Plato 428BC-347BCWas an Athenian philosopher during the Classi.docx

Plato 428BC-347BC
Was an Athenian philosopher during the Classical
period in Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist school of
thought, and the Academy, the first institution of higher
learning in the Western world.
Plato’s aim of politics
Forms are intelligible unchanging objects (ex. Woman – this
woman)
Unlike particular objects that are accessible to the senses only,
forms are accessible to the mind only and not to the senses.
The chief of all forms is the Form of the Good.
Collectively, forms constitute the realm of Being.
Collectively objects (material) consist the realm of Becoming
It is the utmost responsibility of a Philosopher to know the best
form of The Good for a society and to apply it.
Kallipolis – the beautiful city – would be the aim.
In his book “The Republic” Plato tells the story of a city and of
the Philosopher-Kings who ruled it.
The aim of Politics
We cannot achieve happiness except in a just city.
In order to achieve happiness, each person has their soul on a
different level of the spectrum (The theory of human souls):
Appetitive Soul (satisfies physical desires)
Spirited Soul (satisfies social desires of honor and
approval) Rational soul (satisfies the desire for truth and the

overall good)
Not all people desire the satisfaction of the same soul this is
why Plato splits the society into:
Producers (Appetitive)
Guardians (Spirited)
Rational (Rulers)
The Principle of Specialization
Before he can prove that justice is a good thing, Plato must first
state what justice is. Instead of defining justice as a set of
behavioral norms (as the traditional Greek thinkers did) Plato
identifies justice as structural: political justice resides in the
structure of the city; individual justice resides in the structure
of the soul.
The just structure of the city is summed up by the principle of
specialization: each member of society must play the role for
which his nature best suits him and not meddle in any other
business. A man whose nature suits him to farming must farm
and do nothing else; a man whose nature best suits him to
building objects out of wood must be a carpenter and not bother
with any other sort of work. Plato believes that this is the only
way to ensure that each job is done as well as possible.
The principle of specialization keeps the farmer from
carpentering, and the carpenter from farming. More important,
it keeps both the farmer and the carpenter from becoming
warriors and rulers. The principle of specialization separates
society into three classes: the class of producers (including
farmers, craftsmen, doctors, etc.), the class of warriors, and the
class of rulers.

Relativists Absolutists
Everything is changing there is no absolute Real truth
is out there! We just have to look f
Truth. Everything depends on the situation for it! (the
dialectic method for example)
It is in.
Basic necessities of society
Happiness vs Money
Amount of money
Level of Happiness
Essential Skills for Success (Final) Instructions
1. Answer the questions directly in this document.
2. Point values are provided in the rubric.
3. Essays are to be completed individually. This assignment is
submitted to Turnitin and checked for plagiarism, including
copying websites or your peers.
a. Turnitin produces a similarity score and we use that score to
indicate which ones to check further for plagiarism
b. There is not a set similarity percentage that indicates
plagiarism. The similarity will depend on the length of the

answers and if the questions are restated.
4. Save this document as a Microsoft Word® document. If you
do not have Microsoft Word®, then please see the “Start Here”
folder in D2L for information on how to obtain a free copy of it
from MSU.
5. Submit the Word document to the Assignment folder titled
“Skills Final Reflection.”
Questions
Reflect on your progress for the two skills that you selected for
this semester.
Type a reflective paragraph (6-10 sentences) for each skill. In
each paragraph, address the following questions:
· In what ways did you improve your skill?
· What kinds of things did you do to work on your skill?
· What kinds of things did you plan to do but did not do or did
not do as much as you had planned? Explain why.
· What was one specific scenario that you did for your skill?
· A skill is never “complete.” What will you do in the future to
continue improving your skill?
Skill #1:
Skill #2:

Essential Skills for Success (Final) Rubric
Critical Elements
Exemplary
(100%)
Proficient
(75%)
Needs Improvement
(50%)
Lacking (25%)
Not Evident
(0%)
Skill #1
7.5 points
5.5 points
3.75 points
2 points
0 points
Reflection provides specific information on 1) how skills have
improved, 2) on things that were done and 3) were not done, and
4) plans for further improvement.
Reflection provides specific information on three of the four
components in the “exemplary” level.
Reflection provides specific information on two of the four
Reflection provides specific information on one of the four
components in the “exemplar” level. Or, reflection is rather
generic and does not offer any specific scenarios.
Entire reflection is vague (e.g., restatement of descriptions from
the website with yes/no answers to questions).
Skill #2
7.5 points
5.5 points
3.75 points
2 points

0 points
Reflection provides specific information on 1) how skills have
improved, 2) on things that were done and 3) were not done, and
4) plans for further improvement.
Reflection provides specific information on three of the four
Reflection provides specific information on two of the four
Reflection provides specific information on one of the four
components in the “exemplar” level. Or, reflection is rather
generic and does not offer any specific scenarios.
Entire reflection is vague (e.g., restatement of descriptions from
the website with yes/no answers to questions).
Critical Elements
Exemplary
15-13 points
Proficient
12-10 points
Needs Improvement
9-6 points
Lacking
5-3 points
Not Evident
2-0 points
Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)
He numbers among the greatest philosophers of all time.
Judged solely in terms of his philosophical influence, only Plato
is his peer: Aristotle’s works shaped centuries of philosophy
from Late Antiquity through the Renaissance, and even today
continue to be studied with keen, non-antiquarian interest.

His View of Politics
Political science studies the tasks of the politician or statesman
in much the way that medical science concerns the work of the
physician. It is, in fact, the body of knowledge that such
practitioners, if truly expert, will also wield in pursuing their
tasks.
This involves enduring laws, customs, and institutions
(including a system of moral education) for the citizens. Once
the constitution is in place, the politician needs to take the
appropriate measures to maintain it, to introduce reforms when
he finds them necessary, and to prevent developments which
might subvert the political system.
Aristotle begins by asking if there is one thing at which all
action aims; if there is one thing all action seeks for its own
sake. Aristotle says that eudaimonia is that thing. Eudaimonia is
variously translated as happiness, flourishing, well-being, living
well, fulfillment, or perfection. In his own words “the human
good turns out to be activity in the soul [mind] in accordance
with excellence.” In other words, the good life is activity that
involves rationality and embodying excellence over an entire
lifetime.
Remember Plato’s Good? Which was in a different realm: the
realm of Forms?
So, everyone’s aim is to achieve this Eudiamonia. Hence we
live in a society inroder to better help us reach there.
Rules and regulations of the society would be the guarantee for
us to achieve our happiness.

Thus man is a Political animal since he alone has the sense of
good and evil, just and unjust. He is the only ethical being who
can live in a political society governed by laws and abide by
them. (the good life)
Distributive Justice in Athens that time
Athenian democracy applied distributive justice at that time.
What is distributive justice?
Distributive justice is a concept that addresses the ownership of
goods in a society. It assumes that there is a large amount of
fairness in the distribution of goods.
Equality: Regardless of their inputs, all group members should
be given an equal share of the rewards/costs. Equality supports
that someone who contributes 20% of the group's resources
should receive as much as someone who contributes 60%.
Equity: Members' outcomes should be based upon their inputs.
Therefore, an individual who has invested a large amount of
input (e.g. time, money, energy) should receive more from the
group than someone who has contributed very little. Members of
large groups prefer to base allocations of rewards and costs on
equity.
Power: Those with more authority, status, or control over the
group should receive more than those in lower level positions.
Need: Those in greatest needs should be provided with
resources needed to meet those needs. These individuals should
be given more resources than those who already possess them,
regardless of their input.
Responsibility: Group members who have the most should share
their resources with those who have less
Five ways for Distributive justice to be applied”

His Theory of Justice
There is a problem however!
Aristotle does not think that all people are by nature equal and
that they have the natural right to be treated as such. He
defended the institution of slavery!
Distributive Justice has problems:
What is to be distributed?
Who should it be distributed to?
And who should take how much of the thing distributed?
Thus the problem of Distributive justice (or equity) is that is
does not say who should be treated equally? Thus amounting to
the principle of Impartiality and the Rule of law.
So this principle should be given a concrete realization inside
the Polis.
Hence comes his theory………
Aristotle on Justice and the Distribution of Power
Aristotle said usually power is distributed over 2 different
standards:
Wealth and power – Oligarchy and Tyranny
Citizenship - Democracy
These (wealth and citizenship) are faulty concepts as basis for
distribution of Political Power. (It is like giving people power
only because they are taller!)

Aristotle agrees with Plato that Ruling is like any other craft, or
job. It needs its expertise.
Thus the best ruling system is that which distributes power in
accordance with virtue: the best people ‘arostoi’ (who have
nobility, excellence, knowledge, merit) are the ones to be given
power.
When only one person is of virtue – Kingship
only few persons are of virtue – Aristocracy
all the people are of virtue - Polis
Based on virtue Based of
faulty standards
Power and Wealth
Wealth
Citizenship
All forms of government in the middle column would insure
“The Good Life” and the Eudaimonia for People
But, Aristocracy is the most likely to happen. A society cannot
have only one virtuous person; and cannot as
Well have all virtuous people.
St. Thomas Aquinas
Philosophy of religion

About St. Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 7 March 1274) was born in
Lazio, Italy. He is a Philosopher, Catholic priest, and Doctor of
the Church.
His best known work, the Summa Theologiae, is often cited by
philosophers when his position on this or that issue is sought.
Scholastic Philosopher
Scholasticism was a medieval school of philosophy that
employed a critical method of philosophical analysis
presupposed upon a Latin Christian theistic paradigm which
dominated teaching in the medieval universities in Europe from
about 1100 to 1700.
However, he never considered himself a philosopher, and
criticized philosophers, whom he saw as pagans, for always
"falling short of the true and proper wisdom to be found in
Christian revelation."
The Incapability of humans of the truth without revelation
Thomas Aquinas believed "that for the knowledge of any truth
whatsoever man needs divine help, that the intellect may be
moved by God to its act.“
Maybe the human intellect is not the only tool for knowledge?
Philosophy: uses Logic as base principle for knowing the truth
(about the world)

Theology: uses revelation (belief) for knowing the truth (about
God).
Difference Between Philosophy and theology
… it should be noted that different ways of knowing give us
different sciences. The astronomer and the natural philosopher
both conclude that the earth is round, but the astronomer does
this through a mathematical middle that is abstracted from
matter, whereas the natural philosopher considers a middle
lodged in matter. Thus there is nothing to prevent another
science from treating in the light of divine revelation what the
philosophical disciplines treat as knowable in the light of
human reason. (Summa Theologiae, Ia.1.1 ad 2)
So why approach philosophy and religion?
For Aquinas theological discourse begins with what God has
revealed about Himself and His action in creating and
redeeming the world. The world is understood in that light.
Philosophical discourse begins with knowledge of the world. If
it speaks of God what it says is conditioned by what is known of
the world.
The Enjoyment of GOD
There is a hierarchy of the human ends. This hierarchy

culminated in the “Enjoyment of God”
Unaided human reason could never find a way for this end to be
reached.
It is only the faith in scriptures that can help us reach to the
enjoyment of God.
“Grace does not go away with nature but perfects it” (ST
1a.8.2_
Natural and supernatural orders of the World
The state and society are both natural organic orders of the
human life that have one goal: the common good. (Aristotle)
But since he is a Christian and believed in the hierarchy of the
human needs (on top of which is the enjoyment of God), the
state for him is never enough to perfect human societies. The
purpose of the human life transcends this life. (parted with
Aristotle)
So basically people are naturally wired to be subordinates ?
His Aristotelian theory of the naturality of the state and society
(man is a political and social animal) challenged the Christian
main stream of his time that considered man’s true nature is that
they had before the Fall: free of all dominion.
Aquinas says that there are two forms of dominion: coercive and
decretive. By nature man wants directive dominion.

The theory of law
To better explain the structure of natural and supernatural order
of the world, Aquinas had to produce a hierarchical interrelation
of different forms of law. The link between these forms of laws
was REASON.
The eternal law
This is the Providence of God for governing the universe. The
typical plan of the divine wisdom of God. Directing all actions
in motion. Directing all entities to attain their end.
Because humans are rational beings, they could understand the
principles of the eternal law, and how it applied specifically to
them (that is the fact that they have reason and are naturally
endowed to use it in order to be part of the natural law)
The natural law
This ‘is nothing but the participation of the eternal law in a
rational creature’ (St. 1 a2ae. 91.2)
Human beings perceived this law through their reason, hence it
exists.
This law directs the human toward the good in three instances:
a. survival instinct
b. sexual instinct
c. reflection

Addition and subtraction to natural and eternal laws
Additions can be made by human reason, which inturn would be
allowed by the eternal law, on the condition that the sddition
would work for the good of the human life. Ex.
Property, servitude, killing in war.
Human Law
This is the law derived through reason from the natural law.
It has two forms:
the law of peoples: direct from nature such as the laws of
buying and selling
The civil law: this is the law promulgated by the ruler (one,
group or many) to maintain the common good (basically
political laws, constitution)
The human law has to always go in accordance with the natural
law.
The divine Law
Because man has a supernatural destiny, human law and natural
law are not enough to direct him to his Destiney.
This law is the Scriptures.

Ibn Khaldoun
Brief Historical Background:
Walī al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad
ibn Abī Bakr Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan Ibn Khaldūn
Born May 27, 1332 in Tunisia. Died March 17 1406 in Cairo.
He was a leading Tunisian Arab historiographer and historian.
He is widely considered as a forerunner of the modern
disciplines of historiography, sociology, economics, and
demography.
Most important work: Al-Muquaddimah.
Main Philosophies:
Human co-operation and social organization is an inescapable
necessity for survival.
Authority is an essential element to provide a “restraining
influence” to prevent injustice.
“Asabbiyah” or the tribalism, is the building block of empires.
The weaker the ‘Asabiyyah, the closer an empire is to collapse.
Geography and environmental conditions affect the physical
characteristics and the behavior of people.
“The harsh conditions of desert life, with the limited access to
material goods, luxuries and amenities combined with strong
leadership are the root basis and origins of most civilizations

and empires – and especially the Islamic polities.”
To him, civilization is a phenomena that will be present as long
as humans exist. He characterized the fulfillment of basic needs
as the beginning of civilization. At the beginning, people will
look for different ways of increasing pr/Ducti2�ey �f rasic
nee`s(and expansion will occur. This is where Alasabiya will
grow as a way of society’s self defense.
Later the society starts becoming more sedentary and focuses
more on crafting, arts and the more refined characteristics. The
society will thus be more open and the Asabiya will slowly
wither. By the end of a society, it will weaken, allowing another
small group of individuals to come into control. The conquering
group is described as an unsatisfied group within the society
itself or a group of desert bandits that constantly attack other
weaker or weakened societies.
He heavily emphasized that a good society would be one in
which a tradition of education is deeply rooted in its culture.
Another key factor for the success of the society that Ibn
Khaldun emphasizes in his work is the mastery of crafts, habits
and skills. These takes place after a society is established and
according to Ibn Khaldun the level of achievement of a society
can be determined by just analyzing these three concepts.
Craft – to survive
Habit – society has the habit to do the crafts that makes it
survive better

Craft turns into a skill and society is urban.
How Nomads come together:
The Cyclic Rise and Fall of Nations
Two dichotomous groups exist: the Nomads and the Sedentary.
Sedentary people revel in decadence and luxury, become weak.
Nomads unite and overturn sedentary rulers. Become new
rulers.
Nomads slowly become Sedentary people and become weak.
Cycle repeats itself.
The Four Stages of Empires:
Stage one: Ruler rules over his people equitably and shares
power with them.
Stage two: Leader consolidates his territory, picks few trusted
men to check the authority of his original followers, thus
establishing a dynasty. Despotism appears in this stage.
Stage 3: Epitome of Civilization and beginning of its decay.
Ruler and populace fall prey to the refined elements of life and
luxury and focus on the acquisition of wealth in their sedentary
mentality, becoming weak and cowardly, losing their former
military prowess.
Stage 4: weakening of Asabiyah and the original qualities which
helped establish their initial power, hence making them
vulnerable to outside attacks from a fresh nomadic group who
are at stage one of the cycle.

What is the best system of ruling?
DEPENDS ON THE SOCIETY!!!
Al-Farabi, Abu Nasr (870-950)
Al-Farabi was known to the Arabs as the 'Second Master' (after
Aristotle), and with good reason.
A philosopher, logician and musician, he was also a major
political scientist.
Al-Farabi has left us no autobiography and consequently,
relatively little is known for certain about his life. His
philosophical legacy, however, is large. Al-Madina al-fadila
(The Virtuous City)is far from being a copy or a clone of
Plato's Republic, it is imbued with the Neoplatonic concept of
God. Of course, al-Madina al-fadila has undeniable Platonic
elements but its theology, as opposed to its politics, places it
outside the mainstream of pure Platonism.
On Human Happiness and Perfection
In line with Aristotle, al-Farabi leaves no doubt whatsoever that
there is one kind of happiness which constitutes the telos of

every human being.
In contrast to Aristotle’s notion of eudaimonia, al-Farabi’s
ultimate happiness is a state associated with the afterlife, when,
according to his theory of the soul, the soul has separated from
the body
Human perfection is defined by humanity’s place within the
cosmic order. Prior to death, human beings are hybrids—
corporeal entities, on the one hand, yet also immaterial, on the
other, due to their intellects, that is, the rational faculty of their
souls which survives death—and as such exposed to two sets of
powers.
… [the active intellect] gives the human being a faculty and a
principle by which to strive, or by which the human being is
able to strive on his own for the rest of the perfections that
remain for him. That principle is the primary sciences and the
primary intelligibles attained in the rational part of the soul.
(Political Regime B, 1, 68: 62)
Human beings, hence, are born with the natural obligation to
perfect their rational faculty. While they are equipped by the
active intellect with this faculty and the principles of thought,
their task consists in actualizing this potential, i.e., their
intellects, “by which a human being is a human being”
The role of religion in politics
The difference between Philosophy and science: religion
conveys symbolic representation of reality, where as philosophy
conveys realty as it is.

Religion is opinions and actions, determined and restricted with
stipulations and prescribed for a community by their first ruler,
who seeks to obtain through their practicing it a specific
purpose with respect to them or by means of them
Religion is thus the tool to the realization of human perfection
and the active intellect
The natural ruler of the excellent city, nation, or “union of all
the societies in the inhabitable world” someone who is at once
an accomplished philosopher, prophet, supreme ruler, lawgiver,
and imam.
This person truly understands reality and its underlying
principles and is able to verify her knowledge demonstratively.
However, he/she also has the ability to ‘translate’ her/his
knowledge into metaphors and symbolic representations and
present them
Religion, embracing a doctrinal as well as a legal branch, is
thus the most important element of rulership. It is an enterprise
that must be carried on beyond the death of the first ruler.
A ruler is a savant who in a given society is situated fairly high
in the natural hierarchy, being intelligent and erudite
themselves, and thus ‘naturally’ in charge of disseminating the
knowledge required for happiness.
However, if subsequently there is nowhere in the madina a
single person incorporating these qualities, several people with
complementary properties should team up and henceforth guide
the community. This clearly exhibits that al-Farabi was not

particularly interested in concrete political structures and
systems.
The Types of Corrupt Cities
Al-Farabi identifies four different types of corrupt city: these
are
the ignorant city (al-madina al-jahiliyya),
the immoral city (al-madina al-fasiqa),
the erring city (al-madina al-dalla).
Roughly speaking, the difference between ignorant cities and
immoral cities is that the citizens of the former simply lack
knowledge of virtue and happiness, whereas the citizens of the
latter once believed in happiness and were guided toward it, but
they did not adhere to this goal and came to desire one of the
non-virtuous goals (for example, honor, domination, pleasure,
and so on)
Meanwhile, the erring cities are those whose citizens are given
representations of happiness and virtue that differ from the true
representations. This occurs because the rulers of such
cities deceive their citizens into pursuing goals that differ from
virtue
The souls of many of the inhabitants of such cities face ultimate
extinction, while those who have been the cause of their fall
face eternal torment.

Plato 428BC-347BCWas an Athenian philosopher during the Classi.docx

Plato 428BC-347BCWas an Athenian philosopher during the Classi.docx

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