The electromagnetism and gravity are unified where, while the first originates from the electric charges in a
linear exposition, the second emerges in a quadratic manifestation of it, making the gravity always
attractive. This helps identify the inner structures of all the primary particles—quarks, leptons, and the
{Z,W} bosons as well as the 125 GeV state without the Higgs mechanism—to predict their masses by one
integer parameter formulas in close agreement with the observed values. This in turn enables
determination of the mechanism for building their ground and excited compound states. The consequences
are far-reaching and embracing, for examples, from identifying dark matter and energy that makes the
explanation of masses in the Universe 100 % inclusive, to solving the hackneyed yet equally elusive puzzle
of why the inertial mass is equal to the gravitational mass.
Supersymmetry (SUSY) is a proposed symmetry between bosons and fermions that could help solve issues in the Standard Model such as the hierarchy problem. SUSY introduces new "quantum" dimensions beyond the usual 3 spatial and 1 time dimension. SUSY generators called Q transform fermions into bosons and vice versa. The SUSY algebra involves the generators Q satisfying anticommutation relations in addition to the usual commutation relations of generators like momentum P and angular momentum M. While experimental evidence for SUSY is still lacking, it is an attractive theoretical idea that may be discovered at energy scales below 1 TeV.
The document summarizes key aspects of the Standard Model of particle physics. It describes how the Standard Model accounts for fundamental particles like quarks and leptons that interact via four fundamental forces - gravitation, electromagnetism, weak force, and strong force. These interactions are mediated by exchange of spin-1/2 bosons. The Standard Model has been very successful in explaining experimental observations, but questions remain like incorporating gravity and the origin of particle masses.
This document summarizes an article that proposes an alternative explanation for dark energy and dark matter based on a modified theory of gravity. It begins by providing background on dark matter and dark energy in standard cosmology and the evidence that supports their existence. It then outlines the proposed alternative theory, which modifies Einstein's field equations by adding a function of the Ricci scalar. This introduces new curvature terms that could potentially drive accelerated expansion, providing an alternative to dark energy. The theory aims to match observations without requiring dark matter or energy, but reduces to general relativity in the solar system scale where it has been tightly tested.
To the Issue of Reconciling Quantum Mechanics and General RelativityIOSRJAP
The notion of gravitational radiation as a radiation of the same level as the electromagnetic radiation is based on theoretically proved and experimentally confirmed fact of existence of stationary states of an electron in its gravitational field characterized by the gravitational constant K = 1042G (G is the Newtonian gravitational constant) and unrecoverable space-time curvature Λ. If the numerical values of K 5.11031 Nm2 kg-2 and =4.41029 m -2 , there is a spectrum of stationary states of the electron in its own gravitational field (0.511 MeV ... 0.681 MeV).Adjusting according to the known mechanisms of broadening does not disclose the broadening of the registered portion of the emission spectrum of the micropinch. It indicates the presence of an additional mechanism of broadening the registered portion of the spectrum of the characteristic radiation due to the contribution of the excited states of electrons in their own gravitational field. The energy spectrum of the electron in its own gravitational field and the energy spectra of multielectron atoms are such that there is a resonance of these spectra. As obvious, the consequence of such resonant interaction is appearance, including new lines, of electromagnetic transitions not associated with atomic transitions. The manuscript is the review of previously published papers cited in the references.
FINAL 2014 Summer QuarkNet Research – LHCb PaperTheodore Baker
The document summarizes the author's 2014 summer research analyzing decay data from the LHCb detector. The author analyzed several decay channels including Λ c → Ξ− K+ π+, Ω b
−
→ Ω− J/ψ, and D s
+ → K− K+ π+. For the Λ c decay, the author found evidence of a Ξ0 resonance. For the Ω b decay, the author measured the mass but found the lifetime fit was off. For the D s decay, the author observed decays through φ(1020) and K*(892) resonances. The author was unable to find evidence of the hypothesized Ω cb
0 baryon due
1) The document provides an overview of the contents of Part II of a slideshow on modern physics, which covers topics such as charge and current densities, electromagnetic induction, Maxwell's equations, special relativity, tensors, blackbody radiation, photons, electrons, scattering problems, and waves.
2) It aims to provide a brief yet modern review of foundational concepts in electromagnetism and set the stage for introducing special relativity, quantum mechanics, and matter waves for undergraduate students.
3) The overview highlights that succeeding chapters will develop tensor formulations of electromagnetism and special relativity from first principles before discussing applications like blackbody radiation and early quantum models.
1) The document proposes a new theory called "Superconducting String Theory" that explains gravity by decomposing forces into one-dimensional strings that behave like a superconductor, with the universe acting as a superconductor where matter can move with near-zero resistance.
2) It suggests that the strong nuclear force, carried by gluons, exerts a constant attraction between strings that causes them to curve and generates acceleration similar to gravity. More matter means more strings and a greater curvature.
3) Calculations are presented showing how the strong nuclear force between strings can reproduce gravitational acceleration, unifying gravity with the strong force. This proposes a new explanation for gravity without it being a fundamental force.
This document discusses the incompatibility between classical mechanics and electromagnetism. It shows that under a Galilean transformation, the wave equation governing electromagnetic waves takes on a different form in different reference frames, violating Galilean invariance. This means that the laws of electromagnetism depend on the choice of reference frame. As such, classical mechanics and electromagnetism cannot be unified without modifications to account for this issue.
Supersymmetry (SUSY) is a proposed symmetry between bosons and fermions that could help solve issues in the Standard Model such as the hierarchy problem. SUSY introduces new "quantum" dimensions beyond the usual 3 spatial and 1 time dimension. SUSY generators called Q transform fermions into bosons and vice versa. The SUSY algebra involves the generators Q satisfying anticommutation relations in addition to the usual commutation relations of generators like momentum P and angular momentum M. While experimental evidence for SUSY is still lacking, it is an attractive theoretical idea that may be discovered at energy scales below 1 TeV.
The document summarizes key aspects of the Standard Model of particle physics. It describes how the Standard Model accounts for fundamental particles like quarks and leptons that interact via four fundamental forces - gravitation, electromagnetism, weak force, and strong force. These interactions are mediated by exchange of spin-1/2 bosons. The Standard Model has been very successful in explaining experimental observations, but questions remain like incorporating gravity and the origin of particle masses.
This document summarizes an article that proposes an alternative explanation for dark energy and dark matter based on a modified theory of gravity. It begins by providing background on dark matter and dark energy in standard cosmology and the evidence that supports their existence. It then outlines the proposed alternative theory, which modifies Einstein's field equations by adding a function of the Ricci scalar. This introduces new curvature terms that could potentially drive accelerated expansion, providing an alternative to dark energy. The theory aims to match observations without requiring dark matter or energy, but reduces to general relativity in the solar system scale where it has been tightly tested.
To the Issue of Reconciling Quantum Mechanics and General RelativityIOSRJAP
The notion of gravitational radiation as a radiation of the same level as the electromagnetic radiation is based on theoretically proved and experimentally confirmed fact of existence of stationary states of an electron in its gravitational field characterized by the gravitational constant K = 1042G (G is the Newtonian gravitational constant) and unrecoverable space-time curvature Λ. If the numerical values of K 5.11031 Nm2 kg-2 and =4.41029 m -2 , there is a spectrum of stationary states of the electron in its own gravitational field (0.511 MeV ... 0.681 MeV).Adjusting according to the known mechanisms of broadening does not disclose the broadening of the registered portion of the emission spectrum of the micropinch. It indicates the presence of an additional mechanism of broadening the registered portion of the spectrum of the characteristic radiation due to the contribution of the excited states of electrons in their own gravitational field. The energy spectrum of the electron in its own gravitational field and the energy spectra of multielectron atoms are such that there is a resonance of these spectra. As obvious, the consequence of such resonant interaction is appearance, including new lines, of electromagnetic transitions not associated with atomic transitions. The manuscript is the review of previously published papers cited in the references.
FINAL 2014 Summer QuarkNet Research – LHCb PaperTheodore Baker
The document summarizes the author's 2014 summer research analyzing decay data from the LHCb detector. The author analyzed several decay channels including Λ c → Ξ− K+ π+, Ω b
−
→ Ω− J/ψ, and D s
+ → K− K+ π+. For the Λ c decay, the author found evidence of a Ξ0 resonance. For the Ω b decay, the author measured the mass but found the lifetime fit was off. For the D s decay, the author observed decays through φ(1020) and K*(892) resonances. The author was unable to find evidence of the hypothesized Ω cb
0 baryon due
1) The document provides an overview of the contents of Part II of a slideshow on modern physics, which covers topics such as charge and current densities, electromagnetic induction, Maxwell's equations, special relativity, tensors, blackbody radiation, photons, electrons, scattering problems, and waves.
2) It aims to provide a brief yet modern review of foundational concepts in electromagnetism and set the stage for introducing special relativity, quantum mechanics, and matter waves for undergraduate students.
3) The overview highlights that succeeding chapters will develop tensor formulations of electromagnetism and special relativity from first principles before discussing applications like blackbody radiation and early quantum models.
1) The document proposes a new theory called "Superconducting String Theory" that explains gravity by decomposing forces into one-dimensional strings that behave like a superconductor, with the universe acting as a superconductor where matter can move with near-zero resistance.
2) It suggests that the strong nuclear force, carried by gluons, exerts a constant attraction between strings that causes them to curve and generates acceleration similar to gravity. More matter means more strings and a greater curvature.
3) Calculations are presented showing how the strong nuclear force between strings can reproduce gravitational acceleration, unifying gravity with the strong force. This proposes a new explanation for gravity without it being a fundamental force.
This document discusses the incompatibility between classical mechanics and electromagnetism. It shows that under a Galilean transformation, the wave equation governing electromagnetic waves takes on a different form in different reference frames, violating Galilean invariance. This means that the laws of electromagnetism depend on the choice of reference frame. As such, classical mechanics and electromagnetism cannot be unified without modifications to account for this issue.
Black holes and dark matter must have formed early in the universe's development for galaxies and stars to later form, according to this document. It proposes that fundamental particles called dyons, which carry both electric and magnetic charges, aggregated in the early exponentially expanding universe to form black holes and dark matter. As the universe expanded and its energy density decreased, these dyon aggregates could have evaporated or dissociated into the elementary particles observed in experiments today. The document presents models showing how fundamental particle energies may have decreased exponentially as the universe expanded, in a way that could explain the formation of black holes and dark matter from dyon aggregates in the early universe.
- The document investigates the implications of a proposed metallicity-dependent initial mass function (IMF), which suggests the IMF varies based on the metallicity of a star formation environment.
- Using observations of globular cluster Palomar 14 and open cluster M42, the author constrains an upper bound for metallicity dependence, resulting in a two-part power law IMF function that depends on metallicity.
- However, the document concludes that current evidence is inadequate to prove a metallicity-dependent IMF, as measurements of cluster IMFs are complicated by issues like dynamics, binaries, and evolution over time.
Quantum-Gravity Thermodynamics, Incorporating the Theory of Exactly Soluble Active Stochastic Processes, with Applications
by Daley, K.
Published in IJTP in 2009. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009IJTP..tmp...67D
This document is a physics problem set from MIT's 8.044 Statistical Physics I course in Spring 2004. It contains 5 problems related to statistical physics and probability distributions. Problem 1 considers the probability distribution and properties of the position of a particle undergoing simple harmonic motion. Problem 2 examines the probability distribution of the x-component of angular momentum for a quantum mechanical system. Problem 3 analyzes a mixed probability distribution describing the energy of an electron. Problem 4 involves finding and sketching the time-dependent probability distribution for the position of a particle given its wavefunction. Problem 5 concerns Bose-Einstein statistics and calculating properties of the distribution that describes the number of photons in a given mode.
The document discusses Einstein's field equations and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. It begins by providing background on Einstein's field equations, which relate the geometry of spacetime to the distribution of mass and energy within it. It then discusses some key mathematical aspects of the field equations, including their nonlinear partial differential form. Finally, it notes that the field equations can be consolidated with Heisenberg's uncertainty principle to provide a unified description of gravity and quantum mechanics.
Grand unified field theory a predator prey approach corroboration dissipation...Alexander Decker
The document discusses the four fundamental interactions in nature: gravitation, electromagnetism, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force. It describes how each interaction is mediated by different bosons being exchanged between fermions. The strong nuclear force binds quarks together via gluon exchange. The document also discusses how gravitation, while the weakest force on small scales, becomes important on large macroscopic scales due to its infinite range and inability to be shielded against.
The document discusses the development of quantum electrodynamics (QED) from its origins in Dirac's 1927 paper on the quantum theory of radiation. It provides an overview of the key topics covered in the subsequent chapters, including particles and fields, quantization of the electromagnetic field, Feynman diagrams, and renormalization in QED. The goal is to show how electrons and photons interact using quantum field theory by representing particles as excitations of underlying fields and developing perturbative techniques to calculate processes like scattering and radiation.
Using resonant ultrasound spectroscopy (RUS), the author will determine the complete elastic constant matrices of two thermoelectric single crystal samples, Ce.75Fe3CoSb12 and CeFe4Sb12. RUS involves measuring the resonant frequencies of a sample's vibrations, which depend on the sample's elastic constants, shape, orientation, and density. The author aims to obtain the elastic moduli from a single RUS spectrum for each sample. Understanding the elastic properties may help identify better thermoelectric materials by correlating low elastic stiffness with low thermal conductivity and higher thermoelectric efficiency. The author will compute the resonant frequencies using the samples' properties and compare to measurements.
Part III Essay: Could the graviton have a mass?Yiteng Dang
This document discusses theories of massive gravity. It begins by introducing linearized general relativity and the linear Fierz-Pauli theory of a massive spin-2 particle. It then discusses three main challenges of constructing a theory of massive gravity: the van Dam-Veltman-Zakharov discontinuity, the presence of a ghost field, and issues with renormalizability. It reviews proposed solutions to these challenges, including the Vainshtein mechanism and de Rham-Gabadadze-Tolley construction. While these approaches resolve some of the issues, the document notes there remain unresolved problems with developing a complete theory of massive gravity.
This document discusses a theoretical model for the coexistence of superconductivity and ferromagnetism in intermetallic uranium-based superconductors such as UCoGe, UIr, and UGe2. The model is based on a Hamiltonian that includes terms for conduction electrons, localized electrons, and interactions between conduction and localized electrons. Expressions are derived for the superconducting and ferromagnetic order parameters by calculating Green's functions. The results show that superconductivity and ferromagnetism can coexist when mediated by the same uranium 5f electrons in these materials. The model provides an explanation for experimental evidence of the coexistence of superconductivity and ferromagnetism below the superconducting transition temperature
This document introduces key concepts in statistical mechanics, including the idea that macroscopic properties are thermal averages of microscopic properties. It discusses common statistical ensembles like the microcanonical ensemble (isolated systems with constant energy) and the canonical ensemble (systems in equilibrium with a heat reservoir). The canonical partition function Z relates microscopic quantum mechanics to macroscopic thermodynamics and can be used to calculate thermodynamic variables. Properties like heat capacity can be derived from fluctuations in energy calculated from the partition function.
Understanding the experimental and mathematical derivation of Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. Simple application for estimating single degree of freedom particle in a potential free environment is also discussed.
This document discusses the quantization of electromagnetic radiation fields within the framework of quantum electrodynamics (QED). It begins by introducing the classical description of radiation fields in terms of vector potentials that satisfy the transversality condition. Next, it describes quantizing the classical radiation field by treating it as a collection of independent harmonic oscillators, with each oscillator characterized by a wave vector and polarization. Finally, it discusses how the quantization of these radiation oscillators leads to treating their canonical variables as non-commuting operators, in analogy to the quantization of position and momentum in non-relativistic quantum mechanics. This lays the foundation for a quantum description of radiation phenomena using the formalism of QED.
Fundamental principle of information to-energy conversion.Fausto Intilla
Abstract. - The equivalence of 1 bit of information to entropy was given by Landauer in 1961 as kln2, k the Boltzmann constant. Erasing information implies heat dissipation and the energy of 1 bit would then be (the
Landauer´s limit) kT ln 2, T being the ambient temperature. From a quantum-cosmological point of view the minimum quantum of energy in the universe corresponds today to a temperature of 10^-29 ºK, probably forming a cosmic background of a Bose condensate [1]. Then, the bit with minimum energy today in the Universe is a quantum of energy 10^-45 ergs, with an equivalent mass of 10^-66 g. Low temperature implies low energy per bit and, of course, this is the way for faster and less energy dissipating computing devices. Our conjecture is this: the possibility of a future access to the CBBC (a coupling/channeling?) would mean a huge
jump in the performance of these devices.
This document discusses whether quantum mechanics is involved in the early evolution of the universe and if a Machian relationship between gravitons and gravitinos can help answer this question. It proposes that:
1) Gravitons and gravitinos carry information and their relationship, described as a Mach's principle, conserves this information from the electroweak era to today. This suggests quantum mechanics may not be essential in early universe formation.
2) A minimum amount of initial information, such as a small value for Planck's constant, is needed to set fundamental cosmological parameters and could be transferred from a prior universe.
3) Early spacetime may have had a pre-quantum state with low entropy and degrees of freedom
Derivation of Maxwell's Equation for Diffusion Current and Klein-Gordon Equat...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Applied Physics (IOSR-JAP) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of physics and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in applied physics. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
1) The document summarizes the 100-year history of gravitational wave detection, from Einstein's theory of general relativity predicting their existence to the recent direct detection by the LIGO experiment.
2) It describes how LIGO uses laser interferometry to extremely sensitively measure tiny distortions in spacetime caused by passing gravitational waves.
3) The first detected gravitational waves in 2015 matched predictions for the inspiral and merger of two black holes, with the signal analyzed to determine properties of the black holes such as their masses.
UNION OF GRAVITATIONAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS ON THE BASIS OF NONTRADITIO...ecij
The traditional principle of solving the problem of combining the gravitational and electromagnetic fields is associated with the movement of the transformation of parameters from the electromagnetic to the gravitational field on the basis of Maxwell and Lorentz equations. The proposed non-traditional principle
is associated with the movement of the transformation of parameters from the gravitational to the electromagnetic field, which simplifies the process. Nave principle solving this task by using special physical quantities found by M. Planck in 1900: - Planck’s length, time and mass), the uniqueness of which is that they are obtained on the basis of 3 fundamental physical constants: the velocity c of light in vacuum, the Planck’s constant h and the gravitational constant G, which reduces them to the fundamentals of the Universe. Strict physical regularities were obtained for the based on intercommunication of 3-th
fundamental physical constants c, h and G, that allow to single out wave characteristic νG from G which is identified with the frequency of gravitational field. On this base other wave and substance parameters were strictly defined and their numerical values obtained. It was proved that gravitational field with the given wave parameters can be unified only with electromagnetic field having the same wave parameters that’s why it is possible only on Plank’s level of world creation. The solution of given problems is substantiated by well-known physical laws and conformities and not contradiction to modern knowledge about of material world and the Universe on the whole. It is actual for development of physics and other branches of science and technique.
UNION OF GRAVITATIONAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS ON THE BASIS OF NONTRADITIO...ecij
The traditional principle of solving the problem of combining the gravitational and electromagnetic fields
is associated with the movement of the transformation of parameters from the electromagnetic to the
gravitational field on the basis of Maxwell and Lorentz equations. The proposed non-traditional principle
is associated with the movement of the transformation of parameters from the gravitational to the
electromagnetic field, which simplifies the process. Nave principle solving this task by using special
physical quantities found by M. Planck in 1900: - Planck’s length, time and mass), the uniqueness of which
is that they are obtained on the basis of 3 fundamental physical constants: the velocity c of light in vacuum,
the Planck’s constant h and the gravitational constant G, which reduces them to the fundamentals of the
Universe. Strict physical regularities were obtained for the based on intercommunication of 3-th
fundamental physical constants c, h and G, that allow to single out wave characteristic νG from G which is
identified with the frequency of gravitational field. On this base other wave and substance parameters were
strictly defined and their numerical values obtained. It was proved that gravitational field with the given
wave parameters can be unified only with electromagnetic field having the same wave parameters that’s
why it is possible only on Plank’s level of world creation. The solution of given problems is substantiated
by well-known physical laws and conformities and not contradiction to modern knowledge about of
material world and the Universe on the whole. It is actual for development of physics and other branches
of science and technique.
The document describes a proposed Gravitational Spacecraft that could change space flight. It summarizes that electromagnetic fields can reduce, invert, or intensify gravitational forces by controlling gravitational mass. This allows concepts like a Gravitational Spacecraft that could have unusual trajectories without inertial impacts, as well as a Gravitational Motor that converts gravitational energy into rotation or electricity for free energy generation. Key devices mentioned are Gravity Control Cells and a Quantum Transceiver for communications.
Black holes and dark matter must have formed early in the universe's development for galaxies and stars to later form, according to this document. It proposes that fundamental particles called dyons, which carry both electric and magnetic charges, aggregated in the early exponentially expanding universe to form black holes and dark matter. As the universe expanded and its energy density decreased, these dyon aggregates could have evaporated or dissociated into the elementary particles observed in experiments today. The document presents models showing how fundamental particle energies may have decreased exponentially as the universe expanded, in a way that could explain the formation of black holes and dark matter from dyon aggregates in the early universe.
- The document investigates the implications of a proposed metallicity-dependent initial mass function (IMF), which suggests the IMF varies based on the metallicity of a star formation environment.
- Using observations of globular cluster Palomar 14 and open cluster M42, the author constrains an upper bound for metallicity dependence, resulting in a two-part power law IMF function that depends on metallicity.
- However, the document concludes that current evidence is inadequate to prove a metallicity-dependent IMF, as measurements of cluster IMFs are complicated by issues like dynamics, binaries, and evolution over time.
Quantum-Gravity Thermodynamics, Incorporating the Theory of Exactly Soluble Active Stochastic Processes, with Applications
by Daley, K.
Published in IJTP in 2009. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009IJTP..tmp...67D
This document is a physics problem set from MIT's 8.044 Statistical Physics I course in Spring 2004. It contains 5 problems related to statistical physics and probability distributions. Problem 1 considers the probability distribution and properties of the position of a particle undergoing simple harmonic motion. Problem 2 examines the probability distribution of the x-component of angular momentum for a quantum mechanical system. Problem 3 analyzes a mixed probability distribution describing the energy of an electron. Problem 4 involves finding and sketching the time-dependent probability distribution for the position of a particle given its wavefunction. Problem 5 concerns Bose-Einstein statistics and calculating properties of the distribution that describes the number of photons in a given mode.
The document discusses Einstein's field equations and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. It begins by providing background on Einstein's field equations, which relate the geometry of spacetime to the distribution of mass and energy within it. It then discusses some key mathematical aspects of the field equations, including their nonlinear partial differential form. Finally, it notes that the field equations can be consolidated with Heisenberg's uncertainty principle to provide a unified description of gravity and quantum mechanics.
Grand unified field theory a predator prey approach corroboration dissipation...Alexander Decker
The document discusses the four fundamental interactions in nature: gravitation, electromagnetism, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force. It describes how each interaction is mediated by different bosons being exchanged between fermions. The strong nuclear force binds quarks together via gluon exchange. The document also discusses how gravitation, while the weakest force on small scales, becomes important on large macroscopic scales due to its infinite range and inability to be shielded against.
The document discusses the development of quantum electrodynamics (QED) from its origins in Dirac's 1927 paper on the quantum theory of radiation. It provides an overview of the key topics covered in the subsequent chapters, including particles and fields, quantization of the electromagnetic field, Feynman diagrams, and renormalization in QED. The goal is to show how electrons and photons interact using quantum field theory by representing particles as excitations of underlying fields and developing perturbative techniques to calculate processes like scattering and radiation.
Using resonant ultrasound spectroscopy (RUS), the author will determine the complete elastic constant matrices of two thermoelectric single crystal samples, Ce.75Fe3CoSb12 and CeFe4Sb12. RUS involves measuring the resonant frequencies of a sample's vibrations, which depend on the sample's elastic constants, shape, orientation, and density. The author aims to obtain the elastic moduli from a single RUS spectrum for each sample. Understanding the elastic properties may help identify better thermoelectric materials by correlating low elastic stiffness with low thermal conductivity and higher thermoelectric efficiency. The author will compute the resonant frequencies using the samples' properties and compare to measurements.
Part III Essay: Could the graviton have a mass?Yiteng Dang
This document discusses theories of massive gravity. It begins by introducing linearized general relativity and the linear Fierz-Pauli theory of a massive spin-2 particle. It then discusses three main challenges of constructing a theory of massive gravity: the van Dam-Veltman-Zakharov discontinuity, the presence of a ghost field, and issues with renormalizability. It reviews proposed solutions to these challenges, including the Vainshtein mechanism and de Rham-Gabadadze-Tolley construction. While these approaches resolve some of the issues, the document notes there remain unresolved problems with developing a complete theory of massive gravity.
This document discusses a theoretical model for the coexistence of superconductivity and ferromagnetism in intermetallic uranium-based superconductors such as UCoGe, UIr, and UGe2. The model is based on a Hamiltonian that includes terms for conduction electrons, localized electrons, and interactions between conduction and localized electrons. Expressions are derived for the superconducting and ferromagnetic order parameters by calculating Green's functions. The results show that superconductivity and ferromagnetism can coexist when mediated by the same uranium 5f electrons in these materials. The model provides an explanation for experimental evidence of the coexistence of superconductivity and ferromagnetism below the superconducting transition temperature
This document introduces key concepts in statistical mechanics, including the idea that macroscopic properties are thermal averages of microscopic properties. It discusses common statistical ensembles like the microcanonical ensemble (isolated systems with constant energy) and the canonical ensemble (systems in equilibrium with a heat reservoir). The canonical partition function Z relates microscopic quantum mechanics to macroscopic thermodynamics and can be used to calculate thermodynamic variables. Properties like heat capacity can be derived from fluctuations in energy calculated from the partition function.
Understanding the experimental and mathematical derivation of Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. Simple application for estimating single degree of freedom particle in a potential free environment is also discussed.
This document discusses the quantization of electromagnetic radiation fields within the framework of quantum electrodynamics (QED). It begins by introducing the classical description of radiation fields in terms of vector potentials that satisfy the transversality condition. Next, it describes quantizing the classical radiation field by treating it as a collection of independent harmonic oscillators, with each oscillator characterized by a wave vector and polarization. Finally, it discusses how the quantization of these radiation oscillators leads to treating their canonical variables as non-commuting operators, in analogy to the quantization of position and momentum in non-relativistic quantum mechanics. This lays the foundation for a quantum description of radiation phenomena using the formalism of QED.
Fundamental principle of information to-energy conversion.Fausto Intilla
Abstract. - The equivalence of 1 bit of information to entropy was given by Landauer in 1961 as kln2, k the Boltzmann constant. Erasing information implies heat dissipation and the energy of 1 bit would then be (the
Landauer´s limit) kT ln 2, T being the ambient temperature. From a quantum-cosmological point of view the minimum quantum of energy in the universe corresponds today to a temperature of 10^-29 ºK, probably forming a cosmic background of a Bose condensate [1]. Then, the bit with minimum energy today in the Universe is a quantum of energy 10^-45 ergs, with an equivalent mass of 10^-66 g. Low temperature implies low energy per bit and, of course, this is the way for faster and less energy dissipating computing devices. Our conjecture is this: the possibility of a future access to the CBBC (a coupling/channeling?) would mean a huge
jump in the performance of these devices.
This document discusses whether quantum mechanics is involved in the early evolution of the universe and if a Machian relationship between gravitons and gravitinos can help answer this question. It proposes that:
1) Gravitons and gravitinos carry information and their relationship, described as a Mach's principle, conserves this information from the electroweak era to today. This suggests quantum mechanics may not be essential in early universe formation.
2) A minimum amount of initial information, such as a small value for Planck's constant, is needed to set fundamental cosmological parameters and could be transferred from a prior universe.
3) Early spacetime may have had a pre-quantum state with low entropy and degrees of freedom
Derivation of Maxwell's Equation for Diffusion Current and Klein-Gordon Equat...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Applied Physics (IOSR-JAP) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of physics and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in applied physics. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
1) The document summarizes the 100-year history of gravitational wave detection, from Einstein's theory of general relativity predicting their existence to the recent direct detection by the LIGO experiment.
2) It describes how LIGO uses laser interferometry to extremely sensitively measure tiny distortions in spacetime caused by passing gravitational waves.
3) The first detected gravitational waves in 2015 matched predictions for the inspiral and merger of two black holes, with the signal analyzed to determine properties of the black holes such as their masses.
UNION OF GRAVITATIONAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS ON THE BASIS OF NONTRADITIO...ecij
The traditional principle of solving the problem of combining the gravitational and electromagnetic fields is associated with the movement of the transformation of parameters from the electromagnetic to the gravitational field on the basis of Maxwell and Lorentz equations. The proposed non-traditional principle
is associated with the movement of the transformation of parameters from the gravitational to the electromagnetic field, which simplifies the process. Nave principle solving this task by using special physical quantities found by M. Planck in 1900: - Planck’s length, time and mass), the uniqueness of which is that they are obtained on the basis of 3 fundamental physical constants: the velocity c of light in vacuum, the Planck’s constant h and the gravitational constant G, which reduces them to the fundamentals of the Universe. Strict physical regularities were obtained for the based on intercommunication of 3-th
fundamental physical constants c, h and G, that allow to single out wave characteristic νG from G which is identified with the frequency of gravitational field. On this base other wave and substance parameters were strictly defined and their numerical values obtained. It was proved that gravitational field with the given wave parameters can be unified only with electromagnetic field having the same wave parameters that’s why it is possible only on Plank’s level of world creation. The solution of given problems is substantiated by well-known physical laws and conformities and not contradiction to modern knowledge about of material world and the Universe on the whole. It is actual for development of physics and other branches of science and technique.
UNION OF GRAVITATIONAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS ON THE BASIS OF NONTRADITIO...ecij
The traditional principle of solving the problem of combining the gravitational and electromagnetic fields
is associated with the movement of the transformation of parameters from the electromagnetic to the
gravitational field on the basis of Maxwell and Lorentz equations. The proposed non-traditional principle
is associated with the movement of the transformation of parameters from the gravitational to the
electromagnetic field, which simplifies the process. Nave principle solving this task by using special
physical quantities found by M. Planck in 1900: - Planck’s length, time and mass), the uniqueness of which
is that they are obtained on the basis of 3 fundamental physical constants: the velocity c of light in vacuum,
the Planck’s constant h and the gravitational constant G, which reduces them to the fundamentals of the
Universe. Strict physical regularities were obtained for the based on intercommunication of 3-th
fundamental physical constants c, h and G, that allow to single out wave characteristic νG from G which is
identified with the frequency of gravitational field. On this base other wave and substance parameters were
strictly defined and their numerical values obtained. It was proved that gravitational field with the given
wave parameters can be unified only with electromagnetic field having the same wave parameters that’s
why it is possible only on Plank’s level of world creation. The solution of given problems is substantiated
by well-known physical laws and conformities and not contradiction to modern knowledge about of
material world and the Universe on the whole. It is actual for development of physics and other branches
of science and technique.
The document describes a proposed Gravitational Spacecraft that could change space flight. It summarizes that electromagnetic fields can reduce, invert, or intensify gravitational forces by controlling gravitational mass. This allows concepts like a Gravitational Spacecraft that could have unusual trajectories without inertial impacts, as well as a Gravitational Motor that converts gravitational energy into rotation or electricity for free energy generation. Key devices mentioned are Gravity Control Cells and a Quantum Transceiver for communications.
Maxwell equations without a polarization field august 15 1 2020Bob Eisenberg
Electrodynamics is almost always written using a polarization vector field to describe the response of matter to an electric field, or more specifically, to describe the change in distribution of charges as an electric field is applied or changed. This approach does not allow unique specification of a polarization field from measurements of the electric and magnetic fields and electrical current.
Many polarization fields will produce the same electric and magnetic fields, and current, because only the divergence of the polarization enters Maxwell’s first equation, relating charge and electric field. The curl of any function can be added to a polarization field without changing the electric field at all. The divergence of the curl is always zero. Models of structures that produce polarization cannot be uniquely determined from electrical measurements for the same reason. Models must describe charge distribution not just distribution of polarization to be unique.
I propose a different approach, using a different paradigm to describe field dependent charge, i.e., to describe the phenomena of polarization. I propose an operational definition of polarization that has worked well in biophysics where a field dependent, time dependent polarization provides the gating current that makes neuronal sodium and potassium channels respond to voltage. The operational definition has been applied successfully to experiments for nearly fifty years. Estimates of polarization have been computed from simulations, models, and theories using this definition and they fit experimental data quite well.
I propose that the same operational definition be used to define polarization charge in experiments, models, computations, theories, and simulations of other systems. Charge movement needs to be computed from a combination of electrodynamics and mechanics because ‘everything interacts with everything else’.
The classical polarization field need not enter into that treatment at all.
Unification theory with no extra dimensions. The first part unifies the strong nuclear force with the gravitational force in a mathematical way; the quantum vacuum is treated as a deformable system by the strong nuclear force. The second part unifies the nuclear force with the quantum vacuum in a hypothetical structure; the quantum vacuum is treated as a supersymmetric and metastable system with properties related to the different types of particles’ motion.
1) The document proposes an alternative cosmological model where dark matter and dark energy are described as forms of ether, analogous to Mach's principle of inertia.
2) In this model, dark matter arises from the QCD vacuum or "sea" of quark-antiquark pairs and gluons at the confinement scale, while dark energy corresponds to the zero-point energy of the QCD vacuum.
3) The model aims to replace the standard LambdaCDM model, treating the expanding universe as a dynamically stable "biking" Einstein universe where the running cosmological constant compensates for the effect of gravity at all epochs.
Electron's gravitational and electrostatic force test.RitikBhardwaj56
This innovative ebook by John A. Macken delves deep into the fascinating world of electron interactions, shedding light on wave-based models and their impact on gravitational and electrostatic forces. Macken's theory 'Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation of the Universe' revolutionizes our understanding of fundamental forces at the quantum level. From explaining key parameters without dimensions to comparing gravitational and electrostatic forces, this ebook offers a thorough exploration of wave-based models in electron interactions.
With a fresh perspective, this ebook is a key player in advancing physics education. It simplifies complex concepts through Macken's theory, providing valuable insights into fundamental forces for students and educators alike. The inclusion of natural units and dimensionless constants makes quantum mechanics more accessible, improving the learning process for students at every level. As a result, this ebook is an essential tool for classrooms, self-study, and research, contributing to the ongoing development of scientific knowledge in the field of physics.
This document summarizes elementary particles in physics. It describes how particles are classified into leptons and hadrons. Leptons include electrons, muons, taus and their neutrinos. Hadrons include baryons like protons and neutrons, and mesons. Interactions are also classified, including the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions. The electromagnetic interaction between charged leptons and photons is described based on local gauge invariance, resulting in a theory of quantum electrodynamics that agrees well with experiments.
Artigo que descreve o trabalho feito com o Chandra nos aglomerados de galáxias de Perseus e Virgo sobre a descoberta de uma turbulência cósmica que impede a formação de novas estrelas.
The document studies small excitonic complexes in a disk-shaped quantum dot using the Bethe-Goldstone equation. It examines systems with up to 12 electron-hole pairs. For symmetric configurations where the number of electrons equals the number of holes, it finds:
1) The triexciton and four-exciton system show weak binding or possible unbinding in the weak confinement regime.
2) Higher complexes beyond four pairs exhibit binding in the weak confinement regime.
3) The Bethe-Goldstone approach provides better energies than the BCS variational method in the weak confinement regime.
FROM THE PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION TO THE CONSERVATION OF QUANTUM INFORMATION...Vasil Penchev
In fact, the first law of conservation (that of mass) was found in chemistry and generalized to the conservation of energy in physics by means of Einstein’s famous “E=mc2”. Energy conservation is implied by the principle of least action from a variational viewpoint as in Emmy Noether’s theorems (1918): any chemical change in a conservative (i.e. “closed”) system can be accomplished only in the way conserving its total energy. Bohr’s innovation to found Mendeleev’s periodic table by quantum mechanics implies a certain generalization referring to
the quantum leaps as if accomplished in all possible trajectories (according to Feynman’s interpretation) and therefore generalizing the principle of least action and needing a certain generalization of energy conservation as to any quantum change.The transition from the first to the second theorem of Emmy Noether represents well the necessary generalization: its chemical meaning is the ge eralization of any chemical reaction to be accomplished as if any possible course of time rather than in the standard evenly running time (and equivalent to energy conservation according to the first theorem). The problem: If any quantum change is accomplished in al possible “variations (i.e. “violations) of energy conservation” (by different probabilities),
what (if any) is conserved? An answer: quantum information is what is conserved. Indeed, it can be particularly defined as the counterpart (e.g. in the sense of Emmy Noether’s theorems) to the physical quantity of action (e.g. as energy is the counterpart of time in them). It is valid in any course of time rather than in the evenly running one. That generalization implies a generalization of the periodic table including any continuous and smooth transformation between two chemical elements.
This document discusses the origin of inertia and how gravity can account for inertial reaction forces. It summarizes Dennis Sciama's 1953 argument that showed how the gravitational interaction of local matter with distant matter, modeled similarly to electric charges and electromagnetic fields, can produce inertial forces. Later work by D.J. Raine and others showed this is true in general relativity. However, subtleties remain regarding how distant matter could "know" to produce the right reaction forces instantaneously, as inertia is observed. Possible explanations involving instantaneous or retrocausal interactions are discussed.
While most of the singularities of General Relativity are expected to be safely hidden behind event horizons by the cosmic censorship conjecture, we happen to live in the causal future of the classical big bang singularity, whose resolution constitutes the active field of early universe cosmology...
Rethinking the dynamics of an accelerated charge from classical concepts. From the idea that radiation
comes from kinetic energy and managing the problem of the auto-energy of a point charge, a system of
non-linear dynamic equations are found and results amenable to experimental verification. In developing, a
relationship between the principle of causality, which affects the direction of time, and the constancy of
mass appears. Another consequence are the fluctuations in the motion of particles, compatible with
Brownian motion and Heisenberg´s indeterminacy principle. The case of gravitational acceleration is also
analyzed, concluding that no electromagnetic radiation is possible and there is no electric field that can
produce a constant acceleration on a point charge. Thus the constant acceleration is an exclusive feature of
gravity.
Rethinking the dynamics of an accelerated charge from classical concepts. From the idea that radiation
comes from kinetic energy and managing the problem of the auto-energy of a point charge, a system of
non-linear dynamic equations are found and results amenable to experimental verification. In developing, a
relationship between the principle of causality, which affects the direction of time, and the constancy of
mass appears. Another consequence are the fluctuations in the motion of particles, compatible with
Brownian motion and Heisenberg´s indeterminacy principle. The case of gravitational acceleration is also
analyzed, concluding that no electromagnetic radiation is possible and there is no electric field that can
produce a constant acceleration on a point charge. Thus the constant acceleration is an exclusive feature of
gravity.
An apologytodirac'sreactionforcetheorySergio Prats
This work comments and praises Dirac's work on the reaction force theory, it is based on his 1938 'Classical theory of radiating electrons' paper. Some comments from the author are added.
Derivation of Schrodinger and Einstein Energy Equations from Maxwell's Electr...iosrjce
1) The document derives both the Schrodinger quantum equation and Einstein's relativistic energy-momentum relation from Maxwell's electric wave equation.
2) It does so by considering particles as oscillators and using Planck's quantum hypothesis. The electric field intensity vector is replaced by the wave function.
3) Several steps and equations are shown to first derive the Schrodinger equation, and then the electric polarization and special relativity concepts are used to derive Einstein's energy-momentum relation.
1) The document proposes a theory of statistical geometrodynamics derived from novel statistical postulates about fundamental constituents of spacetime called "geomets".
2) Key results include deriving the Einstein field equations as a first law of geometrodynamics, and relating the Ricci curvature tensor to the entropy of a holographic surface bounding spacetime via a second law.
3) A third law and zeroeth law of geometrodynamics are also proposed, relating the mean curvature of the holographic surface to bit saturation in the bulk and on the surface.
The Equation Based on the Rotational and Orbital Motion of the PlanetsIJERA Editor
Equations of dependence of rotational and orbital motions of planets are given, their rotation angles are calculated. Wave principles of direct and reverse rotation of planets are established. The established dependencies are demonstrated at different scale levels of structural interactions, in biosystems as well. The accuracy of calculations corresponds to the accuracy of experimental data
Similar to Physics of the Universe in New Perspective (20)
New Thermodynamics: A Superior Fit Revised Kinetic Theoryijrap
The accepted kinetic theory forms a basis for modern thermodynamics and is mathematically based upon equipartition and degrees of freedom. It remains plagued with the necessity of numerous degrees of freedom exceptions for it to explain both empirically determined heat capacities and adiabatic indexes. Furthermore, assuming kT/2 per degree of freedom is to accept that a gas molecule possesses a specified energy without providing any clarity concerning that energy’s origins. Energy without an origin contravenes the first law of thermodynamics. This author’s previously published superior fit kinetic theory will be clarified and elaborated upon. This includes showing that this revised kinetic theory is a superior fit to both known heat capacities and adiabatic indexes. Not only is it a superior fit that does not rely upon any exceptions, this author’s kinetic theory also provides insight into the actual sources of a gas molecule’s energy. Furthermore, clarity concerning the difference between isometric (isochoric) and isobaric heat capacities in terms of sensible work will be discussed, along withits likely empirical verification.
On the Unification of Physic and the Elimination of Unbound Quantitiesijrap
This paper supports Descartes' idea of a constant quantity of motion, modernized by Leibniz. Unlike Leibniz, the paper emphasizes that the idea is not realized by forms of energy, but by energy itself. It remains constant regardless of the form, type, or speed of motion, even that of light. Through force, energy is only transformed. Here it is proved that force is its derivative. It exists even at rest, representing the object's minimal energy state. With speed, we achieve its multiplication up to the maximum energy state, from which a maximum force is derived from the object. From this point, corresponding to Planck's Length, we find the value of the force wherever we want. Achieving this removes the differences between various natural forces. The new idea eliminates infinite magnitudes. The process allows the laws to transition from simple to complex forms and vice versa, through differentiation-integration. For this paper, this means achieving the Unification Theory.
Gravity Also Redshifts Light – the Missing Phenomenon That Could Resolve Most...ijrap
In this paper I discover that gravity also redshifts light like the velocity of its source does. When light travels towards a supermassive object, its waves (or photons) undergo continuous stretching, thereby shifting towards lower frequencies. Gravity redshifts light irrespective of whether its source is in motion or static with respect to its observer. An equation is derived for gravitational redshift, and a formula for combined redshift is presented by considering both the velocity, and gravity redshifts. Also explained is how frequencies of electromagnetic spectrum continuously downgrade as a light beam of mix frequencies passes towards a black hole. Further, a clear methodology is provided to figure out whether expansion of the universe is accelerating or decelerating, or alternatively, the universe is contracting.
In this paper I present a new theory that explains as to when and how dark energy is created as mass is destroyed. The theory extends Einstein’s mass energy equation to a more generic form in order to make it work even in high gravity conditions. It also explains why dark energy is created. Further, it is proved Einstein’s mass energy equation holds good only when the destroyed mass has no supermassive object in its close vicinity. The relationship between dark energy and dark matter is unveiled. An extended mathematical form of Einstein’s mass energy equation is derived, based on which the conditions leading to dark energy creation are explained. Three new physical parameters called dark energy discriminant, dark energy radius and dark energy boundary are introduced to facilitate easy understanding of the theory. It is explained in detail that an extremely superdense object has two dark energy boundaries, outer and inner. Mass destroyed only between these two boundaries creates dark energy. Dark energy space, the space between the two aforementioned boundaries, shrouds visible matter in obscurity from optical and electromagnetic telescopes. This theory identifies Gargantuan as a superdense black hole currently creating fresh dark energy, which could be the subject of interest for the astronomical research community having access to sophisticated telescopes, and working on dark energy. It also upholds dark energy and denies the existence of dark matter. Dark matter is nothing but the well-known visible matter positioned in dark energy space. An important relationship is derived between a photon’s frequency and its distance from a black hole to demonstrate the effect of gravity on light. Another important fact revealed by this theory is gravity stretches out light, thereby causing redshift, which is unaccounted in the computation of velocities of outer galaxies. Whether the universe is undergoing accelerated or decelerated expansion, or accelerated contraction can precisely be determined only after accounting for the redshift caused by gravity
International Journal on Soft Computing, Artificial Intelligence and Applicat...ijrap
International Journal on Soft Computing, Artificial Intelligence and Applications (IJSCAI)
is an open access peer-reviewed journal that provides an excellent international forum for sharing
knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of Artificial Intelligence, Soft
Computing. The Journal looks for significant contributions to all major fields of the Artificial
Intelligence, Soft Computing in theoretical and practical aspects. The aim of the Journal is to
provide a platform to the researchers and practitioners from both academia as well as industry to
meet and share cutting-edge development in the field.
Authors are solicited to contribute to the journal by submitting articles that illustrate research
results, projects, surveying works and industrial experiences that describe significant advances in
the areas of Database management systems.
SOME THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF HYDROGEN DIFFUSION IN BCC METALS AT LOW TEMPERATURESijrap
Purpose of the work is to discuss some theoretical aspects of the diffusion of hydrogen atoms in the crystal
lattice of BCC metals at low temperatures using the methods of statistical thermodynamics. The values of
the statistical model calculations of H diffusion coefficients in α-Fe, V, Ta, Nb, K are in good agreement
with the experimental data. The statistical model can also explain deviations from the Arrhenius equation
at temperatures 300-100 K in α-Fe, V, Nb and K. It was suggested that thermally activated fast tunnelling
transition of hydrogen atoms through the potential barrier at a temperature below 300 K provides an
almost free movement of H atoms in the α-Fe and V lattice at these temperatures. The results show that
quantum-statistical effects play a decisive role in the H diffusion in BCC metals at low temperatures. Using
the statistical model allows for the prediction of the diffusion coefficient for H in BCC metals at low
temperatures, where it’s necessary to consider quantum effects.
MASSIVE PHOTON HYPOTHESIS OPENS DOORS TO NEW FIELDS OF RESEARCHijrap
1) A massive photon hypothesis is proposed, where the photon mass is directly calculated from kinetic gas theory to be 1.25605 x 10-39 kg.
2) This photon mass explains various experiments like light deflection near the Sun and the gravitational redshift.
3) The photon gas is found to behave as a perfect blackbody and ideal gas, with photons having 6 degrees of freedom.
4) The thermal de Broglie wavelength of this photon gas is calculated to be 1.75967 x 10-3 m, matching the wavelength of the cosmic microwave background radiation.
5) This links the CMB radiation to being continuously generated by the photon gas permeating space, rather than being a relic of
PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD REGARDING A THIRD THEORY OF PHYSICS “THE EVENT:THE TH...ijrap
The quest for a third theory uniting macro-cosmos (relativity) and micro-cosmos (quantum mechanics) has coexisted with the denial of feminine/subjective polarity to masculine/objective. The dismissal of electromagnetism as the tension of opposites in quest of inner/outer unity is sourced in the denial of the feminine qualia -- the negative force field attributed to dark energy/dark matter. However, a conversion philosophy sourced in the hieros gamos and signified by the Mobius strip has formulated an integral consciousness methodology producing quantum objects by means of embracing the shadow haunting contemporary physics. This Self-reflecting process integrating subject/object comprises an ontology of kairos as the “quantum leap.” An interdisciplinary quest to create a phenomenological narrative is disclosed via a holistic apparatus of hermeneutics manifesting image/text of a contemporary grail journey. Reflected in this Third space is the sacred reality of autonomous number unifying polarities of feminine/subjective (quality) and objective/masculine (quantity) as new measurement apparatus for the quantum wave collapse.
3rd International Conference on Integrating Technology in Education (ITE 2022)ijrap
3rd International Conference on Integrating Technology in Education (ITE 2022) This forum also aims to provide a platform for exchanging ideas in new emerging trends that needs more focus and exposure and will attempt to publish proposals that strengthen our goals.
A SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MATTER, ENERGY, INFORMATION, AND CONSCIOUSNESSijrap
This paper discusses the advantages of describing the universe, or nature, in terms of information and consciousness. Some problems encountered by theoretical physicists in the quest for the theory of everything stem from the limitations of trying to understand everything in terms of matter and energy only. However, if everything, including matter, energy, life, and mental processes, is described in terms of information and consciousness, much progress can be made in the search for the ultimate theory of the universe. As brilliant and successful as physics and chemistry have been over the last two centuries, it is important that nature is not viewed solely in terms of matter and energy. Two additional components are needed to unlock her secrets. While extensive writing exists that describes the connection between matter and energy and their physical basis, little work has been done to learn the special relationship between matter, energy, information, and consciousness.
This paper discusses the advantages of describing the universe, or nature, in terms of information and consciousness. Some problems encountered by theoretical physicists in the quest for the theory of everything stem from the limitations of trying to understand everything in terms of matter and energy only. However, if everything, including matter, energy, life, and mental processes, is described in terms of information and consciousness, much progress can be made in the search for the ultimate theory of the universe. As brilliant and successful as physics and chemistry have been over the last two centuries, it is important that nature is not viewed solely in terms of matter and energy. Two additional components are needed to unlock her secrets. While extensive writing exists that describes the connection between matter and energy and their physical basis, little work has been done to learn the special relationship between matter, energy, information, and
consciousness.
THE CONCEPT OF SPACE AND TIME: AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVEijrap
Understanding the concept of space and time is critical, essential, and fundamental in searching for theall-encompassing theory or the theory of everything (ToE). Some physicists argue that time exists, whileothers posit that time is only a social or mental construct. The author presents an African thought systemon space and time conception, focusing on the African (Bantu) view of space and time. The author arguesthat before the advent of the Western linear view of space and time, Africans had their own visionregarding these two concepts. Their conception of time appears to be holistic, highly philosophical, non-linear, and thought-provoking. The author hopes that exploring these two concepts from an African perspective will provide a new and more in-depth insight into reality's nature. A scientific investigation of space and time from an African-centered perspective is a worthy and necessary endeavor in the quest forthe ToE
Learning to Pronounce as Measuring Cross Lingual Joint Orthography Phonology ...ijrap
Machine learning models allow us to compare languages by showing how hard a task in each language might be to learn and perform well on. Following this line of investigation, we explore what makes a language “hard to pronounce” by modelling the task of grapheme-to-phoneme (g2p) transliteration. By training a character-level transformer model on this task across 22 languages and measuring the model’s proficiency against its grapheme and phoneme inventories, we show that certain characteristics emerge that separate easier and harder languages with respect to learning to pronounce. Namely the complexity of a language's pronunciation from its orthography is due to the expressive or simplicity of its grapheme-to phoneme mapping. Further discussion illustrates how future studies should consider relative data sparsity per language to design fairer cross-lingual comparison tasks.
THE CONCEPT OF SPACE AND TIME: AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVEijrap
Understanding the concept of space and time is critical, essential, and fundamental in searching for the all-encompassing theory or the theory of everything (ToE). Some physicists argue that time exists, while others posit that time is only a social or mental construct. The author presents an African thought system on space and time conception, focusing on the African (Bantu) view of space and time. The author argues
that before the advent of the Western linear view of space and time, Africans had their own vision
regarding these two concepts. Their conception of time appears to be holistic, highly philosophical, nonlinear, and thought-provoking. The author hopes that exploring these two concepts from an African
perspective will provide a new and more in-depth insight into reality's nature. A scientific investigation of space and time from an African-centered perspective is a worthy and necessary endeavor in the quest for the ToE.
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed, open access journal, addresses the impacts and challenges of Physics. The journal documents practical and theoretical results which make a fundamental contribution for the development of Physics.
The Concept of Space and Time: An African Perspectiveijrap
Understanding the concept of space and time is critical, essential, and fundamental in searching for the all-encompassing theory or the theory of everything (ToE). Some physicists argue that time exists, while others posit that time is only a social or mental construct. The author presents an African thought system on space and time conception, focusing on the African (Bantu) view of space and time. The author argues that before the advent of the Western linear view of space and time, Africans had their own vision regarding these two concepts. Their conception of time appears to be holistic, highly philosophical, nonlinear, and thought-provoking. The author hopes that exploring these two concepts from an African perspective will provide a new and more in-depth insight into reality's nature. A scientific investigation of space and time from an African-centered perspective is a worthy and necessary endeavor in the quest for the ToE.
The majority of physicists take it for granted that the universe is made up of matter. In turn, matter is composed of atoms; atoms are made up of particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. Also, protons
and neutrons are composed of quarks, etc. Furthermore, that everything in nature is governed by the known laws of physics and chemistry. The author only partially shares this view. He argues that many phenomena in the universe may depend on rules or factors as yet incorporated by the physical sciences.
The last few years have led him to reflect on the many unsolved physics problems, such as the quest for the theory of everything (ToE), the arrow of time, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, the fine-tuned
universe, etc. to mention just a few. The author posits that a field carries information, performs various mathematical and computational operations, and behaves as an intelligent entity embedded with consciousness.
Call For Papers - International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed, open access journal, addresses the impacts and challenges of Physics. The journal documents practical and theoretical results which make a fundamental contribution for the development of Physics.
Call For Papers - International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
The International Journal of Recent Advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed open access journal that addresses impacts and challenges in the field of physics. It covers theoretical and practical results across many areas of physics including advanced functional materials, applied optics, condensed matter physics, nuclear physics, quantum physics, and more. Authors are invited to submit papers by email before October 30, 2021. Notifications of acceptance will be provided by November 25, 2021.
Call For Papers - International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed, open access journal, addresses the impacts and challenges of Physics. The journal documents practical and theoretical results which make a fundamental contribution for the development of Physics.
Mending Clothing to Support Sustainable Fashion_CIMaR 2024.pdfSelcen Ozturkcan
Ozturkcan, S., Berndt, A., & Angelakis, A. (2024). Mending clothing to support sustainable fashion. Presented at the 31st Annual Conference by the Consortium for International Marketing Research (CIMaR), 10-13 Jun 2024, University of Gävle, Sweden.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths Forward
Physics of the Universe in New Perspective
1. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
1
Physics of the Universe in New Perspective
Paul K. Suh
Cosmo.One Group, Fairbanks Court, Woodbury, New York
ABSTRACT
The electromagnetism and gravity are unified where, while the first originates from the electric charges in a
linear exposition, the second emerges in a quadratic manifestation of it, making the gravity always
attractive. This helps identify the inner structures of all the primary particles—quarks, leptons, and the
{Z,W} bosons as well as the 125 GeV state without the Higgs mechanism—to predict their masses by one
integer parameter formulas in close agreement with the observed values. This in turn enables
determination of the mechanism for building their ground and excited compound states. The consequences
are far-reaching and embracing, for examples, from identifying dark matter and energy that makes the
explanation of masses in the Universe 100 % inclusive, to solving the hackneyed yet equally elusive puzzle
of why the inertial mass is equal to the gravitational mass.
KEYWORDS
PACS: Unified theory (gravity): 045.50.-h; Particle model: 12.60-i; Dark matter: 95.35.+d ; Dark energy:
95.36.+x; Cosmology: 98.80.-k
I. Introduction
General Relativity does not explain the origin of “mass”, and the observed gravity between
masses is explained as the warping of the space-time by those masses. Einstein's concept of
General Relativity could be superseded by the establishment of a Quantum Gravity that explicates
the origin of mass [1]. The masses of the primary particles vary by over 11 orders of magnitude,
from the electron neutrino to the top quark. The question of from where do these masses arise,
and why are they so vastly divergent, is one of the greatest mysteries in physics. Aside from the
fact that there were no theories that enabled to determine the primary particle mass levels geared
to the Standard Model, it is easier to formulate a physics model with mass-less and point-like
particles [2; p348; 3, p213].
The Standard Model requires 29 constants for the particle masses and the strength of the
interactions, being plugged into the theory by hand, based on observation. Since most particles
actually do have their spontaneous masses with their spatial expanse, the Standard Model is a sign
of the human inability to look into the ultimately minute structure of particles.
In fact, not long ago, human incompetence led to the geocentric cosmos. It seemed correct to the
naked eye, and Ptolemy could account for many observed phenomena in the solar system.
However, the model proved wrong and, with the development of the telescope, Galileo led to the
heliocentric cosmos.
2. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
2
The geocentric model, in terms of Ptolemy theory before the telescope, is comparable to the
Standard Model scuffling to establish the particle mass in terms of Higgs mechanism. This paper
introduces a particle femtoscope [of the femtometer scale, opposite to the telescope in the
macrocosm] and proves that those particles that Standard Model conjectures to be fundamental
have substructures, which spontaneously generate the masses for all primary particles.
It had been long known that the Higgs field was not the sole mechanism that could break the
symmetry between the behavior of electromagnetism and the weak force [3, p246]. In fact, the
assertion that the Higgs mechanism explains all masses in the Universe is a pure conjecture (see
$IX), and it was not even indispensable in the scheme of Standard Model [4].
In contrast, the theory in this paper accurately predicts all the observed particle masses in
one-to-one correspondence by single (sequential integer) parameter arithmetic formulas.
Particles—not only the quarks and leptons, but also the {Z,W} bosons as well as the 125 GeV
mass state without requiring the Higgs mechanism—spontaneously acquire their masses with
their systematic substructures at their production. That in turn enables facile determinations of
their composite particles states—the ground and excited states of nucleons, mesons, and
hyperons—in close agreement with the observations [see §II, §V, §VI, and §X]. The Higgs
mechanism has no proprietary claim to the 125 GeV state as well as to the {Z,W} bosons. It is
imperative for the particle physics to move on from the Ptolemy's geocentric version to the
heliocentric version as indicated in Fig.1.
The theory in this paper is primarily founded on the unification of electromagnetism and gravity,
which the great Einstein sought in vain from 1925 to 1955. This paper shows that, while
electromagnetism arises from the linear manifestation of the electric charge “e”—both attractive
and repulsive, super-imposable to shield its local fields—the gravity (and thus the particle
masses) is established from its quadratic revelation in “e2
”—always additively attractive,
circumventing the self-shielding effect.
Heliocentric Cosmic Model Factual Mass Standard Model
↑ ↑
↑ ↑
(bypass the Ptolemy Essay) (bypass the Higgs Essay)
↑ ↑
Cosmic Telescope Particle Femtoscope
↑ ↑
↑ ↑
Geocentric Cosmic Model Zero-mass Standard Model
Fig. 1. Reaching up to Correct Theories. (♣♣The particles have substructure in the femtometer scale, and
the single parameter arithmetic formulas predict all particle masses, including the {Z,W} bosons and 125
GeV mass states in agreement with observations without the Higgs mechanism).
The immensely large ratio between the fine structure constants of the unified electromagnetism
3. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
3
and gravity now indicates a vastly more diverging capability of the gravity over the
electromagnetism. This requires dual (dispersion) Planck Constants {ћ, ћ*} for the {EM, gravity}
interactions, where ћ* emerges greatly larger than ћ (see §II and §IV), not only to validates the
simple formulas to predict the particle masses (see §V, §VI, §VII, and §XI), but also to help
remove the vexing incompatibility between gravitational quantum mechanics and General
Relativity.
By comparing the quantum tunneling probabilities in terms of the (dispersion) Planck Constants
{ћ, ћ*}, the observed disparate propagation properties of the {EM, gravity} through the event
horizon in the black hole provide the clues for the origin of the universal phenomena of the dark
matter and energy [5]. Dark matter and energy really are the baryons and electromagnetic energy
in the other zone of the dual Universe, and thus the origin of mass in the Universe can be
explained 100 percent inclusive. Along the way, the evolving physics, to cite an example, solves
the perceived matter asymmetry conundrum in the Universe.
II. Origin Of Mass And The Gravitational Dispersion Planck Constant
The basic tenet here is that the mass me ≈ 0.511 MeV for the electron of charge
q = - e (as well as for positron of charge q = +e) can be determined from its electrostatic
potential energy operative in a corpus of classical radius re ≈ 2.81 x 10 -13
cm [6], that is,
(1)
This equation carries crucially important implications:
The electron in its naked state bring re to light as the universal radius of all basic particles (see §
III).
(2) The basic substructure components can be compressed to enhance their masses (see §X).
The compression of electron from radius re to rℓ = re /ℓ may increase its mass from me to
mℓ = e 2
/rℓ = ℓ me .
The large gravity (dispersion) Planck Constant ћ* [see Eq. (9)] facilitates the lattice
substructure of compacted electric charges to generate the particle masses.
The particle masses can be generated with congregation of the compacted charge bit mℓ
M = nℓ ( e 2
/rℓ ) = nℓ ℓ me
(2)
where nℓ = number of the compressed charge bits.
While the Planck Constant, ћ, plays vital roles in virtually all EM quantum phenomena, the
gravitational quantum mechanics in terms of the same Planck Constant has only led to
inconsistencies and dilemmas. To explicate this problem, consider the EM fine structure constant,
αem = e 2
/ ћc = 1/137.04 , or
ћ αem = e 2
/c . (3)
The RHS of Eq.(3) is an universal constant that gauges the diverting rate of electron charge
originated field, rendering the Planck Constant ћ—besides establishing the quantum energy by
4. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
4
ћω—a dual role as the EM (dispersion) Planck Constant, that is,
ћ = (e 2
/c) / αem (4)
For the gravitational fine structure constant, αgr = g2
/ ћc = 1.75 x 10 -45 ,
where g 2
= G m1 m2 for the case of m1 = m2 = me.. The electronic origin of mass abrogates
the gravitational constant G along with masses m1 and m2 as makeshift parameters, and
transposes them to “e”, whereupon the invariant conformation demands an associated (dispersion)
Planck Constant for the gravitational interaction “ћ*” by,
ћ* αgr = a universal constant = e 2
/c, giving (5)
α gr = g 2
/ ћc = e 2
/ ћ*c , whereupon (6)
e 2
/g 2
= ћ*/ћ = 4.17 x 1042
(7)
Thus the (dispersion) Planck Constants for the EM and gravity, respectively, are
(8)
ћ* (/sec) ≈ 2.74 x 1018
GeV. (9)
This ћ* is not arbitrary, a priory being prescribed by the normalized Planck's energy [7],
Ep = [ћ c5
/8πG]1/2
= [(mec2
)2
/8παgr ]1/2
≈ 2.43 x 1018
GeV (10)
Because of the phenomenally large ћ*, the possible gravitational wave emission by energy ћ*ω
in line with the EM energy ћω would require massive wave emitters (see §IV). Along the way,
the (dispersive) quantum uncertainty principles for the EM interaction,
(∆ p )( ∆ x) = ћ and (∆ E)(∆t) = ћ (11)
would be extended into the quantum uncertainty principle for the gravitational interaction,
(∆ p* )( ∆ x*) = ћ* and (∆ E*)(∆t*) = ћ* (12)
3. The Universal Elementary Particle Radius
The Planck Length [7] in terms of the (dispersion) Planck Constant ћ,
Lp = [ћG/c3
]1/2
≈ 1.616 x 10 -33
cm (13)
would represent the shortest universal length that might prompt discrete structures. In terms of the
5. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
5
gravitational (dispersion) Planck Constant, ћ*, the Planck length becomes,
L p*= [ћ*G/c3
]1/2
≈ O(10
- 12
cm ) (14)
which is close to the electron radius, re . On the other hand, the electron of a single charge bit “e”
would reveal its naked particle radius unperturbed. The conformity of re with Lp* in the
femtometer scale—out of the queue of ambiguities and approximation—manifests the universal
role of radius “re” in the elementary particle structures as has been so demonstrated in this paper.
It shall be seen (see § X and §XI) that the quarks and leptons do not act as hard spheres. Instead,
the particle radius under duress may dwindle significantly from its intrinsic radius re : the quarks
in the nucleons, for example, shrink by a factor of O(100). What can be measured is not the hard
(upper) bound of the particle radius; rather it is a lower bound (which can be much smaller by
what is called the “contact interaction scale”, at which the effects of interaction among the
particle constituents become palpable. The quarks at a certain culminating limit might even
appear to be point-like.
Since the neutrinos belong to the lepton family, they—despite their diminutive masses would also
carry an innate volume capacity of radius re , and respond to energy perturbations in a way as a
hotel room that accommodates a guest. Because of the extraordinary large ћ*, on the other hand,
the sizable uncertainty ∆ E* in Eq. (12) at certain time ∆t* could be teleported [8] from one to
the other like the transient wayfarer who comes to occupy the hotel room and goes away on a
whim. This neutrino mass oscillation phenomena [9] might provide a support for not only the
large , ћ*, but also the legitimacy of the universal elementary particle radius re .
4. Quantum Tunneling of the EM Radiation and Gravity
With the (dispersion) Planck constant ћ in Eq. (11), an initial spatial EM uncertainty ∆xo blows
up in time t to
∆ x ≈ ћ t / (mph ∆ x0) (15)
The corresponding gravitational uncertainty from Eq. (12) is
∆ x* ≈ ћ*t / (mgr ∆ x0*) (16)
Here mph and mgr represent the benchmark masses for the photon and graviton [10].
In an inclusive multiple-order of magnitudes for narrative simplicity, the source for the EM
interactions ranges around rћ,ext ≈ Omulti (10- 13
cm), and so has proven to be for the gravitational
mass ranges around rћ*,ext ≈ Omulti(10-13
cm) [see § III]. From Eqs. (15, 16), the initial
uncertainties
∆ x0 ≈ O (rћ ,ext ) ≈ ∆ x*0 ≈ O (rћ* ,ext ) (17)
diverge in a benchmark approximation to
∆ x*/∆ x ≈ O( ћ*mph / ћ mgr) ≈ O( 10 48
) (18)
6. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
6
The import of Eq. (18) can be reinforced scrupulously in terms of the tunneling probabilities
Tp{ћ, ћ*} of the photons and gravitons that can be, respectively, determined in the main by the
exponential factors of
Tp{ћ} ∝ exp{-2[2mV]
1/2
a/ ћ}, and Tp{ћ*} ∝ exp{-2[2mV]
1/2
a/ ћ*}, (19)
where, with the benchmark masses of m, a and V represent the effective width and the quantum
partition potential from the source to the dispersing environ [11]. With the diminutive ћ, Tp{ћ}
→ 0, while Tp{ћ*} → 1 because of the extremely large ћ*. The mass originates from the quarks
(or nucleons) and leptons [see Eq. (2)], and the gravity in terms of the large Dispersion Planck
Constant ћ* diffuses away into the vast Universe unaffected as if the rest of the Universe is
empty. The gravity thus arises from everywhere that is seen as well as unseen, and affects all that
is seen and unseen, accounting for every mass fragment of the Universe.
The dual Dispersion Planck Constants {ћ, ћ*} thus provide pivotal roles in explaining many
hardcore conundrums, among them being:
1) The EM(ћ) radiation is trapped inside the black hole event horizon with vanishing tunneling
probability, while the gravity(ћ*) freely escapes the grip of the black hole with the optimum
tunneling probability to impact its surrounding, and produces the swirls of materials being sucked
down, even forming a binary system with another star.
2) It had been submitted that the Hermitean-antiHermitean symmetry physics [5,11,12] is the
basic physical tenet of the Universe, leading to the dual (observable) H - (non-observable) aH
Universes separated by a great quantum partition of potential V. The dark matter and energy here
are baryons and EM radiations in the aH Universe. The EM(ћ) radiation is trapped by the
quantum partition inside the aH Universe to act as the dark energy of equation of state ϖ ≈ -1 to
cause the accelerating expansion of the Universe, while the gravity(ћ*) freely tunnels through the
quantum partition from aH Universe to H Universe to act as the dark matter [5, 11].
3) The EM(ћ) radiation from the Sun leaks out from the thin surface layer. The gravity( ћ*)
from every mass of the quarks and leptons in the entire Sun spreads out un-interfered into the
great sweep of space and reveals the entire Sun's mass, smoothing out the space-time toward the
macro-cosmic scale (see §V and §VI), whereupon the classicism ensues [13] into General
Relativity. Every force field that has energy-momentum affects the geometry of space-time. The
gravitational field spreads liberally to a vast space (in the Mikado-like ray configuration [14] ),
simulating the warping of space-time to represent the mass in General Relativity.
4) The phenomenally divergent nature of gravity(ћ*) enables the mass formula Eq. (2) to
remain intact, while it would collapse in the local whirl of EM interference in terms of ћ.
5) The gravity arising from the individual quark (or nucleon) and lepton freely and
autonomously diverges away into the Universe as if there are no neighboring particles. A pack of
matter in its fall thus is accelerated in terms of the gravity from these individual constituent
quarks (or nucleons) and leptons independently regardless of its aggregate nature, size, and
density. This explicates the simple yet unexplained Galileo's puzzle why all free falling bodies,
heavy or light, drop down at the same acceleration.
6) Neither the Newtonian theory, nor General Relativity can provide a theoretical
explanation why
Gravitational mass = Inertial mass. (20)
7. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
7
A pack of matter is bound together by the strong and electromagnetic forces among them, which
are internally balanced off as a body. As the body is dynamically pushed—irrespective of the
structural guise of the matter—it reacts in terms of the gravity of the constituent quarks (or
nucleons) and leptons interacting with the ambient Earth gravity. Thus, what really matters is the
total numbers of quarks (or nucleons) and leptons involved, and the force on the body pulled by
the Earth's gravity would be the same as the inertial force arising in reaction to pushing it,
whereupon proving Eq. (20).
7) General Relativity, the theoretical source of the gravitational waves, can be put into a
form remarkably parallel to Maxwell electrodynamics [15] that generate EM waves. Does it
designate the gravitational wave energy by “ћ*ω “ as for the photon energy by “ћω “?
The gravitational waves could have frequencies in 10 -16
Hz < ω < 10 4
Hz [16], and the
gravitational waves with substantial ω would take great size emitters even as big as the infant
Universe itself. For the binary pulsars and black holes of about equal mass m with orbital radius
of r, the effective radiative power would be about,
P = k (G 4
/c 5
)(m/r)5
(21)
where (m/r) is very large and k is a constant of order unity [17].
The Hulse-Taylor binary pulsar PSR B1913+16 that emits P = 7.35 x 1024
Watts [18] could
have radiated the gravitational waves by “ћ*ω“ with low ω rather than by “ћω.“ The problem is
the exorbitant diffusion of the gravity according to Eqs.(18) and (19) as compared with that of the
EM waves. The gravitational waves would rapidly diverge and practically fade away short time
into the vast Universe, and quickly lose their photon-like wave contour. This may explain why
while the observation of PSR B1913+16 confirms the gravitational wave emission [18] it is so
difficult to detect the gravitational waves on Earth, long distance away from the sources [19].
5. Elementary Particle of Integer (or zero) Charges
To fit inside the particle of radius re, the individual lattice charge bit is uniformly compacted to rℓ
= re /ℓ , where ℓ is a consecutive whole number (see §II). The mass of the individual lattice
charge bit can be determined according to Eq.(1),
mℓ,w = e 2
/ rℓ = ℓ (e 2
/ re ) = ℓ me (22)
The total number of the lattice charge bits in the particle can be approximated by two geometrical
configurations: the sphere bit and cube bit approximations. For the sphere bit approximation, the
total number of the lattice charge bits inside the particle would be,
nsp = (4π re
3
/3 )/(4 π rℓ
3
/3 ) = ℓ 3
(23)
that gives the total mass of the particle in the first order sphere bits approximation,
msp,w = nsp m ℓ ,w = ℓ4
me (24)
8. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
8
The total number of the lattice charge bits inside the particle in the cube bits approximation, on
the other hand, is
ncu = (4π re
3
/3 )/(2 rℓ )3
= (π/6) ℓ 3
(25)
giving its mass
mcu,w = ncu m ℓ ,w = ( π/6) ℓ4
me = (π/6) msp,w (26)
With an introduction of the relative spherecity, Өs , where
1 (for full sphere approximation) > Өs > π/6 (for full cube approximation) , (27)
the particle masses in Eqs. (22) and (23) result in
mw = Өsℓ4
me (28)
while the total numbers of the charge lattice bits involved in Eqs. (23, 25) become,
nw = Өs ℓ 3
(29)
A certain volume overlapping that resists the compression is implicit in the sphere approximation,
whereas there could be certain room for further compression in the cube approximation. The
relative cubecity that gauges the supplementary compression of the cube charge bits is thus
introduced by
Өc = 1/ Өs (30)
where, 1 (for full sphere approximation) < Өc < 6/π (for full cube approximation).
The mass levels determined in the sphericity and cubicity are the first order approximations,
where the {Өs , Өc} can be systematically estimated from the docile variance of the mass levels.
In Table 1, the integer (and zero) charge particle masses resulting from Eq. (28) are compared
with the observed data [20].
Particle q(e) ℓ ℓ 4
Өs , Өc Mass (MeV)
Predicted
Observed
Nw =
Өs ℓ3
Z 0 21
=7x3
19448
1
0.92, 1.09 91,400
91,200
8520
W 1 21
=7x3
19448
1
0.81, 1.23 80,496
80,400
7501
τ -1 8
=2x4
4096 0.84, 1.19 1,758
1,777
431
9. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
9
µ -1 4
= 1x4
256 0.82 ,1.22 107
106.6
53
e -1 1 1 1.0, 1.0 0.511
0.511
1
Table 1. Lepton mass predictions as compared with the observed data [20]. The q(e) = particle
electric charge, and {Өs , Өc }, respectively, represent the relative sphericity and cubicity for the
lattice charge bit packing.
For the electron, Өs = Өc = 1.0, as expected. The parameter values { Өs , Өc } for the { µ, τ }
leptons deviate from 1, but in a predictable way. As ℓ increases, the compaction of the charge bits
in the leptons becomes more sphere-like with increasing Өs , in turn becoming less cube-like with
decreasing Өc. This orderly disposition persists into the {Z, W} bosons with their average value
of {Өs, Өc} = {0.865, 1.16}.
The puzzle of seemingly arbitrary mass levels of {µ, τ} leptons is resolved; the predicted mass
levels in Table 1 in agreement with the observations [20] are not random, neatly designed in the
progression of ℓ = 4L, where {L}= {ℓ/4} = {1, 2} states straightforwardly produce the observed
large mass shift from mμ = 107 MeV to mτ = 1,777 Mev. This simple example alone is remarkable
enough to attest to the correctness of the mass formation structure developed in this paper. The
{Z,W} bosons in Table 1 are instead produced in the ℓ = 3L (with L = 7) series, acquiring a
certain quark-like affinity (see §VIII); the same mass {Z,W} bosons reappear in the Table 2,
where the quarks are installed by the ℓ = 3L series.
6. Particles of Fractional Charges, {Z,W} bosons, and 125 GeV State
The observed mass for the up quark with charge “2e/3” is lower than that of the down quark
with charge “- e/3.” This indicates that the “qf = ±e/3” is the basic mass generating lattice charge
bit for the quarks. Again based on Eq. (2) and qf = ±e/3 ,
The total number of the lattice charge bits inside the particles is determined by the same Eq. (23)
for the sphere approximation and Eq. (25) for the cube approximation.
The masses can again be determined by the single parameter “ ℓ “ formula,
for the sphere approximation, and
for the cube approximation. In terms of the relative sphericity parameter Өs of Eq.(27), the
prevalent particle mass and the total lattice charge bits number can be determined by,
10. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
10
Nf = Өs
The parameter Өs (and thus Өc ) here again varies in a predictable manner, systematically
changing as function of ℓ = 3L (see §VII). The quarks have astonishingly wide ranges of
seemingly arbitrary masses. However, despite the Mf and Nf are dependent only on a single
parameter ℓ = 3L, the predicted particle masses for the quarks and associated particles along the
pertinent parameters as given in Table 2 are simple and orderly in good agreement with the
observed data [20], validating the theory in this paper.
The masses of the {Z,W} bosons emerge in Table 2 in an ℓ = 3L substructure. Along the way,
the 125 GeV mass state spontaneously springs up in the Table 2 with ℓ = 3L substructures without
the need of Higgs mechanism. But its parameter ℓ = 3L with L = 13 for the state is contrived,
explaining why the detection of the state was so arduous. Pending a further exposition in higher
order approximation, the Өc decreases as ℓ = 3 L increases from the b-quark upward, indicating
that, as the density of charge bits become increasingly strapping, the particles as expected movng
toward the fuller spherical charge bit formation.
Particle qf (e) ℓ ℓ4 Өs , Өc Mass (MeV)
Predicted / Observed
N f
t +2/3 42 =14 x 3 3, 111, 696 0.98 ,1.02
173,142.
169,100~173,300
72, 606
125GeV 0 39 =13 x 3 2, 313, 441 0.952, 1.05
125,050
125,000~126,000
56, 472
Z 0 36 =12 x 3 1, 679, 616 0.955 ,1.05
91,073
91,000~91,200
44, 556
W ±1 36 =12 x 3 1,679, 616 0.845 ,1.18
80,583
80,400 ~
39, 424
b -1/3 18 =6 x 3 104, 976 0.713, 1.40
4,250
4,139 ~4,370
4, 155
c +2/3 12 =4 x 3 20, 736 1.00 ,1.00
1,177
1,160~ 1,340
1728
s -1/3 6 =2 x 3 1, 296 1.00, 1.00
73.6
70 ~ 130
217
d -1/3 3 =1 x 3 81 1.00, 1.00
4.6
3.5 ~6.00
27
u +2/3 3 =1 x 3 81 0.52, 1.91
2.4
1.5~3.3
14
Table. 2. Particle mass predictions as compared with the observed data [20]. The f (e) =fractional quark
electric charge, and the {Өs , Өc } represent, respectively, the relative sphericity and cubicity of the lattice
charge bit packing.
11. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
11
7. Recapitulation of Table 2
The L = ℓ /3 = 1 states in Table 2 are made of the lowest number of charge lattice bits,
respectively of (even) 14 charge bits in the near maximum cube configuration ( Өc ≈ Өc,max ≈ 1.91
and Өs ≈ Өs,min ≈ 0.52) for the u-quark mass of approximately 2.4 MeV, and (odd) 27 charge bits
in the near maximum sphere configuration ( Өs ≈ Өs,max ≈ 1.00 and Өc ≈ Өc,min ≈ 1.00) for the d-
quark mass of approximately 4.6 MeV.
The compression ratio between u and d quarks in the Table (2) provides the golden rule:
Өc,u / Өc,d ≈ 1.91 (36)
This rule prevails in all the {u, d} quark compression in the composite particle states: {p,n}
nucleons, {π,K} mesons, and the hyperons, again attesting to the correctness of the mass
formulation mechanism in this paper. Moreover, the rule gives provisional clues on how the
lattice charge bits for the u and d quarks are summed to their respective (extrinsic) particle
characteristic [see §IV], including the charges of “+2e/3” and “- e/3” [see Fig. 2]. With the
most mass portions being created by the bits-antibits of the substructure, only a negligible
fraction of the substructures account for the extrinsic particle properties.
The parameter Өs (and thus Өc ) of the b-quark (L =6) state traces back to those of the {u,d}
quark states (L = 1) to get its value by Өs,b = [ Өs,u + Өs,d ]/2 → 0.713. With it, Өs for the
third-generation quarks and those between—t, 125 GeV state, {Z, W}, and b with Өs (Z,W) = {Өs
(Z) + Өs(W)}/2 —varies as a linear function of L = ℓ/3, and the parameters {Өs , Өc } can be
predicted according to the serial particle structures. The viable L values for the particles in the
higher mass states would be more prominently influenced by the {Өs , Өc} values in the higher
order approximation.
This linear variation unequivocally predicts Өs (and thus Өc ) for the 125 GeV mass states of L =
13: Өs = 0.952. The 125 GeV state thus is an allotted intermediate L = 13 posture along the {b,
(Z,W), t} quarks of {L} = {6,12,14} states, and has nothing to do with the Higgs mechanism.
Unlike the quarks of spin ½, however, the spin of the dual {Z,W} bosons is 1, digressing the
knotty 125 GeV state into spin 0.
12. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
12
Fig. 2. Archetype core structures (in 2D) for the up quark (of mu ≈ 2.4 MeV) and the down quark (of md
≈ 4.6 MeV) that may generate their respective charges (+e/3) + (+e/3) = +(2/3)e and - (1/3)e, the rest of
the (even) lattice charge bit-antibit pairs summing up to zero charge.
8. Distractions or Insights?
One of the great puzzles in physics is why the observable Universe to humans seems to be matter
asymmetric [21]. This paper provides the answer to this question in two guises, cosmospective
and femtospective. Actually, the femtospective puzzle has been unpretentiously answered in §II,
§V, and §VI with the mass generating mechanism, where the quarks and leptons are constituted
mostly by the large number of tightly compacted aggregations of half electrons (of matter) and
half positrons (of antimatter), designating the cosmospective extrinsic particle nature by a small
fraction of the remaining framework. Since the quarks and the leptons are the main constituents
of the Universe, closely half of the matter in the (observable) Universe is hidden inside the quarks
and leptons as anti-matter along with the other half of the matter counterpart in the femtoscopic
scale.
On the other hand, it has been shown (see Fig. 2) that the extrinsic nature of quarks and leptons is
manifested through the small legacy fractions of their substructures to divulge themselves as
(observable) matter, and this extrinsic nature as matter has exhibited so-called matter asymmetry
in the (observable) Universe. This matter asymmetry that arose in the primordial Universe has
also been explained [5, 11 ].
The constituent substructure elements involved for the particle formation are the tightly
compacted (not the plain) electron charges in the sway of the extraordinarily large (dispersion)
Planck Constants ћ*; the prospective demurs might actually provide helpful insights into the
ultimate physics:
13. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
13
( 1) As the physical configuration changes, the corresponding physical law could change
accordingly. For example, the idea of “color” explains how a proton could have two up quarks
and a down quark, when the Pauli Exclusion Principle specifically excluded two identical objects
in the same state [2, p335]. Unlike the bare electrons, the tightly compacted electrons in the
particle substructures could evade the Pauli Exclusion Principle. Moreover, a theoretical model
explains how the Pauli Exclusion Principle can be bypassed near the Planck scale energy [22].
The large gravitational (dispersion) Planck Constant, ћ*, in fact is equal to the Planck Energy [see
Eqs.(9) and (10)].
(2 ) The physics of the systematically compacted electron charges may evade the annihilation
havoc of the unbidden electron-positron.
(3) The perfectly uniform and isotropic Mikado-ray-like emanation of the extremely weak
gravity field according to Eq.(18) could keep the compacted charge bit substructures themselves
riveted to elude the insular chaos of the uncertainty principle.
Pending the further analysis, these stipulations (mere inferences at this time) must have been
one way or another reconciled in the approximations adopted in this paper; the ability of
accurately predicting the masses of all primary particles—quarks, leptons, and bosons—and their
compound ground and excited states in close agreement with observations (see §X, §XI, §XII,
and §XIII) is assuring.
It is interesting to see here that, while the leptons in Table 1 are regulated by the factor “4” in the
parameter series of “ℓ =4L ,“ the quarks in Table 2 are modulated by the factor “3” in the
parameter series of “ℓ = 3L.” There is a noteworthy exception: the advent of the same mass
{Z,W} bosons in the parameter series of “ℓ = 3L” both in Table 1 and Table 2, might form a
certain partnership between them. Could the {Z,W} bosons transpose and oscillate—in a way like
the neutrino mass oscillations—between the quark-like and the lepton-like substructures,
perchance linking the strong and weak interactions [see Fig. 3]?
Fig. 3 A possible contingent of the {Z,W} bosons oscillating between quark-like and lepton-like
substructures in the beta decay.
14. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
14
9. The 125 GeV State Problem
Throughout history, humans have asked what's the ultimately fundamental—not made of further
simpler and smaller constituents—building blocks of matter. From the molecules to atoms,
nucleus and electrons, protons and neutrons, and finally quarks and leptons; each new stage
representation was capable of explaining unexplainables in the earlier stage descriptions.
Gell-Mann determined that there was no theoretical and experimental evidence that quarks and
leptons had further inner structure. Otherwise, the new constituents would themselves have to be
rather numerous in order to explain the great variety of properties of the known particles [23].
Actually, there were certain observational indications for the composite quarks in analogy with
the Lord Rutherford's back scattering experiments of alpha particles [24]. Now, this paper has
demonstrated that, being dictated by the available energy and physical consistency, the quarks
and leptons (as well as the {Z,W} bosons and the 125 GeV state) are produced with their
spontaneous substructures of the compacted electron charges.
However, based on the mass-less and point-like fundamental particles in the Standard Model,
Higgs et. al. proposed—in the words of God Particle [2]—“an idea which wasn't really science,
rather a philosophy to instate the masses to the particles.” According to the proposition, all the
rest masses are generated with the interaction of ether-like Higgs field. First of all, this is—in
words of “Particles at the end of the Universe [25]”—a misleading, sloppy statement. Even if it
does what it claims (actually, it does not), it is responsible only for less than 1 % mass of the
Universe, leaving the rest yet to be accounted for (see §X).
Furthermore, there are things puzzling about this 125 GeV mass level itself as Higgs boson: the
“hierarchy problem.” Since Higgs boson mass is assumed to set the scale for masses of all other
known fundamental particles, it should be close to the Planck mass of Eq. (9), which is about ten
thousand trillion times larger than the 125 GeV mass level [26]. Moreover, throughout the
history, the ether-like constituents pervading the Universe have never proved to be factual.
If the fundamental particles in fact get their masses by interacting with the Higgs field, the Higgs
boson is likely to marshal its power and decay into heavy particles [27, 28]. The observed decay
modes of the 125 GeV mass state is not consistent with that specification, decaying dominantly
into the non-interacting photons. The observed 125 GeV particle state refuses to act like the mass-
giving dynamo to all particle states. Instead it behaves like a vanilla state that squarely fits the
routinely established 125 GeV mass state in this paper that could decay into 2 gamma. Most of
all, the Higgs mechanism has nothing to do with the dark matter and energy.
The validity of a physical theory is determined by its capability of making predictions that are
verified by the experimental observations. (The proposed theory in this paper fully meets that
requirement). No theory should be waived from this validity test. However, in spite of the 50
years of preoccupation, the Higgs mechanism has not set which rules control the Higgs-generated
mass increments [2].
Although the discovery of this particular 125 GeV state has boosted the Higgs hypothesis, it has
long been known that the Higgs boson could be easily mimicked by other kinds of elements [29,
30], and it is now obvious that the theory has no proprietorship of the state. On the contrary,
15. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
15
while the Higgs physics determines its mass level experimentally without a concrete prediction,
this paper can explain the 100 percent constituent masses of the Universe by a simple one-
ingredient and one-parameter systematic, along the way incontestably establishing the 125 GeV
state with its spontaneous innate substructure without the post hoc Higgs mechanism.
The Standard Model performs important roles in the particle physics. With the substantiation that
all the primary particles—including the 125 GeV state and the {Z,W} bosons—spontaneously
acquire their masses at the instance they are created according to their substructure systematic,
the Higgs mechanism—a Ptolemy version in the geocentric cosmic model (see Fig. 1)—becomes
redundant and unnecessary.
10. The Bound Quarks in the Nucleons
The nucleons are constituted by three quarks; {u,u,d} for the proton, and {u,d,d} for the neutron.
But the observed (free) constituent quark masses add up only to O(10 MeV). How the three
quarks measure up to 938.2 MeV for the proton and 939.5 MeV for the neutron is still an
unsolved mystery.
The quarks are bound inside the nucleons by the strong gluon force interaction. The high energy
collisions of heavy nuclei may break the confinement, and produce the quark-gluon plasma,
which has been observed to consistently flow like a liquid with almost no viscosity [31]
The mass of the nuclei is about 8 % smaller than the masses of the constituent protons and
neutrons combined; the quark binding force would—in contrast to the actual finding—make the
nucleon masses lower than the sum of the constituent quark masses. Also, interacting in
asymptotic freedom, quarks would not intermmesh with each other toward the core of nucleons,
the quarks retaining their individuality, and the nucleon is liable to stretch out to a larger volume
than the individual sizes of the quarks. The nucleon instead shrinks to the proton size of [32]
rp = 8.418 x 10 -14
cm . (37)
The quark binding mechanism in the nucleon is not conventional.
The physics of the radiation pressure is universal, and the confining mass-less gluon field (like
the EM field) would generate the strong and stable radiation pressure. The pressure could
compact the quarks to smaller sizes in confinement inside the nucleon.
The significance of further compaction of the quarks inside the compound states has in fact been
ingrained in the mass formula Eqs. (31,32,33), which can be recast into,
M(s,c),free = n(s,c) (e/3)2
ℓ/re (38)
As the {q} = {u,d} quarks are compressed inside the {p,n} nucleons by a factor of Cq from re to
re /Cq , the quark mass itself would increase to
M(s,c),in = n(s,c) (e/3)2
ℓ /(re /Cq) = Cq M(s,c),free (39)
Determination of relative compressibility {Cu , Cd } for the {u,d} quarks bound in the nucleons
requires to simultaneously solve 2 linear equations in the first order approximation:
16. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
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They provide the (approximate) solutions that has a universal ramification (see § VII),
Cu = 132.4 and Cd = 69.4 at (42)
Cu /Cd ≈ 1.91 (43)
closely propping up the golden rule Eq. (36) derived from the quark formation. This is highly
affirmative; the {u,d} quark compressions inside the nucleons are carried out maintaining the
same relative compressibility ratio observed of them outside the nucleons.
The Eq. (42) gives,
Cu mu ≈ 316.8 MeV and Cd md ≈ 317.5 Mev (44)
The d-quark in the nucleons contributes slightly more mass than that of the u-quark, accounting
for not only the particle masses, but also the stability of the proton as well as the comparatively
long (weak interaction) lifetime of the free neutron.
The conventional quark theory in stark contrast attributes the 99 percent mass of the nucleons to
the interactions of gluons and quark-antiquark pairs in zillions that zip around near the speed of
light, banging into each other, and appearing and disappearing within the nucleon [33]. This put
the stability of the proton in danger, turning the human body into a nightmarish battleground of
the multi-zillion whirling relativistic particle-antiparticle scintillas.
11. The Mesons and Hyperons
The quarks (q) contain number of charge bits proportional to ℓq
3
and thus Lq
3
, where Lq = ℓq /3
(see §II and §X). Thus a large Lq means a tighter packing of the quarks, and thus more resistance
to further compression inside the compound state, making Cq(Lq) gradually smaller upward along
q = { (u,d), s, c,b,...} in inverse proportion to the surface hardness in (θc,q /Lq )2
, as so in fact been
observed in the following examples:
(A) For the π (uda, ; d ua ;...) meson, where da and ua represent the anti-quarks, Cu #(1) + 4.6
Cd#(1) ≈ 139.57 MeV
Along the golden rule, it gives a new set for the mesons,
with their average value 22.2, indicating less compacted {u,d} quarks in
the π meson than in the nucleons.
(B) For the Ω(s,s,s) hyperon:
( C) For the φ (s, sa) meson:
(D) For the K(usa ;sua dsa ;...) meson:
17. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
17
Cu#(1) + 73.6 Cs (2) ≈ 494.67 MeV, or
Cd#(1) + 73.6 Cs (2) ≈ 497.65 MeV, which gives,
Cs (2) ≈ 5.81 . (48)
Despite the distinct structural differences, Cs(2) of the Ω (s,s,s) hyperon and that of the K(usa
;sua ;sda,…) mesons are nearly equal, indicating Cs (2) for the s-quark depends more on the quark
hardness.
(E) For the J/ψ (c, ca) meson:
2 Cc (4) mc ≈ 3,096 MeV gives Cc(4) ≈ 1.32 (49)
(F) For the B(+,-, o) (bua , dba ) meson:
Cu #(1) mu + Cb(6) mb ≈ 5,279 MeV gives Cb(6) ≈ 1.22 (50)
(G) For the Upsilon Y(b,ba) meson:
2 Cb(6)mb ≈ 9, 460.4 MeV gives Cb(6) ≈ 1.11, (51)
close to Eq.(50)
Fig. 4. The compressibility parameters Cq for q = {u, d, s}, exhibiting obvious monotony for all nucleons,
mesons, and hyperons, with the golden rule Cu/Cd ≈ 1.91
18. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
18
The quark compressibility {Cu, Cd, Cs } in the composite hyperons {Λ(uds), Σ(uus,uds,dds),
Ξ(sus, sds)} is also determined and the results are shown in Fig. 4. The monotonous variations
exhibited despite the varieties and complexities of the compound states are a surprise. The quark
interaction schemes in the compound particle formation are in the main comprehensible without
the need of grandiose mathematics or supercomputers.
The ground golden rule Eq. (36) seems to be flexible, stretching out to
Cd → Cd * ≈ 1.91 Cd ≈ 132.5 ≈ Cu . (52)
This can simply establish the ∆ state with its mass,
12. The Excited Nucleon States
The mass difference between the lowest excited nucleon states around N*(1,500 MeV) and the
(ground) nucleon states N(939 MeV) is approximately 560 MeV, which is considerably larger
than the pion mass O(140 MeV), but close to the u-ua and d-da quark pair mass of O(2 x 300
MeV) in the nucleon as determined in Eq.(44), indicating that the individual compacted quark
pairs are the participants in the generation of the excited nucleon states, N*.
The addition of the bound quark-antiquark pairs in the establishment of the exited states would
follow the golden rule established in this paper, the low-lying excited nucleon states, N*, being
generated in the main with the addition of varying n (=1, 2, ….) u-ua (or d-da ) quark pairs. Their
quark compression parameter Cu* is shown in Fig. 5 as function of the excited nucleon mass Mn*
[20]. As expected, the low-lying excited nucleon states N* in Fig.5 arise at the compaction
parameter around Cu* ≈ Cu = 132.4 mostly in bunches for the n = 1 and n =2 quark pair
participation.
Pending a further analysis, the three native quarks in the nucleons {p,n} could cluster toward the
core, where the asymptotic freedom among them (a strong + EM symmetry operative?) inevitably
sums up to their minimum possible value spin of “½” without subjugating to the spin-spin
couplings among them. The supplementarily acquired u-ua or d-da pair in contrast would stay in
the fringe range, where the interaction is strong enough to make the effect of spin-spin and spin-
orbit couplings sufficiently conspicuous.
19. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
19
Fig. 5. The low-lying excited nucleon states, N*, with n u-ua pairs participation.
The N* states with n = 1 quark pair exhibited in the Fig. 5 are shown in Table 3, where the mass
designations in fact exhibit the spin-spin and spin-orbit couplings in the (provisional) shell
model-like structure for the trapped quark pair. However, the core nucleon spin Sn = ½,
according to the rationale submitted above, stays disengaged, the particles in the spin Su-ua = 0
states being downgraded to lower masses, while the mass levels of the spin Su-ua = 1 states are
elevated. Here {S, L,J} represent respectively {spin, orbital angular momentum, total angular
momentum}.
The base nucleon state N(939) S(1/2)+
is assumed for the excitation to N*(1,535) state, while the
rest of the excited states originate from the base nucleon state N(939) P(1/2)+
. Moreover, while
the d-da pair is involved in the formation of the N*(1,535) state, a u-ua pair might have
participated in the formation of the N*(14,40) and N*(1520) states.
The tractable structures in effect in the lower energy domain are again conspicuous. As the
interaction energy is increased, however, the compaction parameters {Cu, Cd , Cs ,...} of the
participating quarks become more perceptive to the aberrant interaction configuration and affect
the mass level determination. For example, a certain (deviant) predisposition becomes
noticeable: the angular momenta alignments in the higher mass levels—in contrast to the free-
and-easy spins of the native core quarks—are more likely realized in parallel and anti-parallel
alignments, then more parallel line-ups in the even higher mass states. This averts the
overpopulation problem in the conventional excited states. The identification of the excited
20. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
20
nucleon states, N*( ≥1,700 MeV) becomes increasingly more complex, yet the analysis of the
excited ∆∗(Ι = 3/2) states parallel to the excited nucleon N*(I = ½) states reveals a similar
(provisional) correlative spin-orbit coupling in the shell-model-like pattern.
Ln Sn Su-ua Lu-ua Ju-ua Lt (Jt)p
L2I,2J Mn*(MeV)
0 (1/2) 0 0 0 0 (1/2)
- S11 1535
1 1 1 1 (1/2)
+ P11 1440
2 (3/2)
- D13 1520
1 0 1 1 (1/2)
+ P11 1710
(3/2)
+ P13 1720
1 0 0 (1/2)
- S11 1650
1 2 (3/2)
- D13 1700
2 2 (5/2)
- D15 1675
2 3 3 (5/2)
+ F15 1680
Table 3. (Provisional) spin-orbit couplings of (n = 1) u-ua pair in the excited low-lying nucleon N* states
[20], where Lt = Lu-ua + Ln and Jt = Jn + Ju-ua .
13. The Excited Hyperon States
As anticipated because of the involvement of heavier quarks, the systematic in the excited
hyperon {Λ*(s), Σ∗(s), Ξ*(ss), Ω*(sss)} states gradually wane as compared with the less
circuitous excited nucleon {N*, ∆∗} states. However, the n = 1 u-ua (or d-da) quark pair
participation in the generation of spin-orbit coupling in the shell-like model in the low excitation
energy domain seems to persist, although in somewhat blurred measure.
It was seen in Fig. 5 that the mass increase from the ground state N(939) to the first excited state
N*( 1440) due to u-ua (or d-da) pair mass contribution is Mi = O(500 MeV). In contrast the mass
increase from Σ(1189) to Σ*(1, 385) is only Md = O(200 MeV). While Md > Mπ(140MeV), it is
much smaller than the mass difference
Σ*(1660) − Σ( 1189) = O(500 MeV) = Mi.
The same nonconforming mass jump of Md << Mi is also seen in the first excited states of the
Λ* and Ξ* states:
as well as
Ξ*(1530) – Ξ(1314) → Md = 216 MeV << Mi
(and possibly Ξ*(1660) – Ξ(1324) → Μd = 336 MeV < Mi as well), (55)
21. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
21
while Ξ*(1820) – Ξ(1314) → Md = 506 MeV ≈ Mi
It is likely that these low-lying hyperon excited {Λ*(1,405), Ξ*(1530)} states, and possibly the
Ξ*(1660) state as well}, are not generated by the trapped u-ua (or d-da) pair interaction in the
n = 1 state. They may instead be generated by the excitation of the s-quark of Cs ≈ 6.9 itself into
the excited s*-quark of Cs* ≈ 9.9 that generates an apt mass increase of
Ms (Cs* - Cs) ≈ 73.6 x (9.9 – 6.9) MeV ≈ 220 MeV ≈ O(Md) (56)
Fig.6 The pictorial (not fully to scale) exhibition of the excited Hyperons
Σ*(1,383 MeV) and Ξ*(1,531 MeV) Decays
The lightweight excited hyperon states are thus due to their s-quark excitation into the
s*-quark states in the structures of,
{Λ*(1,405; s*), Σ *(1385; s*), Ξ*(1531; s,s*) , Ξ*(1660; s*,s*)}.
The decays of the Σ *(1383;s*) → Σ(1,192; s)+ π [also into Λ(1,115;s)+ π ] and Ξ*(1531;s,s*)
→ Ξ(1,314; s,s) + π are exhibited in Fig. 6. Following the rotational disposition rule (see
§XII), the (provisional) spin-orbit couplings of those low-lying (n = 1) u-ua (or d-da ) pair
participating in the excited Σ * states (above those s*-quark excitation caused states) are listed in
22. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
22
Table 4. As in the Table 3, the core spin SΣ = ½ again stays disengaged (see §XII)), the
separation of states into groups of Su-ua = 0 and 1 states being accordingly exhibited.
LΣ
.
SΣ . (JΣ )p
Su-ua . Lu-ua
.
Ju-ua
.
Lt (Jt )p
MΣ
*(MeV)
1 (1/2) (1/2)+
0 0 0 1 (1/2)+
1660
1 1 0 (1/2) -
1750
1 (1/2)+
1880
2 (3/2) -
1670
(3/2)+
(1/2) -
1620
(5/2) -
1775
(1/2)+
1 1 1 2 (3/2) -
1940
2 2 3 (5/2)+
1915
3 3 (7/2)+
2030
Table 4. (Provisional) spin-orbit coupling of the n = 1 u-ua pair in the excited
low-lying Σ* states [20], where Lt = Lu-ua + LΣ and Jt = JΣ + Ju-ua .
14. Summary and Conclusion
This paper shows that, while the electromagnetism arises as a linear manifestation in electron
charge “e”—both attractive and repulsive to locally shield its field—the gravity (mass) originates
as a quadratic revelation in “e2
,“ explaining why the gravity is always attractive. This unifies
gravity with electromagnetism, the great Einstein's aspiration for the last 30 years of his life
The extremely feeble gravity, being dispersively long-ranged and additively superimposed has
performed the major role in helping structure the Universe. It demands (not as a hypothesis) a
gravitational (dispersion) Planck Constant, ћ*, that is equal to the Planck Energy, which is vastly
greater than the electromagnetic (dispersion) Planck Constant ћ. This not only helps to justify the
proposed mass formulas by enabling to satisfy a sundry of interaction provisos, but also alleviates
the incompatibility between the gravitational quantum physics and General Relativity
The primary particles in the Standard Model that are presumed to acquire masses through Higgs
mechanism are not structureless entities. They have substructure, their masses evolving by the
tight congregations of compacted electron charges in a neat systemics. The one parameter
formula then can predict all primary particle masses in one-to-one agreement with the
experimental observations, unequivocally explaining how their masses can vary by over 11 orders
of magnitude from the electron neutrino to the top quark. Through simple arithmetic, the physics
also correctly prognosticates both ground and excited compound particles states—nucleons,
mesons, and hyperons—in which the quarks are trapped to exhibit the shell-model-like spin-orbit
couplings.
Based on the Hermitean-antiHermitean Symmetric Physics of the Universe, the dual (dispersion)
Planck Constants {ћ, ћ*} also help substantiate that the dark matter and energy are perpetually
coupling baryon ions and EM energy in the aH Universe, the physics of which is reiterated by the
23. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.2, No.4, November 2013
23
black hole phenomena. Thus, the physics in this paper can account for 100 percent mass content
of the Universe. With this tour de force, the Higgs mechanism has become redundant and
unnecessary.
It has been shown that the Universe by its formative design was not matter asymmetric. The
primary particles—quarks, leptons, {Z,W} bosons as well the 125 GeV state—that constitute the
Universe are actually made up by closely equal amount of substructure matter and antimatter in
the femtoscopic scale. In the macroscopic scale, on the other hand, the Universe did also began in
a fully matter-antimatter symmetry, the excess matter in the (visible) H Universe counterbalanced
by the same amount of excess antimatter in the (invisible) aH Universe. The remaining symmetric
matter-antimatter portion in the H Universe was annihilated in the primordial Universe, while that
in the aH Universe (in the inverted Coulomb duress) stays intact to make up the comparatively
larger dark matter (and energy) content in the Universe.
Nature has reasserted itself to be simple in essence, yet is capable of immeasurably picturesque
manifestations. This paper has initiated bracingly correct frontier physics, and unraveled the vast
spectra of formidable mysteries in many arenas of physics. The evidences are bountiful that this is
the theory in the correct track, and the author invites open-minded discussions and
corroborations of this novel development.
Acknowledgment
The author wants to thank Drs. Milton Hoenig, Mike Stauber, Jerry Padawer, and Jonathan Suh,
and Dan Russ for their help and encouragement.
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