This document summarizes an article that proposes an alternative explanation for dark energy and dark matter based on a modified theory of gravity. It begins by providing background on dark matter and dark energy in standard cosmology and the evidence that supports their existence. It then outlines the proposed alternative theory, which modifies Einstein's field equations by adding a function of the Ricci scalar. This introduces new curvature terms that could potentially drive accelerated expansion, providing an alternative to dark energy. The theory aims to match observations without requiring dark matter or energy, but reduces to general relativity in the solar system scale where it has been tightly tested.
A unification of gravity with electromagnetism and quantumJeffrey Huang
It is known that there is an incompatibility issue between general relativity and quantum mechanics. This paper shows that it is possible to resolve the conflict by deriving gravitational acceleration using a generalized fundamental equation in quantum mechanics that governs the motion of all particles (bosons and fermions). The new theory of gravity makes predictions at the cosmic scale which can be easily verified using existing astrophysics data where general relativity failed to do. It can restore Newtonian gravity as a low speed, quasi-static limit and Einstein’s general relativity as the classical limit at the macroscopic scale. The later includes restoring general relativity’s key concept, the metric tensor and its key equation, the geodesic equation. Curved spacetime is just the manifestation of the quantum motion equation, rather than being the cause of gravity. The new theory makes almost the same predictions as Einstein’s general relativity on gravitational time dilation, gravitational light bending, the extra precession of the perihelion of Mercury, and gravitational waves where the small differences between the two theories are beyond the power of any existing apparatus to detect.
The singularities from the general relativity resulting by solving Einstein's equations were and still are the subject of many scientific debates: Are there singularities in spacetime, or not? Big Bang was an initial singularity? If singularities exist, what is their ontology? Is the general theory of relativity a theory that has shown its limits in this case?
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22006.45124/1
The electromagnetism and gravity are unified where, while the first originates from the electric charges in a
linear exposition, the second emerges in a quadratic manifestation of it, making the gravity always
attractive. This helps identify the inner structures of all the primary particles—quarks, leptons, and the
{Z,W} bosons as well as the 125 GeV state without the Higgs mechanism—to predict their masses by one
integer parameter formulas in close agreement with the observed values. This in turn enables
determination of the mechanism for building their ground and excited compound states. The consequences
are far-reaching and embracing, for examples, from identifying dark matter and energy that makes the
explanation of masses in the Universe 100 % inclusive, to solving the hackneyed yet equally elusive puzzle
of why the inertial mass is equal to the gravitational mass.
We believe the quantum entanglement is caused by the very space itself, not by any particles, and thus not bounded by the speed of light, so is the gravity, we stand at fireworks side.
Four Laws of Inertia in ‘variable’ Spacetime FieldIJMERJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: All science theories and physics laws are derived and described in the ‘fixed or straight’ space-time. Nobody thinks what will happen to these laws and theories if the space-time itself gets varied (curved). The fundamental laws of physics certainly not going to hold in the varied field of spacetime and will get modified. There are mysteries of physics such as inertia and gravity which cannot be explained in fixed spacetime. Many people believed that asking ‘what cause inertia’ is as unanswerable as asking ‘what cause gravity’ or asking ‘why does matter exist?’ They argued that these things are so fundamental that there is no explanation (or atleast no satisfactory explanation from modern science). This paper tries to reveal the origin mysteries of inertia and gravity (two greatest mysteries of science) through the concept of ‘variable’ spacetime (ST) field. The law of relativity and its cause can also be understood as intrinsic property of ST field. The concept of ‘spacetime’ as quantum field is introduced and a vital modification been proposed to the fundamental forces of the Nature. Three new types of Energy based on relativity are proposed and explained. Finally four laws of ‘inertia’ are proposed in which first and third law of inertia explains the ‘origin of inertia and gravity’. The second law of inertia explains the relation of energy with spacetime field. At the end, a thought experiment of ‘two parallel trains’ discussed and shown the violation of energy conservation law analytically in isolated system. In short, the theory discover that the things are living in the quantum field of spacetime and ‘Mass’ can cause ‘variation’ to the spacetime field and the variation of spacetime field leads to the generation or destruction of Energy.
A unification of gravity with electromagnetism and quantumJeffrey Huang
It is known that there is an incompatibility issue between general relativity and quantum mechanics. This paper shows that it is possible to resolve the conflict by deriving gravitational acceleration using a generalized fundamental equation in quantum mechanics that governs the motion of all particles (bosons and fermions). The new theory of gravity makes predictions at the cosmic scale which can be easily verified using existing astrophysics data where general relativity failed to do. It can restore Newtonian gravity as a low speed, quasi-static limit and Einstein’s general relativity as the classical limit at the macroscopic scale. The later includes restoring general relativity’s key concept, the metric tensor and its key equation, the geodesic equation. Curved spacetime is just the manifestation of the quantum motion equation, rather than being the cause of gravity. The new theory makes almost the same predictions as Einstein’s general relativity on gravitational time dilation, gravitational light bending, the extra precession of the perihelion of Mercury, and gravitational waves where the small differences between the two theories are beyond the power of any existing apparatus to detect.
The singularities from the general relativity resulting by solving Einstein's equations were and still are the subject of many scientific debates: Are there singularities in spacetime, or not? Big Bang was an initial singularity? If singularities exist, what is their ontology? Is the general theory of relativity a theory that has shown its limits in this case?
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22006.45124/1
The electromagnetism and gravity are unified where, while the first originates from the electric charges in a
linear exposition, the second emerges in a quadratic manifestation of it, making the gravity always
attractive. This helps identify the inner structures of all the primary particles—quarks, leptons, and the
{Z,W} bosons as well as the 125 GeV state without the Higgs mechanism—to predict their masses by one
integer parameter formulas in close agreement with the observed values. This in turn enables
determination of the mechanism for building their ground and excited compound states. The consequences
are far-reaching and embracing, for examples, from identifying dark matter and energy that makes the
explanation of masses in the Universe 100 % inclusive, to solving the hackneyed yet equally elusive puzzle
of why the inertial mass is equal to the gravitational mass.
We believe the quantum entanglement is caused by the very space itself, not by any particles, and thus not bounded by the speed of light, so is the gravity, we stand at fireworks side.
Four Laws of Inertia in ‘variable’ Spacetime FieldIJMERJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: All science theories and physics laws are derived and described in the ‘fixed or straight’ space-time. Nobody thinks what will happen to these laws and theories if the space-time itself gets varied (curved). The fundamental laws of physics certainly not going to hold in the varied field of spacetime and will get modified. There are mysteries of physics such as inertia and gravity which cannot be explained in fixed spacetime. Many people believed that asking ‘what cause inertia’ is as unanswerable as asking ‘what cause gravity’ or asking ‘why does matter exist?’ They argued that these things are so fundamental that there is no explanation (or atleast no satisfactory explanation from modern science). This paper tries to reveal the origin mysteries of inertia and gravity (two greatest mysteries of science) through the concept of ‘variable’ spacetime (ST) field. The law of relativity and its cause can also be understood as intrinsic property of ST field. The concept of ‘spacetime’ as quantum field is introduced and a vital modification been proposed to the fundamental forces of the Nature. Three new types of Energy based on relativity are proposed and explained. Finally four laws of ‘inertia’ are proposed in which first and third law of inertia explains the ‘origin of inertia and gravity’. The second law of inertia explains the relation of energy with spacetime field. At the end, a thought experiment of ‘two parallel trains’ discussed and shown the violation of energy conservation law analytically in isolated system. In short, the theory discover that the things are living in the quantum field of spacetime and ‘Mass’ can cause ‘variation’ to the spacetime field and the variation of spacetime field leads to the generation or destruction of Energy.
The objective of this paper is to propose an approach to the unification of physics by attempting
to construct a physical worldview which can be used as the context for a unified physical theory.
The underlying principle is that we have to construct a clear description of the physical world
before we can build a unified physical theory.
The present state of physics is such that there are many theories which all differ in the descriptive
context in which they operate. The theories of general relativity, quantum theory, quantum
electrodynamics, string theory and the standard model of particle physics are based on differing
concepts of the nature of the physical world.
Evaluation of post-Einsteinian gravitational theories through parameterized p...Nicolae Sfetcu
Right after the elaboration and success of general relativity (GR), alternative theories for gravity began to appear. In order to verify and classify all these theories, specific tests have been developed, based on self-consistency and on completeness. In the field of experimental gravity, one of the important applications is formalism. For the evaluation of gravity models, several sets of tests have been proposed. Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism considers approximations of Einstein's gravity equations by the lowest order deviations from Newton's law for weak fields.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.25994.82881
Gravity and the cosmic microwave background radiation (cmbr)Eran Sinbar
Based on Einstein’s field equations, mass curves space time and curvature of space-time dictates the gravitational field around the mass. In the theory of general relativity, the equivalence principle is the equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass, and Albert Einstein's observation that the gravitational "force" as experienced locally while standing on a massive body (such as the Earth) is the same as the force experienced by an observer in an accelerated frame of reference. Since acceleration consume energy, it’s a worthy question to ask how curvature of space time can supply this equivalent required energy for acceleration.
Let’s imagine that two similar small objects (e.g. mass A and mass B) are standing still in space-time relative to each other in their frame of reference. Now imagine that mass A absorbs an energetic pulse of gamma ray burst and starts to increase its mass (for example by absorbing radiation and increasing its thermal energy) .Its new effective mass will be signed as A’ where A’>>A.
Based on the interpretation today of the Einstein’s field equations the curvature of space time causes mass B to move towards mass A’ since it is the shortest geodesic path in the curved space-time. The curvature of space time is practically the potential energy.
But from mass B point of view (in its frame of reference where both mass A and B were standing still before the increase of mass A), it feels suddenly a force towards mass A’ and an increase in its kinetic energy and it is a worthy question to ask where does this extra kinetic energy come from? How can curvature in space-time explain this extra kinetic energy of mass B?
This article tries to analyze the Einstein field equations in a new heuristic approach and to explain the cause for the movement of mass B towards the increasing mass A’ due to what is related as gravitational force. The article also suggests that the source of the extra kinetic energy given to mass B comes from the CMBR (Cosmic Micro wave Background Radiation).
Quantum Field Theory and the Limits of KnowledgeSean Carroll
A seminar, given to philosophers, on how quantum field theory allows us to delineate known from unknown in fundamental physics, and why the laws of physics underlying everyday phenomena are known.
Abstract: Dr. David Joseph Bohm an American scientist who theorized quantum mechanics in the most ordinary and understandable way, which is somewhat referred to as the “Pilot Wave-model”. Also he prophesized in neuropsychology, and gave the Holonomic model of brain affecting our view of the quantum mechanics. His theories suggest that the phenomenon of “NON LOCALITY” or quantum entanglement is due to the famous “frame dragging” phenomenon predicted by Sir. Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Bohm’s theory also suggests that time doesn’t exist in the way we think it does as stated by “THE BIG CRUNCH” theory. According to it time exists due to the interacting frequencies of the waves due to particle vibrations in space and that the universe never began.
In this paper existence of quantum entanglement is used to question the degree of correctness of the Space-time fabric theory.
EMU M.Sc. Thesis Presentation
Thesis Title: "Dark Matter; Modification of f(R) or WIMPS Miracle"
Student: Ali Övgün
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Mustafa Halilsoy
Dark matter modeled as a Bose Einstein gluon condensate with an energy density relative to baryonic energy density in agreement with observation (ArXiv: 1507.00460)
The First Annual Robert Grosseteste Lecture on Astrophysics/Cosmology, a public talk given at the University of Lincoln.
The lecture focusses on the large-scale structure of the Universe and the ideas that physicists are weaving together to explain how it came to be the way it is. Over the last few decades, astronomers have revealed that our cosmos is not only vast in scale – at least 14 billion light years in radius – but also exceedingly complex, with galaxies and clusters of galaxies linked together in immense chains and sheets, surrounding giant voids of (apparently) empty space. Cosmologists have developed theoretical explanations for its origin that involve such exotic concepts as ‘dark matter’, ‘dark energy’ and ‘cosmic inflation’, producing a cosmic web of ideas that is, in some ways, as rich and fascinating as the Universe itself.
The objective of this paper is to propose an approach to the unification of physics by attempting
to construct a physical worldview which can be used as the context for a unified physical theory.
The underlying principle is that we have to construct a clear description of the physical world
before we can build a unified physical theory.
The present state of physics is such that there are many theories which all differ in the descriptive
context in which they operate. The theories of general relativity, quantum theory, quantum
electrodynamics, string theory and the standard model of particle physics are based on differing
concepts of the nature of the physical world.
Evaluation of post-Einsteinian gravitational theories through parameterized p...Nicolae Sfetcu
Right after the elaboration and success of general relativity (GR), alternative theories for gravity began to appear. In order to verify and classify all these theories, specific tests have been developed, based on self-consistency and on completeness. In the field of experimental gravity, one of the important applications is formalism. For the evaluation of gravity models, several sets of tests have been proposed. Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism considers approximations of Einstein's gravity equations by the lowest order deviations from Newton's law for weak fields.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.25994.82881
Gravity and the cosmic microwave background radiation (cmbr)Eran Sinbar
Based on Einstein’s field equations, mass curves space time and curvature of space-time dictates the gravitational field around the mass. In the theory of general relativity, the equivalence principle is the equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass, and Albert Einstein's observation that the gravitational "force" as experienced locally while standing on a massive body (such as the Earth) is the same as the force experienced by an observer in an accelerated frame of reference. Since acceleration consume energy, it’s a worthy question to ask how curvature of space time can supply this equivalent required energy for acceleration.
Let’s imagine that two similar small objects (e.g. mass A and mass B) are standing still in space-time relative to each other in their frame of reference. Now imagine that mass A absorbs an energetic pulse of gamma ray burst and starts to increase its mass (for example by absorbing radiation and increasing its thermal energy) .Its new effective mass will be signed as A’ where A’>>A.
Based on the interpretation today of the Einstein’s field equations the curvature of space time causes mass B to move towards mass A’ since it is the shortest geodesic path in the curved space-time. The curvature of space time is practically the potential energy.
But from mass B point of view (in its frame of reference where both mass A and B were standing still before the increase of mass A), it feels suddenly a force towards mass A’ and an increase in its kinetic energy and it is a worthy question to ask where does this extra kinetic energy come from? How can curvature in space-time explain this extra kinetic energy of mass B?
This article tries to analyze the Einstein field equations in a new heuristic approach and to explain the cause for the movement of mass B towards the increasing mass A’ due to what is related as gravitational force. The article also suggests that the source of the extra kinetic energy given to mass B comes from the CMBR (Cosmic Micro wave Background Radiation).
Quantum Field Theory and the Limits of KnowledgeSean Carroll
A seminar, given to philosophers, on how quantum field theory allows us to delineate known from unknown in fundamental physics, and why the laws of physics underlying everyday phenomena are known.
Abstract: Dr. David Joseph Bohm an American scientist who theorized quantum mechanics in the most ordinary and understandable way, which is somewhat referred to as the “Pilot Wave-model”. Also he prophesized in neuropsychology, and gave the Holonomic model of brain affecting our view of the quantum mechanics. His theories suggest that the phenomenon of “NON LOCALITY” or quantum entanglement is due to the famous “frame dragging” phenomenon predicted by Sir. Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Bohm’s theory also suggests that time doesn’t exist in the way we think it does as stated by “THE BIG CRUNCH” theory. According to it time exists due to the interacting frequencies of the waves due to particle vibrations in space and that the universe never began.
In this paper existence of quantum entanglement is used to question the degree of correctness of the Space-time fabric theory.
EMU M.Sc. Thesis Presentation
Thesis Title: "Dark Matter; Modification of f(R) or WIMPS Miracle"
Student: Ali Övgün
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Mustafa Halilsoy
Dark matter modeled as a Bose Einstein gluon condensate with an energy density relative to baryonic energy density in agreement with observation (ArXiv: 1507.00460)
The First Annual Robert Grosseteste Lecture on Astrophysics/Cosmology, a public talk given at the University of Lincoln.
The lecture focusses on the large-scale structure of the Universe and the ideas that physicists are weaving together to explain how it came to be the way it is. Over the last few decades, astronomers have revealed that our cosmos is not only vast in scale – at least 14 billion light years in radius – but also exceedingly complex, with galaxies and clusters of galaxies linked together in immense chains and sheets, surrounding giant voids of (apparently) empty space. Cosmologists have developed theoretical explanations for its origin that involve such exotic concepts as ‘dark matter’, ‘dark energy’ and ‘cosmic inflation’, producing a cosmic web of ideas that is, in some ways, as rich and fascinating as the Universe itself.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
In this paper I present a new theory that explains as to when and how dark energy is created as mass is destroyed. The theory extends Einstein’s mass energy equation to a more generic form in order to make it work even in high gravity conditions. It also explains why dark energy is created. Further, it is proved Einstein’s mass energy equation holds good only when the destroyed mass has no supermassive object in its close vicinity. The relationship between dark energy and dark matter is unveiled. An extended mathematical form of Einstein’s mass energy equation is derived, based on which the conditions leading to dark energy creation are explained. Three new physical parameters called dark energy discriminant, dark energy radius and dark energy boundary are introduced to facilitate easy understanding of the theory. It is explained in detail that an extremely superdense object has two dark energy boundaries, outer and inner. Mass destroyed only between these two boundaries creates dark energy. Dark energy space, the space between the two aforementioned boundaries, shrouds visible matter in obscurity from optical and electromagnetic telescopes. This theory identifies Gargantuan as a superdense black hole currently creating fresh dark energy, which could be the subject of interest for the astronomical research community having access to sophisticated telescopes, and working on dark energy. It also upholds dark energy and denies the existence of dark matter. Dark matter is nothing but the well-known visible matter positioned in dark energy space. An important relationship is derived between a photon’s frequency and its distance from a black hole to demonstrate the effect of gravity on light. Another important fact revealed by this theory is gravity stretches out light, thereby causing redshift, which is unaccounted in the computation of velocities of outer galaxies. Whether the universe is undergoing accelerated or decelerated expansion, or accelerated contraction can precisely be determined only after accounting for the redshift caused by gravity
Gravity Also Redshifts Light – the Missing Phenomenon That Could Resolve Most...ijrap
In this paper I discover that gravity also redshifts light like the velocity of its source does. When light travels towards a supermassive object, its waves (or photons) undergo continuous stretching, thereby shifting towards lower frequencies. Gravity redshifts light irrespective of whether its source is in motion or static with respect to its observer. An equation is derived for gravitational redshift, and a formula for combined redshift is presented by considering both the velocity, and gravity redshifts. Also explained is how frequencies of electromagnetic spectrum continuously downgrade as a light beam of mix frequencies passes towards a black hole. Further, a clear methodology is provided to figure out whether expansion of the universe is accelerating or decelerating, or alternatively, the universe is contracting.
This article seeks to present the future of the Universe, as well as to point out the measures that lead to the survival of humanity in the face of the numerous threats that may occur at the level of the solar system and the Universe as a whole.
Unification theory with no extra dimensions. The first part unifies the strong nuclear force with the gravitational force in a mathematical way; the quantum vacuum is treated as a deformable system by the strong nuclear force. The second part unifies the nuclear force with the quantum vacuum in a hypothetical structure; the quantum vacuum is treated as a supersymmetric and metastable system with properties related to the different types of particles’ motion.
Publication at gpcpublishing. Gravity explained by a new theory, ‘Superconducting String Theory (SST)’, completely opposite from current field emission based and inspired on originals string theories. Strengths are decomposed to make strings behave as one-dimensional structure with universe acting as a superconductor where resistance is near 0 and the matter moves inside. Strong nuclear force, with an attraction of 10.000 Newtons is which makes space to curve, generating acceleration, more matter more acceleration. Electromagnetic moves in 8 decimals, gravity is moved to more than 30 decimals to work as a superconductor.
In this talk I explain (a) what observations speak
for the hypothesis of dark matter, (b) what observations speak for the hypothesis of modified gravity, and (c) why it is a mistake
to insist that either hypothesis on its own must explain all
the available data. The right explanation, I will argue,
is instead a suitable combination of dark matter and modified
gravity, which can be realized by the idea that dark matter
has a superfluid phase.
In this section, we see how New Energy science helps us move toward a workable Unified Field Theory; how it helps us to understand Zero Point Energy as the mysterious "dark energy" cosmologists have long posited; and how the Big Bang most likely never happened.
Space lattice theory a grand unification of physicsslpr2013
Space Lattice Theory presents a radically new theory of the universe that describes how matter, energy, force at a distance, space and time can be explained by one single principle - a Grand Unification. Many cosmic puzzles are finally explained.
The paper proposes a model of a unitary quantum field theory where the particle is represented as a wave packet. The frequency dispersion equation is chosen so that the packet periodically appears and disappears without changing its form. The envelope of the process is identified with a conventional wave function. Equation of such a field is nonlinear and relativistically invariant. With proper adjustments, they are reduced to Dirac, Schroedinger and Hamilton-Jacobi equations. A number of new experimental effects are predicted both for high and low energies.
Observability Concepts EVERY Developer Should Know -- DeveloperWeek Europe.pdfPaige Cruz
Monitoring and observability aren’t traditionally found in software curriculums and many of us cobble this knowledge together from whatever vendor or ecosystem we were first introduced to and whatever is a part of your current company’s observability stack.
While the dev and ops silo continues to crumble….many organizations still relegate monitoring & observability as the purview of ops, infra and SRE teams. This is a mistake - achieving a highly observable system requires collaboration up and down the stack.
I, a former op, would like to extend an invitation to all application developers to join the observability party will share these foundational concepts to build on:
Why You Should Replace Windows 11 with Nitrux Linux 3.5.0 for enhanced perfor...SOFTTECHHUB
The choice of an operating system plays a pivotal role in shaping our computing experience. For decades, Microsoft's Windows has dominated the market, offering a familiar and widely adopted platform for personal and professional use. However, as technological advancements continue to push the boundaries of innovation, alternative operating systems have emerged, challenging the status quo and offering users a fresh perspective on computing.
One such alternative that has garnered significant attention and acclaim is Nitrux Linux 3.5.0, a sleek, powerful, and user-friendly Linux distribution that promises to redefine the way we interact with our devices. With its focus on performance, security, and customization, Nitrux Linux presents a compelling case for those seeking to break free from the constraints of proprietary software and embrace the freedom and flexibility of open-source computing.
Communications Mining Series - Zero to Hero - Session 1DianaGray10
This session provides introduction to UiPath Communication Mining, importance and platform overview. You will acquire a good understand of the phases in Communication Mining as we go over the platform with you. Topics covered:
• Communication Mining Overview
• Why is it important?
• How can it help today’s business and the benefits
• Phases in Communication Mining
• Demo on Platform overview
• Q/A
Encryption in Microsoft 365 - ExpertsLive Netherlands 2024Albert Hoitingh
In this session I delve into the encryption technology used in Microsoft 365 and Microsoft Purview. Including the concepts of Customer Key and Double Key Encryption.
Goodbye Windows 11: Make Way for Nitrux Linux 3.5.0!SOFTTECHHUB
As the digital landscape continually evolves, operating systems play a critical role in shaping user experiences and productivity. The launch of Nitrux Linux 3.5.0 marks a significant milestone, offering a robust alternative to traditional systems such as Windows 11. This article delves into the essence of Nitrux Linux 3.5.0, exploring its unique features, advantages, and how it stands as a compelling choice for both casual users and tech enthusiasts.
GraphSummit Singapore | The Future of Agility: Supercharging Digital Transfor...Neo4j
Leonard Jayamohan, Partner & Generative AI Lead, Deloitte
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Maruthi Prithivirajan, Head of ASEAN & IN Solution Architecture, Neo4j
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GraphSummit Singapore | The Art of the Possible with Graph - Q2 2024Neo4j
Neha Bajwa, Vice President of Product Marketing, Neo4j
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zkStudyClub - Reef: Fast Succinct Non-Interactive Zero-Knowledge Regex ProofsAlex Pruden
This paper presents Reef, a system for generating publicly verifiable succinct non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs that a committed document matches or does not match a regular expression. We describe applications such as proving the strength of passwords, the provenance of email despite redactions, the validity of oblivious DNS queries, and the existence of mutations in DNA. Reef supports the Perl Compatible Regular Expression syntax, including wildcards, alternation, ranges, capture groups, Kleene star, negations, and lookarounds. Reef introduces a new type of automata, Skipping Alternating Finite Automata (SAFA), that skips irrelevant parts of a document when producing proofs without undermining soundness, and instantiates SAFA with a lookup argument. Our experimental evaluation confirms that Reef can generate proofs for documents with 32M characters; the proofs are small and cheap to verify (under a second).
Paper: https://eprint.iacr.org/2023/1886
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 5DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 5. In this session, we will cover CI/CD with devops.
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CI/CD with in UiPath
End-to-end overview of CI/CD pipeline with Azure devops
Speaker:
Lyndsey Byblow, Test Suite Sales Engineer @ UiPath, Inc.
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My slides at Nordic Testing Days 6.6.2024
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DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
GraphRAG is All You need? LLM & Knowledge GraphGuy Korland
Guy Korland, CEO and Co-founder of FalkorDB, will review two articles on the integration of language models with knowledge graphs.
1. Unifying Large Language Models and Knowledge Graphs: A Roadmap.
https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.08302
2. Microsoft Research's GraphRAG paper and a review paper on various uses of knowledge graphs:
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/blog/graphrag-unlocking-llm-discovery-on-narrative-private-data/
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
As machine learning integrates deeper into human-computer interactions, the concept of epistemic interaction emerges, aiming to refine these interactions to enhance system adaptability. This approach encourages minor, intentional adjustments in user behaviour to enrich the data available for system learning. This paper introduces epistemic interaction within the context of human-system communication, illustrating how deliberate interaction design can improve system understanding and adaptation. Through concrete examples, we demonstrate the potential of epistemic interaction to significantly advance human-computer interaction by leveraging intuitive human communication strategies to inform system design and functionality, offering a novel pathway for enriching user-system engagements.
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI support
Bp4301373380
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Energy Gain Process of a Celestial Body
Dr. Shobha Lal, Rajesh Saxena
Professor of Mathematics and Computing Dean Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Jayoti Vidyapeeth
Women's University, Jaipur (India)
Research Scholar, Jayoti Vidyapeeth Women's University, Jaipur (India)
Abstract
The article considered in this paper attempts to explain the astrophysical phenomena of „dark energy‟ and „dark
matter‟ as curvature effects in a modified theory of gravity. The deviations of this theory from Einstein‟s general
relativity are not expected to be observed on Solar System scales, but are relevant on galactic or higher scales.
These properties allow the theory to survive Solar System tests of general relativity that currently constrain such
models (for instance, [1] finds that GR holds in the Solar System to within 0.5%), but still permit it to provide
an alternative explanation of dark matter and dark energy. In order to understand the proposed explanation
however, one must first review what cosmologists mean by dark matter and dark energy, why they are largely
required in the standard cosmological model, and what kind of observational evidence would an alternative
model have to match.
Keywords: Astrophysics, cosmology, mass, gravity and gravitational.
I. Introduction
As the name implies, dark matter acts like
regular matter gravitationally, but does not emit any
EM radiation that can be observed on Earth. Dark
matter is the widely accepted explanation for a large
number of anomalies observed in galaxies. These
anomalies occur when the total mass is calculated by
different methods, and the results strongly disagree.
The total mass of a galaxy, as well as its distribution,
can be easily computed from the velocity distribution
of the observed components, via the virial theorem.
This calculation can be done classically, since GR
corrections are negligible for the distances involved.
As early as 1933, observations of galactic clusters
showed that the speeds at which some components
were seen to orbit the center were much higher than
the mass estimate would allow – in fact, for some
estimates the amount of mass inside the cluster would
have needed to be 400 times greater than inferred
from the amount of visible matter. This became
known as the “missing mass” problem. Further to the
missing mass problem is the problem of rotation
curves. Rotation curves indicate the orbiting velocity
of stars or dust around the center of the galaxy. The
concept can in principle apply to any gravitationally
bound system, such as the Solar System or galaxy
clusters, but the problem was first seen in the study of
spiral galaxies.
According to Kepler‟s third law, rotation
curves must approach zero as one nears the edge of
such a galaxy. Observationally, however, the rotation
curves are largely flat outside the center. (Figure 1.)
RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
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Figure 1. Rotation curve for the Milky Way, including individual contributions. Source: [2]
The galaxy rotation problem can be easily
solved assuming that the galaxy contains a large
quantity of dark matter, since its distribution can be
selected to match any rotation curve. Unfortunately,
this means that dark matter becomes a re-wrapping of
our own ignorance. Very much like the original
postulation of the neutrino to conserve energy and
momentum in beta decays, dark matter would be
simply a book-keeping device - one can infer nothing
about it other than its distribution and the fact that it
acts gravitationally like regular matter. Still, the
experimental fact remains that a majority of galaxies‟
mass as inferred from rotation curves seems to
consist of dark matter.
Dark matter also plays an important role in
the formation of structure in the early universe. The
structure of the universe that we observe–galaxies,
stars, and other largescale objects–evolved from
small fluctuations in the plasma of the early universe
that underwent gravitational collapse over the eons.
Without dark matter, structure can only be formed by
ordinary baryonic matter. But up to the
recombination era, ordinary matter is coupled to the
photons in the universe. This coupling results in a
restoring force that acts to prevent further collapse;
the result is acoustic oscillations and inhibition of
structure formation. Such a picture would not be able
to produce the amount of structure that is observed.
The addition of dark matter (assuming it is still „dark‟
at those energies, i.e. it is decoupled from the
photons) changes the picture since dark matter is free
to collapse gravitationally without resulting in a
restoring force. This helps the formation of structure
around local concentrations of dark matter. Current
results from the WMAP experiment support the
existence of dark matter in the early universe in
amounts comparable to those today, indicating that
dark matter is a long-lived species.
Little can be said about the nature of dark
matter itself. Dark matter can be either relativistic or
non-relativistic. In fact some relativistic (hot) dark
matter is already known to exist: neutrinos, since they
have been confirmed to be massive by the K2K and
SNO experiments. However, they cannot account for
a large proportion of the dark matter content, given
that their masses and number densities are fairly well
known. Nor can hot dark matter account for smaller
scales of structure formation, simply because it
moves too fast. The picture most consistent with the
experimental data is that the dark matter is (and was
for most of the universe‟s history) cold (non-
relativistic). The most likely explanation is that it is
some sort of massive, very weakly-interacting
particle. GUTs can provide a number of candidates
for dark matter; for instance, the lightest
supersymmetric particle. Such a particle would have
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a mass on the GUT scale, decouples from matter at
that energy scale, and has a very long lifetime – thus
being a good DM candidate.
Unfortunately, until a leading GUT emerges,
it is largely impossible to make predictions about the
interactions of the cold dark matter assumed to be
present in the universe.
1.2 Energy Process
Dark energy refers to a form of energy that
has negative pressure. More specifically, it has an
equation of state =wp with w < -1/3. It was
conceived by Einstein, who wrote the equation for
the metric in order to accommodate a static universe
vvvv
GT8AgRg
2
1
R
(1)
The constant was called the cosmological
constant. It was quickly abandoned after the
discovery that the universe is expanding. The
term would correspond to the energy of the vacuum –
if the ground state of vacuum has a non-vanishing
contribution to gravitational stress-energy, it would
amount to being non-zero in the above equation.
In quantum mechanics, the vacuum can give rise to
short-lived, virtual particleantiparticle pairs that can,
at least in theory, contribute to . However, simple
estimates of the contribution of the various known
fields to result in outrageously high values that
would have caused the universe to rapidly re-collapse
after the Big Bang. Since no viable theory of
quantum gravity exists at present, there exists no
reliable way to calculate the effects of quantum
vacuum states on gravitational phenomena.
A cosmological constant term corresponds
to an equation of state with w = –1. Other forms of
dark energy are also conceivable, for instance arising
from scalar fields. In particular, a scalar field whose
equation of state approaches that of the cosmological
constant term is thought to have been responsible for
inflation. It is readily shown from the Friedmann
equation that a universe in which the dominant
energy is the cosmological constant will increase
exponentially in size, which allows for inflation as
long as the universe remains dominated by the field.
In the early 1990‟s, the cosmological
constant term was revived as type 1A supernova
observations indicated that the universe is in a period
of accelerated expansion. This is impossible if the
universe is dominated by matter, radiation, curvature
or any form of energy with w –1/3. The standard
model of cosmology was revised to include a
cosmological constant term that contributes to the
total energy density:
2
H3/G8 (2)
Recent observations support a cosmological
model with A 0.7, M 0.3 and 1.0.
These parameters imply that the universe has zero (or
vanishingly small) curvature, and that dark energy is
currently the strongest driving force in the universe‟s
evolution. Since the density of dark energy does not
decrease with the scale factor, it is expected that in
time it will dominate the universe and give rise to a
period of exponential expansion until all unbound
structures fall outside each other‟s horizon (unless
something happens to end the domination of dark
energy).
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Figure 2. Hubble diagram for supernovae indicating an accelerating universe. Reproduced from [3]
II. Suggested Features
Although the -CDM model that
incorporates both dark matter and dark energy is
highly successful at explaining features of the
observed Universe, it suffers from the lack of insight
into the nature of dark matter and dark energy. Given
that, it is reasonable to attempt to formulate models
that do not require those features. One class of
leading alternative models postulates that the general
theory of relativity is only approximately correct. In
other words, Equation (1) above for the metric holds
only approximately. It then becomes imperative to
find „the‟ equation of motion for the metric. Any
such equation must of course reduce to (1) in the
domains where it has been tested to high accuracy,
such as the Solar System. Ideally, such an equation
should also predict that a homogeneous, isotropic
Universe can end up in a phase of accelerated
expansion either at late times (providing an
alternative for dark energy), or at very early times
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(since this would provide a mechanism for inflation,
which is a leading mechanism for solving other
puzzles about the observed Universe). Alternatively,
in such a model gravity might deviate sufficiently
from GR on galactic scales to explain the observed
rotation curves without invoking dark matter.
The need for a more general equation for the
metric also arises from attempts at unifying gravity
with quantum mechanics. In most such models,
higher order terms must enter the gravity Lagrangian,
and hence modify the equation of motion
corresponding to gravity – whether it is quantized
(gravitons) or simply remains a description of the
underlying space-time, but now quantum fields are
treated in curved space-times. The model proposed in
[4] generalizes GR by modifying the Einstein-Hilbert
action. In its normal form, the metric part of the
Lagrangian reads:
xdgRgS 4
(3)
In equation (3), g is the determinant of the
metric and R is the Ricci scalar. The simplest
generalization that can be made is to write
xdgRgS 4
(4)
Equation (4) introduces some function of the
Ricci scalar f(R). One might imagine that more
general replacements for the metric action could
depend, for instance, on derivatives of R. However,
there is a known „no-go‟ result in classical mechanics
due to Ostrogradski that disallows such theories since
they are found to introduce instability in the
equations of motion if derivatives of higher order
than two appear.
The presence of f(R) can be shown to
modify the equation for the metric (1) as follows
(dropping the cosmological constant term):
Rf
T
TRg
2
1
RG
M
curv
(5)
In (5), the usual matter stress-energy tensor
is denoted as
M
T
. An entirely new
curv
T
(call it the
curvature stress-energy) appears from the higher
order effects that can contribute to the Einstein tensor
even in the absence of matter stress-energy. It can be
shown that
ggggRfRfRRfg
2
1
Rf
1
T
;curv
(6)
Clearly the case f(R) = R should recover
equation (1), and it is easy to see that it does. In this
case, f (R) = 1 so the coefficient of
M
T
is what it
should be. Meanwhile, the curvature stress-energy
disappears, since the combination f (R) −R f (R)
vanishes and the second term cancels out.
This model was originally intended to
replace dark energy. Treating the higher order terms
as a source of effective curvature contained within
curv
T
allows one to keep using the Friedmann
equations to describe the evolution of the Universe,
with the extra sources from
curv
T
. In particular, the
equation for the scale factor is
totaltotal p3
6
1
a/a (7)
Assuming that the universe is currently
matter-dominated, the quantities in equation (7) can
be decomposed as follows: curvtotal
+ M
and ptotal = pcurv (since non-relativistic matter has
negligible pressure). It can also be shown that
RfRH3RfRRf
2
1
Rf
1
curv
(8)
and that the „equation of state‟ for the
curvature tensor is
RfRH32/RfRRf
RfHRfRRRfR
1wcurv
(9)
Again, equation (8) reduces to GR for f(R) =
R, in which case f(R) −Rf '(R) vanishes and f''(R) = 0,
so that 0curv . It is not clear what happens to the
equation of state (the fraction is the indeterminate
form 0/0 for f(R) = R), but since the energy density
vanishes, the pressure also vanishes for any finite
value of w.
Given this model, it is possible (at least in
theory) to determine f(R) by working backwards. The
Friedmann equation (7) or its first-order equivalent
can be manipulated into an equation for f(R(z)),
where z is the redshift. The cosmological data for
H(z) can then be used to determine f(R). However,
the model studied in [4] does not attempt to do so. It
assumes a simple form of f(R) as follows:
RfRf 0
(10)
Here, GR is recovered in the limit n = 1.
This model can in fact be successful in matching the
SNIa data [5] and the estimated age of the Universe
for a range 1.366 < n < 1.376.
Interestingly enough, the model may also
serve to explain galactic rotation curves without the
use of dark matter. By solving for the Schwarzschild-
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like metric in this model and taking the appropriate
classical limit, the gravitational potential outside a
spherically symmetric mass distribution is found to
be
cr
r
1
r
GM
R (11)
where n is given by a fairly
complicated relationship
2n4bn
1n50n83n12n361n7n12
2
2342
(12)
It follows immediately from (12) that the n
= 1 limit corresponds to 0 , which recovers the
typical
1
r
form of the classical Newtonian potential.
The rotation curve may then be evaluated with
standard methods, yielding
c
2
c
r
r
11
r
rGM
rv (13)
Here M(r) denotes the total mass contained
within the galaxy up to distance r away from its
center, assuming the galaxy has some sort of
spherical or disk symmetry. rc is a free parameter of
the theory, and corresponds roughly to the scale at
which deviations from GR become important. This
formula predicts that the rotation curve approaches
zero asymptotically at large r, even though
observations currently show the rotation curve to be
flat towards the edge of galaxies. However, since one
necessarily probes only a finite range of r, that
finding does not automatically discount the model,
and in fact is it possible to find fairly good agreement
between this model and observations.
Figure 3 shows some sample plots of
theoretical rotation curves of LSB galaxies where the
values of rc and have been fitted for, based on
available data. The authors show 15 such fits; only
nine of which have been reproduced here. Of the 15
galaxies considered, ten show good to excellent
agreement (such as the middle plot in figure 3), and
only three are unsatisfactory (such as the lower left
plot in figure 3).
Figure 3 : Best-fit rotation curves for a sampling of galaxies. Reproduced from [6]
The best-fit range is = 0.58 ± 0.15,
corresponding to a range 1.34 < n < 2.41. This range
agrees with the result obtained from the best-fit of
accelerated expansion at the lower end of the scale.
Therefore, it is possible to make the claim (actually
made in [4]) that this opens up the possibility to
dispense with the invisible energy content of the
universe currently required for standard cosmology
by introducing this alteration to GR encompassed in
equations (4) and (10). It is in fact entirely plausible
that equation (10) may not be the correct model for
f(R) gravity and that the correct model for gravity is
more complicated – or possibly simpler; at any rate
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using an irrational value for the exponent n without
some theoretical justification seems unappealing.
Nonetheless, the success of a simple model at
explaining astrophysical observations warrants
further research into such models in the hope that one
may be found that makes a full account for the
invisible energy content.
III. Explanation and Finding
The model proposed in this paper seems to
be at least as viable as leading dark energy models in
providing a mechanism for the observed accelerated
expansion of the Universe. The authors of [5] claim
that a simple term (vacuum energy, w = –1) is
“ruled out” by the spectacular failure of simple
models to calculate its value (higher than the
experimental value by a factor of 1030
in energy
scale), although this failure probably indicates simply
the failure of the simple models per se and a
possibility for new physics. However, that failure
does little in terms of compelling evidence for the
model, and the model presented in [4] remains a
viable alternative. Another class of models for dark
energy, the so-called “quintessence” models,
introduce dark energy as a dynamical field whose
equation of state is close to, but not exactly, w=–1.
The theory for such models is fairly similar to that of
inflationary models, since a similar effect is sought
after, simply at a different energy scale. There is little
experimental evidence to decide the issue, since the
equation of state for dark energy is not very well
constrained by existing models, although experiments
are underway to measure it more accurately. In any
event, quintessence models can explain the
observations, but there are no a priori choices for the
interaction potentials of the fields from fundamental
quantum field theory, and there is little reason to
prefer such models.
When it comes to replacing dark matter,
however, this model runs into serious difficulties not
encountered in the standard cold dark matter analysis.
Granted, the model can match the rotation curves of
galaxies. Furthermore, the best-fit range of n for
rotation curves is also consistent with the best-fit
range of n from accelerated expansion. Dark matter,
however, also plays an important role in the early
universe in structure formation. This model does not
present a viable alternative in this regard. Recall that
the dark matter was able to collapse gravitationally in
the early universe without generating a restorative
force from the plasma because it was otherwise
decoupled from it. In this model, the gravitational
interaction between baryons is modified, and may
generate additional attraction between matter on
galactic scales. However, the collapse of baryons
would result in a stronger counter from the radiation
pressure associated with the plasma coupled to the
baryons, and this would very likely prevent the
formation of structure even with the additional
attraction – or at the very least inhibit it more than the
experimental data allows. Furthermore, the difference
in the oscillations of the baryonic matter in this
model would become encoded in the CMB acoustic
peaks. At present, however, the CMB data from
WMAP strongly favors the cold dark matter
hypothesis [7], claiming that models without cold
dark matter of any kind are a “very poor” fit to the
spectrum. The relevant data is shown in figure 4.
Although the fit is made for a standard cosmological
model, the constraints on M can be made
independently of w if a flat universe is still assumed.
If that were the case, the agreement between the „dark
matter‟ and „dark energy‟ ranges of the exponent n
would in fact lessen the value of the model, since in
order to provide the „dark energy‟ one also needs to
introduce an unacceptable galacticscale component
that acts like dark matter (over and above the
presence of regular cold dark matter), which renders
the model invalid.
Unfortunately, it is beyond my ability to
fully determine how the f(R) model would affect the
CMB spectrum (as opposed to dark energy), and so I
cannot tell whether it agrees with the rest of the CMB
data. However, in principle there is a way that the
f(R) model can be compared to dark matter models, if
one could find two galaxies that, for instance, orbit
around their center of mass, or are in the process of
merging. In the dark matter model, the dark matter
content of each galaxy could be determined from the
rotation curve about their individual centers;
however, one expects that the dark matter is entirely
confined to the individual galaxies, so that the
gravitational attraction between the two galaxies may
be entirely determined from the dark matter content.
The f(R) model, however, predicts that the
gravitational interaction between the galaxies would
be different from standard GR, so that the motion
around their center of mass would differ from the
GR+ dark matter prediction. This difference could
possibly be detected if the conditions are favorable.
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Figure 4. Constraints on w and _M from WMAP.
Reproduced from [7]
IV. Acknowledgement
Authors are indebted to the Honorable
founder and Advisor Sir Dr. Pankaj Garg, Jayoti
Vidyapeeth Women's University, Jaipur (Idnia) for
his regular encouragement and inspiration to dedicate
intellectual contribution to the Scientific World and
thanks are also to Colleagues, friends and family
members for their support.
References
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2003 (astro-ph/0309368)
[4] S. Capozziello, V.F. Cardone, A. Troisi,
2006, astro-ph/0602349
[5] S. Capozziello, V.F. Cardone, A. Troisi, S.
Carloni, Int. J. Mod. Phys. D, 12, 1969,
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[6] S. Capozziello, V.F. Cardone, A. Troisi,
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[7] C.L. Bennett et al (WMAP collaboration),
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