholders vary (Marr & Creelman, 2011, p. 79). They have strong, moderate or low influence and interests in the organizational function. Some are highly active while others are latent and apathetic. It means that the stakeholders cannot be treated equally in any given project. The have to be classified into different categories through stakeholder analysis. Classifying them helps the organization to develop successful strategies for enhancing the relationships (Joyce & JOYCE, 1999, p. 34).
below is a classification of the internal and external stakeholders, the influence/interest grid and stakeholders influence diagram for this project of developing strategic leadership in public institutions.
List of internal and external stakeholders
Internal Stakeholders
External Stakeholders
· Managers
· Employees
· Corporate leaders
· Stockholders
· Board members
· Suppliers
· Creditors
· experts
· Clients
· Community partners
· Government
· Trade unions
· Activist groups
· Media
· Opinion leader
· public
grid
(
High
)
KEEP SATISFIED
Stockholders
Board members
(
INFLUENCE
)
MANAGE CLOSELY
Employees
Experts
Managers
Suppliers
Creditors
Government
Corporate leaders
(
Low
)MONITOR
(MINIMUM EFFORT)
Public
Societ.
POL 201Post Your IntroductionPrepare Prior to posting y.docxLeilaniPoolsy
POL 201
Post Your Introduction
Prepare: Prior to posting your introduction, read the two articles provided by the Pew Research Center on Political Typology: “Key Facts from Pew Research’s Political Typology” and “Beyond Red vs. Blue: The Political Typology.” Next, take the Political Typology Quiz by clicking on “Begin Quiz” at the bottom of the web page. Respond to the questionnaire to get information about your political philosophy or ideology. Save your results for future reference in this course.
Reflect: Once you complete the quiz, look over the results and evaluate if they reflect your personal political beliefs and how accurate the quiz is at identifying your views on American politics.
Write: Post your two-paragraph introduction. In the first paragraph, tell a little about your personal and professional interests. In the second paragraph, describe your political philosophy based on the results of the Political Typology Quiz. If you disagree with the results, please discuss what you found inaccurate about the results and what you contend is your personal, political ideology.
Respond to Peers: By Day 7, respond to at least three classmates’ introductions. Compare and contrast your political ideology with your classmates’ political ideologies.
AssetsAsset IDCustomer IDItemModelSerial NumberCategoryIn Service DatePurchase DateCost1955108Desktop PC Systemz99145A SystemZA9932716482Computers01/10/201101/09/2011$ 1,200.001956110Espresso MachineLH3000 2267155789AAppliances02/11/201101/27/2011$ 100.001957107MicrowaveMicrowave Oven 110077W2245ZA23Appliances04/20/201103/17/2011$ 150.001958105Desk ChairErgoChair 1005574986320HOffice Furniture05/18/201103/26/2011$ 50.001959104VOIP TelephoneClear Call 2000778640061KTelephones05/23/201104/18/2011$ 75.001960109Desk ChairErgoChair 1005575372783EOffice Furniture06/14/201104/23/2011$ 50.001961107Digital CameraIX US 801S1X2U5G64ACCameras05/20/201105/01/2011$ 300.001962110Desk ChairErgoChair 1005582939281GOffice Furniture07/13/201106/07/2011$ 50.001963110Digital CameraIX US 801S1X2U9H28JSCameras07/22/201107/08/2011$ 300.001964111VOIP TelephoneClear Call 2000778682762GTelephones08/28/201107/15/2011$ 75.001965112MicrowaveMicrowave Oven 110077W3738HT81Appliances01/10/201211/24/2011$ 150.001966103VOIP TelephoneClear Call 2000779182737STelephones03/09/201201/12/2012$ 75.001967109Desktop PC Systemz99145A SystemZA9962536488Computers06/09/201204/18/2012$ 1,200.001968108VOIP TelephoneClear Call 2000782736489QTelephones05/21/201205/16/2012$ 75.001969107Desk ChairErgoChair 1005589282663EOffice Furniture08/15/201208/13/2012$ 50.00197010315" NotebookBusiness Notebook 15BN299765GComputers10/25/201210/22/2012$ 1,000.001971108Desk ChairErgoChair 1005591097523BOffice Furniture12/05/201210/29/2012$ 50.00197210715" NotebookBusiness Notebook 15BN374839PComputers12/30/201212/15/2012$ 1,000.001973109VOIP TelephoneClear Call 2000786728399STelephones02/03/201312/25/2012$ 75.0019741.
POLS Terms to Be Reviewed. Agenda SettingPoli.docxLeilaniPoolsy
POLS
Terms to Be Reviewed.
Agenda Setting
Policy Formation
Policy Implementation
Cesar Chavez/
United Farm Workers
Politics
Political Culture
Bill of Rights
Brown v. Board of Education
Civil Rights Acts 1964
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Political Socialization
Agents of Political Socialization
Judicial Review
Federalism
Federalists/
Anti-Federalists
Bush v. Gore
National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelious
“Occupy Wall Street”
Roe v. Wade
“Tea Party”
“Two-Fifths Compromise”
American Political Development
Gideon v. Wainwright
Plessy v. Ferguson
Cabinet Departments
“Jacksonian Democracy”
The Progressives
Civil War/ Abraham Lincoln
Executive Office of the President
National Security Council
“Imperial Presidency”
Cuban Missile Crisis
The Office of Management and Budget
Reies Lopez Tijerina
Chicanismo
President as “First Legislator”
Committees (in U.S. Congress)
Conference Committee
Committee
Hearing
Reapportionment
Filibuster
Floor (U.S. Congress)
“Kitchen Cabinet”
Party System
Conventional/
unconventional forms of political participation
Pluralism
Interest Group
Lobbyist
Party Identification
Party System
Gerrymander
Political Action Committee
Incumbency advantage
Who elects the Justices of the Supreme Court (D.C. and California)?
Functions of the Governor of California
Assembly in California
Senate in California
The “Seven Executives” in California
Number of Justices of the U.S. Supre Court/Supreme Court of California
Electoral College/Number of Electors per state.
.
Polit, D. & Beck, C. (2012). Nursing research Generating and asse.docxLeilaniPoolsy
Polit, D. & Beck, C. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (9th ed.). Philidelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Polit, D. & Beck, C. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (9th ed.). Philidelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
p. 673
A type of mixed studies model is an integrated design (Sandelowski
et al., 2007), which can be used when qualitative
and quantitative findings in an area of inquiry are
perceived as able to confirm, extend, or refute each
other. In an integrated design, studies are grouped not
by method but by findings viewed as answering the
same research question. The analytic approach may
involve transforming the findings (qualitizing quantitative
findings or quantitizing qualitative findings) to
enable them to be combined. A particularly sophisticated
variant of this model is to use a Bayesian
synthesis, as exemplified in a study in which
p. 676
In drawing conclusions about a research synthesis,
a major issue concerns the nature of the decisions
the researcher made. Sampling decisions, approaches
to handling quality of the primary studies, and analytic
approaches should be carefully evaluated to
assess the soundness of the reviewers’ conclusions.
Another aspect, however, is drawing inferences about
how you might use the evidence in clinical practice.
Examples of critique:
Example 1: A Meta-Analysis
Study: Meta-analysis of quality-of-life outcomes from
physical activity interventions (Conn et al., 2009).
Purpose: The purpose of the meta-analysis was to integrate
research evidence on the effects of physical activity
(PA) on quality of life (QOL) outcomes among
adults with chronic illness. Two of the specific research
questions addressed were: (a) What is the overall mean
difference effect size (ES) in QOL scores between
treatment and control subjects after interventions to
increase PA? (b) Do the effects of PA interventions on
QOL outcomes vary depending on the characteristics
of participants, methodology, or interventions?
Eligibility Criteria: Criteria for study inclusion were
spelled out in Table 1 of the report, together with an
explicit rationale for each criterion. A study was
included if it examined the effects of a PA intervention
on QOL for people with a chronic illness and if it:
(a) was an English-language study, (b) was published
in a report after 1970, (c) involved a sample of at least
5 subjects, and (d) included measures designed
specifically to assess QOL (not, for example, QOLrelated
constructs such as mood). Both published and
unpublished reports were eligible, and diverse
research designs were permitted (not just RCTs).
Search Strategy: A reference librarian performed
searches, using well-specified search terms, in 11 databases
(e.g., MEDLINE, CINAHL, Dissertation
Abstracts, Scopus, PsycINFO). The National Institutes
of Health database of funded studies was also searched.
Ancestry searching was conducted, a.
Policies to Assist Parents with Young ChildrenVO L . 2 1 .docxLeilaniPoolsy
Policies to Assist Parents with Young Children
VO L . 2 1 / N O. 2 / FA L L 2 0 1 1 3 7
Policies to Assist Parents with
Young Children
Christopher J. Ruhm
Summary
The struggle to balance work responsibilities with family obligations may be most difficult for
working parents of the youngest children, those five and under. Any policy changes designed to
ease the difficulties for these families are likely to be controversial, requiring a careful effort to
weigh both the costs and benefits of possible interventions while respecting diverse and at times
conflicting American values. In this article, Christopher Ruhm looks at two potential interven-
tions—parental leave and early childhood education and care (ECEC)—comparing differences
in policies in the United States, Canada, and several European nations and assessing their
consequences for important parent and child outcomes.
By and large, Canadian and European policies are more generous than those in the United
States, with most women eligible for paid maternity leave, which in a few countries can last for
three years or more. Many of these countries also provide for paid leave that can be used by
either the mother or the father. And in many European countries ECEC programs are nearly
universal after the child reaches a certain age. In the United States, parental leave, if it is avail-
able, is usually short and unpaid, and ECEC is generally regarded as a private responsibility of
parents, although some federal programs help defray costs of care and preschool education.
Ruhm notes that research on the effects of differences in policies is not completely conclusive,
in part because of the difficulty of isolating consequences of leave and ECEC policies from
other influences on employment and children’s outcomes. But, he says, the comparative evi-
dence does suggest desirable directions for future policy in the United States. Policies establish-
ing rights to short parental leaves increase time at home with infants and slightly improve the
job continuity of mothers, with small, but positive, long-run consequences for mothers and
children. Therefore, Ruhm indicates that moderate extensions of existing U.S. leave entitle-
ments (up to several months in duration) make sense. He also suggests that some form of paid
leave would facilitate its use, particularly among less advantaged parents, and that efforts to
improve the quality of ECEC, while maintaining or enhancing affordability, are desirable.
www.futureofchildren.org
Christopher J. Ruhm is a professor of public policy and economics at the University of Virginia and a research associate at the National
Bureau of Economic Research.
3 8 T H E F U T U R E O F C H I L D R E N
Christopher J. Ruhm
B
alancing the competing needs
of work and family life is a
challenge for most households,
but the difficulties may be
greatest for households with
young children, defined here as newborns
through a.
Policemen of the WorldThesis and Outline 1Policemen of the World.docxLeilaniPoolsy
Policemen of the WorldThesis and Outline 1
Policemen of the World Thesis and Outline 5
Assignment 2.1: Policemen of the World Thesis and Outline
Justin Carter
Strayer University
Dr. Caren Stayer
HIS 105
5/25/14
Introduction Paragraph
According to historical records and evidence, since the end of WWII US has involved her military in over 60 military actions in countries such as Vietnam, Afghanistan, Iraq, Panama, Haiti, Kuwait, Pakistan, Bosnia among other countries across the globe. In this respect, American presidents have used their power and authority with the approval of the congress to send and dispatch American troops to engage in military functions such as engaging in attacks and bombing of groups that are pose threat to world peace. Although more often than not, U.S military operations on international level have received a lot of criticism across board it can be argued that U.S has a long history of overseas military operations as tries to maintain its superiority thus currently its military operation plays an important role across boundaries all over the globe (Heitmeyer, 2011).
Outline
I. Three International Events from the past five years that can be traced back to a foreign policy created after the Civil War
A. The killing of Osama Bin Laden in the year 2012 by the U.S government in the year 2012
B. The Islamic revolutions that were witnessed in Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Syria and other Islamic states
C. U.S military action in Afghanistan
II. Three Aspects of U.S. history since 1865 that have led to the U.S.'s rise as a world super power police force
A. Industrialization was the first factor that supported U.S and during this period a lot of discoveries were made in U.S as compared to other industrial powers of the time
B. US flamboyant economy played a major role especially during the first and the Second World War
C. The Mahan’s naval strategy whereby her navy withdrew to newly acquired coaling stations increased her rise to world power
III. Three to five international incidents since World War II where American has taken on a policing role
A. U.S involvement in Iran politics during the famous White Revolution whereby U.S was supporting Reza Pahlavi
B. U.S was in the forefront in 2003 in Iraq as she tried to rescue the people of Iraq from continuous mass killing of people by Saddam Hussein
C. U.S played an important role in 2013 in restoration of peace in Libya and other Egypt by sending her troops there
IV. Three to five driving forces that fueled international policy decisions involving the international incidents you outlined previously (consider treaties, exit strategies, elections, wars, etc.)
A. The case of Iran during the heights of cold war was her ally thus this forced her to support the people during the famous White Revolution
B. Terrorism threat as was witnessed on September 11, 2001 forced US to host Saddam Hussein from power
C. In the case of Libya and Egypt, U.S want.
POL110 Week 9 Scenario Script The Bureaucracy and the Judiciary.docxLeilaniPoolsy
POL110 Week 9 Scenario Script: The Bureaucracy and the Judiciary
Slide #
Scene/Interaction
Narration
Slide 1
Introductory screen, containing the environment (an outside view of a government office building) and a title showing the scenario topic. There will be a “begin” button on the screen allowing students to begin the scenario.
Slide 2
Scene 1
Amanda and Dr. Ryan standing in Dr. Ryan’s office.
POL110_9_1_DR-1.mp3: Hello again. It’s good to see you here for the last week of your internship. We only have a few more topics to cover before you’re ready to move on.
Last week we examined the role that the president plays in the decisionmaking process. This week we will look at the bureaucracy and the judiciary, two completely different institutions that are absolutely necessary for our democracy to work.
What do you think about these institutions, Amanda?
POL110_9_1_AI-1.mp3: Well Dr. Ryan, I know some of this from my readings. Unique among other democracies, America’s bureaucracy is distinctive. This is because political authority over it is shared by the executive and legislative branches. This encourages it to play each branch off against the other.
Secondly, in the U.S., federal bureaucrats pay other agencies at the state and local levels, as well as business firms and non-profit agencies, to administer government programs.
POL110_9_1_DR-2.mp3: Good start. Now let’s look at the bureaucracy’s growth. It began small, of course, but exploded first during World War I from 1917 to 1919. This was because of the role the government took in the post-war growing economy.
Then, a little more than a decade later under Roosevelt’s New Deal it became even larger. This was because of the expansion of federal programs like welfare and Social Security. Roosevelt later invoked the income tax policy during World War II and was collecting a huge amount of money by the end of the war.
As you can imagine, this required a substantial increase in federal workers to keep track of these revenues. This money was used to start a great many additional programs which, in turn, required more administrators.
POL110_9_1_AI-2.mp3: That very interesting! I think that the federal bureaucracy, numbering just about two and one-half million people today, is now at the same level it was in 1955. In fact, it’s shrunk since then, relative to the population of over three hundred million Americans whom it now serves.
Slide 3
Interaction Slide
This will be an interaction that showcases various facts about the distinctiveness of the American bureaucracy.
Button 1: Political authority. Political authority over the bureaucracy is shared between the presidency and Congress. This means that bureaucrats are able to play each branch against the other. In parliamentary governments, like Great Britian, the prime minister and cabinet control the bureaucracy.
Button 2: Shared functions. Most federal.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
PLUS THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS12LikeLikeTweet 4.docx
1. PLUS: THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS
12LikeLike
Tweet 4
2
MAY 29, 2009
Document
We selected a six step decision making process that synthesized
the decision making models
used in existing training, not just ethics training.
The model is descriptive of how people intuitively make
decisions and makes the steps
explicit.
The six steps of this natural, intuitive decision-making process
are:
• Step 1:
Define the problem (#1)
• Step 2:
Identify available alternative solutions to the problem (#2)
2. • Step 3:
Evaluate the identified alternatives (#3)
• Step 4:
Make the decision (#4)
• Step 5:
Implement the decision (#5)
• Step 6:
Evaluate the decision (#6)
Step 1: Define the problem
The most significant step in any decision making process is
describing why a decision is called for and identifying the
most desired outcome(s) of the decision making process.
One way of deciding if a problem exists is to couch the problem
in terms of what one wanted or expected and the actual
situation. In this way a problem is defined as the difference
between expected and/or desired outcomes and actual
outcomes.
This careful attention to definition in terms of outcomes allows
one to clearly state the problem. This is a critical
consideration because how one defines a problem determines
3. how one defines causes and where one searches for
solutions.
The limiting aspect of the problem definition step is not widely
appreciated. Consider this example.
Your company owns an old, downtown office building. Tenants
are complaining that their employees are getting angry
and frustrated because there is always a long delay getting an
elevator to the lobby at rush hour.
You are asked for a reaction on how to solve this problem. As
with most problem situations there are several ways to
define the situation and several solutions that suggest
themselves.
This scenario has been presented to over 200 groups in a
training environment. The most common alternatives these
groups offered were:
• Flexible hours- so all the tenants' employees wouldn't be at the
elevators at the same time.
• Faster elevators - so each elevator could carry more people in
a given time period.
• Bigger elevators - so each elevator could carry more people
per trip.
• Elevator banks- so each elevator would only stop on certain
floors, increasing efficiency.
4. • Better elevator controls - so each eltor would be used more
efficiently.
• More elevators - so that overall carrying capacity could be
increased.
• Improved elevator maintenance - so each elevator would be
more efficient.
• Encourage employees to use the stairs - so fewer people would
use the elevators.
PLUS: The Decision Making Process | Ethics Resource Center
If you examine each alternative you will see that several
different definitions of the problem must have existed.
• If the solution is "flexible hours" the problem must have been
defined as, "Too many people getting off work at a
given time." No other problem makes sense for that solution.
• "Faster elevators" comes from, "The elevators are too slow."
• "Bigger elevators" comes from, "The elevators are not
carrying enough people."
• "More elevators" comes from, "Too few elevators."
The real life decision makers defined the problem as "people
coming about having to wait". Their solution was to make
the wait less frustrating by piping music into the elevator
lobbies. The complaints stopped.
5. There is no way that the eventual solution could have been
reached if, for example, the problem had been defined as
"too few elevators".
As you can see, how you define the problem determines where
you go to look for alternatives/solutions, so define the
problem carefully.
Step 2: Identify available alternative solutions to the problem
The key to this step is to not limit yourself to obvious
alternatives or what has worked in the past but to be open to
new
and better alternatives. How many alternatives should you
identify? Ideally, all of them. Realistically, we teach that the
decision maker should consider more than five in most cases,
more than three at the barest minimum. This gets away
from the trap of seeing "both sides of the situation" and limiting
one's alternatives to two opposing choices; either this or
that.
Step 3: Evaluate the identified alternatives
As you evaluate each alternative, you should be looking at the
likely positive and negative cones for each. It is unusual to
find one alternative that would completely resolve the problem
and is heads and shoulders better than all others.
6. Differences in the "value" of respective alternatives are
typically small, relative and a function of the decision maker's
personal perceptions, biases and predispositions.
As you consider positive and negative cones you must be
careful to differentiate between what you know for a fact and
what you believe might be the case.
The decision maker will only have all the facts in trivial cases.
People always supplement what facts they have with
assumptions and beliefs.
This distinction between fact-based evaluation and non-fact -
based evaluation is included to assist the decision maker in
developing a "confidence score" for each alternative. The
decision maker needs to determine not just what results each
alternative could yield, but how probable it is that those results
will be realized. The more the evaluation is fact-based, the
more confident he/she can be that the expected outcome will
occur.
Step 4: Make the decision
When acting alone this is the natural next step after selecting
the best alternative. When the decision maker is working in
a team environment, this is where a proposal is made to the
team, complete with a clear definition of the problem, a clear
list of the alternatives that were considered and a clear rationale
7. for the proposed solution.
Step 5: Implement the decision
While this might seem obvious, it is necessary to make the point
that deciding on the best alternative is not the same as
doing something. The action itself is the first real, tangible step
in changing the situation. It is not enough to think about it
or talk about it or even decide to do it. A decision only counts
when it is implemented. As Lou Gerstner (CEO of IBM)
said, "There are no more prizes for predicting rain. There are
only prizes for building arks."
Step 6: Evaluate the decision
Every decision is intended to fix a problem. The final test of
any decision is whether or not the problem was fixed. Did it
go away? Did it change appreciably? Is it better now, or worse,
or the same? What new problems did the solution create?
PLUS: The Decision Making Process | Ethics Resource Center
4 • Chapter 1: Introduction to Managerial Decision Making
Many people have a great deal of trust in their intuitions—their
System 1 thinking. To prepare for the rest of the book, which is
designed to challenge this confidence, consider the following
diagram from Shepard (1990):
Like most people, you probably saw the table on the right as
more of a square than the one on the left, which appears to be
8. longer and skinnier. Well, your System 1 processing is failing
you, as it fails most people in this instance. Don't believe it?
Try this System 2 strategy: put a sheet of paper over the
drawing and trace the top of either table. Now fine up your
tracing over the other table, and see how your intuition has
failed you!
Throughout this book, we will provide you with plenty of other
reasons to question your intuition. Even the brightest people
make judgmental errors on a regular basis. These errors, or
biases, are much more likely to occur in System 1 thinking than
in System 2 thinking. At the same time, any methodical System
2 process will use some intuitive System 1 shortcuts. In fact,
the two systems frequently work in tandem, with modification
of the quick, initial response of System 1 thinking after more
in-depth consideration by the System 2 mind.
Sometimes, however, System 2 thinking does not fully adjust.
For example, most people have a sensible aversion to eating
from a container labeled as containing the poison cyanide.
However, they have trouble overcoming this impulse even when
they themselves were the ones to write "cyanide" on an
otherwise clean container (Rozin, Markwith, & Ross, 1990).
System 1 leads people to feel an aversion to eating from the
container. Even after their System 2 thinking tells them that this
aversion is utterly illogical, people still cannot bring themselves
to eat.
THE BOUNDS OF HUMAN RATIONALITY
In this book, the term rationality refers to the decision-making
process that is logically expected to lead to the optimal result,
given an accurate assessment of the decision maker's values and
risk preferences.
The Bounds of Human Rationality • 5
The rational model is based on a set of assumptions that
prescribe how a decision ■should be made rather than
describing how a decision is made. In his Nobel Prize-winning
9. work, Herbert Simon (March & Simon, 1958; Simon, 1957)
suggested that individual judgment is bounded in its rationality
and that we can better understand decision making by
describing and explaining actual decisions, rather than by
focusing solely on prescriptive ("what would rationally be
done") decision analysis.
Two schools of thought. As Simon's work implies, the field of
decision making can be roughly divided into two parts: the
study of prescriptive models and the study of descriptive
models. Prescriptive decision scientists develop methods for
making optimal decisions. For example, they might suggest a
mathematical model to help a decision maker act more
rationally. By contrast, descriptive decision researchers
consider how decisions are actually made.
This book takes a descriptive approach. Why, when a
prescriptive approach should lead to an optimal decision? First,
understanding our own decision-making processes helps clarify
where we are likely to make mistakes and therefore when better
decision strategies are needed. Second, the optimal decision in a
given situation often depends on the behavior of others.
Understanding how others will act or react to your behavior is
critical to making the right choice. Third, plenty of good advice
about making decisions is available, but most people do not
follow it. Why not? Because they do not understand how they
actually make decisions, they do not appreciate the need to
improve their decision making. Indeed, some of the intuitions
that lead us astray also undermine our willingness to implement
good advice. An understanding of this fact is needed to motivate
people to adopt better decisionmaking strategies.
Why we "satisfice." While Simon's bounded-rationality
framework views individuals as attempting to make rational
decisions, it acknowledges that they often lack important
information that would help define the problem, the relevant
criteria, and so on. Time and cost constraints limit the quantity
and quality of available information. Furthermore, decision
makers retain only a relatively small amount of information in
10. their usable memory. Finally, intelligence limitations and
perceptual errors constrain the ability of decision makers to
accurately "calculate" the optimal choice from the universe of
available alternatives.
Together, these limitations prevent decision makers from
making the optimal decisions assumed by the rational model.
The decisions that result typically overlook the full range of
possible consequences. Decision makers will forgo the best
solution in favor of one that is acceptable or reasonable. That
is, we satisfice: rather than examining all possible alternatives,
we simply search until we find a satisfactory solution that will
suffice because it achieves an acceptable level of performance.
A broader look at bias. The concepts of bounded rationality and
satisficing show us that human judgment deviates from
rationality. Specifically, these concepts help us identify
situations in which we may be acting on the basis of limited
information. However, these concepts do not tell us how our
judgment will be biased—they do not help diagnose the specific
systematic, directional biases that affect our judgment.
Fifteen years after the publication of Simon's work, Tversky and
Kahneman (1974) continued what he had begun. They provided
critical information about specific
6 • Chapter 1: Introduction to Managerial Decision Making
systematic biases that influence judgment. Their work, and the
work that followed, led to our modern understanding of
judgment.
Specifically, researchers have found that people rely on a
number of simplifying strategies, or rules of thumb, when
making decisions. These simplifying strategies are called
heuristics. As the standard rules that implicitly direct our
judgment, heuristics serve as a mechanism for coping with the
complex environment surrounding our decisions.
In general, heuristics are helpful, but their use can sometimes
lead to severe errors. A central goal of this book is to identify
and illustrate these heuristics and the biases that can result from
11. them in the managerial setting. We will use examples of a
variety of heuristics and biases to explain how people deviate
from a fully rational decisionmaking process in individual and
competitive situations.
New findings. Between 1957 and 2000, bounded rationality
served as the integrating concept of the field of behavioral
decision research. With time, we have refined and clarified this
thinking. In 2000, Richard Thaler suggested that decision
making is bounded in two ways not precisely captured by the
concept of bounded rationality. First, our willpower is bounded,
such that we tend to give greater weight to present concerns
than to future concerns. As a result, our temporary' motivations
are often inconsistent with our long-term interests in a variety
of wavs, such as the common failure to save adequately for
retirement (we discuss this issue in Chapters 5 and 8). Second,
Thaler suggests that our self-interest is bounded; unlike the
stereotypic economic actor, we care about the outcomes of
others (Chapter 7 explores this topic).
Furthermore, we will explore two other bounds on human
judgment. First, Chapter 3 explores the concept of bounded
awareness, including the broad category of focusing failures, or
the common tendency to overlook obvious, important, and
readily available information that lies beyond our immediate
attention. Second, Chapter 7 discusses bounded ethicality, a
term that refers to the notion that our ethics are limited in ways
of which we are unaware.
Overall, this book develops a systematic structure for
understanding the bounds to our decision making, including
bounded rationality, bounded willpower, bounded self-interest,
bounded awareness, and bounded ethicalitv.
INTRODUCTION TO JUDGMENTAL HEURISTICS
Consider the following example:
While finishing an advanced degree in computer science, Maria
Bannon put together a Web-based retailing concept that many of
her colleagues consider to be one of the best ever developed.
12. While the product is great, Maria has far less skill in marketing
her ideas. She decides to hire a marketing MBA with experience
in Web-based environments to formalize the business plan she
will use to approach venture capitalists. Maria follows the
heuristic of limiting her search to new MBAs from the top six
management schools. How would you evaluate her strategy?
If we evaluate this strategy in terms of the degree to which it
follows the rational model outlined earlier, Maria's heuristic of
limiting her search to six schools will be
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction to Managerial Decision Making
jIThe human mind packs spectacular power into its modest
three-pound mass. With little effort, we can accomplish
sophisticated tasks, such as recognizing faces or catching a ball,
that are far beyond the abilities of even the most powerful
computers and sophisticated robots.
Yet most people remain largely unaware of how their minds
accomplish complex tasks, and self-insight and experience offer
little guidance. The fact that we lack an "operating manual" for
our minds might not seem important. In fact, however, our lack
of understanding of how our minds work has profound
consequences. Without an understanding of our thoughts and
behaviors, we cannot anticipate when the cognitive processes
that usually serve us so well are likely to lead us astray.
Fortunately, psychological research has uncovered many of the
clever and sophisticated shortcuts on which our brains rely to
help us get through the day—as well as common errors that
13. even bright people make on a regular basis. These errors can
lead to minor problems, such as choosing the wrong product or
the wrong investment. They also can contribute to big problems,
such as bankruptcy, government inefficiency, and social
injustice.
This book will introduce you to a number of cognitive biases
that are likely to affect the judgment of all types of
professionals, from auditors to politicians to salespeople. You
are likely to recognize your own tendencies in the research
results that we'll cover. The strategies that we suggest for
overcoming them will give you the skills you need to become a
better decision maker and to protect yourself, your family, and
your organization from avoidable mistakes.
THE ANATOMY OF DECISIONS
The term judgment refers to the cognitive aspects of the
decision-making process. To fully understand judgment, we
must first identify the components of the decisionmaking
process that require it. To get started, consider the following
decision situations:
3
2 • Cluipter I: Introduction to Managerial Decision Making
· You are finishing your MBA at a well-known school. Your
credentials are quite good, and you expect to obtain job offers
from a number of consulting firms. How are you going to select
the right job?
· You are the director of the marketing division of a rapidly
expanding consumer company. You need to hire a product
manager for a new "secret" product that the company plans to
introduce to the market in fifteen months. How will you go
14. about hiring the appropriate individual?
· As the owner of a venture capital firm, you have a number of
proposals that meet your preliminary considerations but only a
limited budget with which to fund new projects. Which projects
will you fund?
· You are on the corporate acquisition staff of a large
conglomerate that is interested in acquiring a small-to-
moderate-sized firm in the oil industry. What firm, if any, will
you advise the company to acquire?
What do these scenarios have in common? Each one proposes'a
problem, and each problem has a number of alternative
solutions. Let's look at six steps you should take, either
implicitly or explicitly, when applying a "rational" decision-
making process to each scenario.
1. Define the problem. The problem has been fairly well
specified in each of the four scenarios. However, managers
often act without a thorough understanding of the problem to be
solved, leading them to solve the wrong problem. Accurate
judgment is required to identify and define the problem.
Managers often err by (a) defining the problem in terms of a
proposed solution, (b) missing a bigger problem, or (c)
diagnosing the problem in terms of its symptoms. Your goal
should be to solve the problem, not just eliminate its temporary
symptoms.
2. Identify the criteria. Most decisions require you to
accomplish more than one objective. When buying a car, you
may want to maximize fuel economy, minimize cost, maximize
comfort, and so on. The rational decision maker will identify all
relevant criteria in the decision-making process.
3. Weight the criteria. Different criteria will vary in importance
to a decision maker. Rational decision makers will know the
relative value they place on each of the criteria identified (for
example, the relative importance of fuel economy versus cost
versus comfort). The value may be specified in dollars, points,
or whatever scoring system makes sense.
15. 4. Generate alternatives. The fourth step in the decision-making
process requires identification of possible courses of action.
Decision makers often spend an inappropriate amount of search
time seeking alternatives, thus creating a barrier to effective
decision making. An optimal search continues only until the
cost of the search outweighs the value of the added information.
5. Rate each alternative on each criterion. How well will each of
the alternative solutions achieve each of the defined criteria?
This is often the most
System 1 and System 2 Thinking • 3
difficult stage of the decision-making process, as it typically
requires us to forecast future events. Hie rational decision
maker carefully assesses the potential consequences on each of
the identified criteria of selecting each of the alternative
solutions.
6. Compute the optimal decision. Ideally, after all of the first
five steps have been completed, the process of computing the
optimal decision consists of (a) multiplying the ratings in step 5
by the weight of each criterion, (b) adding up the weighted
ratings across all of the criteria for each alternative, and (c)
choosing the solution with the highest sum of the weighted
ratings.
This model of decision making assumes that people follow these
six steps in a fully rational manner. That is, it assumes that
decision makers (1) perfectly define the problem, (2) identify
all criteria, (3) accurately weigh all of the criteria according to
their preferences, (4) know all relevant alternatives, (5)
accurately assess each alternative based on each criterion, and
(6) accurately calculate and choose the alternative with the
highest perceived value.
There is nothing special about these six steps. Different
researchers specify different steps—which typically overlap a
great deal. For example, in a wonderful book on rational
decision making, Hammond, Keeney, and Raiffa (1999) suggest
eight steps: (1) work on the right problem, (2) specify your
16. objectives, (3) create imaginative alternatives, (4) understand
the consequences, (5) grapple with your tradeoffs, (6) clarify
your uncertainties, (7) think hard about your risk tolerance, and
(8) consider finked decisions. Both of these lists provide a
useful order for thinking about what an optimal decision-making
process might look like.
SYSTEM 1 AND SYSTEM 2 THINKING
Do people actually reason in the logical manner described
above? Sometimes they do, but not most of the time. Stanovich
and West (2000) make a useful distinction between System 1
and System 2 cognitive functioning. System 1 thinking refers to
our intuitive system, which is typically fast, automatic,
effortless, implicit, and emotional. We make most decisions in
life using System 1 thinking. For instance, we usually decide
how to interpret verbal language or visual information
automatically and unconsciously. By contrast, System 2 refers
to reasoning that is slower, conscious, effortful, explicit, and
logical (Kahneman, 2003). Hammond, Keeney, and Raiffa's
(1999) logical steps above provide a prototype of System 2
thinking.
In most situations, our System 1 thinking is quite sufficient; it
would be impractical, for example, to logically reason through
every choice we make while shopping for groceries. But System
2 logic should preferably influence our most important
decisions.
The busier and more rushed people are, the more they have on
their minds, and the more likely they are to rely on System 1
thinking. In fact, the frantic pace of managerial life suggests
that executives often rely on System 1 thinking (Chugh, 2004).
Although a complete System 2 process is not required for every
managerial decision, a key goal for managers should be to
identify situations in which they should move from the
intuitively compelling System 1 thinking to the more logical
System 2.