In this paper I present a new theory that explains as to when and how dark energy is created as mass is destroyed. The theory extends Einstein’s mass energy equation to a more generic form in order to make it work even in high gravity conditions. It also explains why dark energy is created. Further, it is proved Einstein’s mass energy equation holds good only when the destroyed mass has no supermassive object in its close vicinity. The relationship between dark energy and dark matter is unveiled. An extended mathematical form of Einstein’s mass energy equation is derived, based on which the conditions leading to dark energy creation are explained. Three new physical parameters called dark energy discriminant, dark energy radius and dark energy boundary are introduced to facilitate easy understanding of the theory. It is explained in detail that an extremely superdense object has two dark energy boundaries, outer and inner. Mass destroyed only between these two boundaries creates dark energy. Dark energy space, the space between the two aforementioned boundaries, shrouds visible matter in obscurity from optical and electromagnetic telescopes. This theory identifies Gargantuan as a superdense black hole currently creating fresh dark energy, which could be the subject of interest for the astronomical research community having access to sophisticated telescopes, and working on dark energy. It also upholds dark energy and denies the existence of dark matter. Dark matter is nothing but the well-known visible matter positioned in dark energy space. An important relationship is derived between a photon’s frequency and its distance from a black hole to demonstrate the effect of gravity on light. Another important fact revealed by this theory is gravity stretches out light, thereby causing redshift, which is unaccounted in the computation of velocities of outer galaxies. Whether the universe is undergoing accelerated or decelerated expansion, or accelerated contraction can precisely be determined only after accounting for the redshift caused by gravity
Gravity Also Redshifts Light – the Missing Phenomenon That Could Resolve Most...ijrap
In this paper I discover that gravity also redshifts light like the velocity of its source does. When light travels towards a supermassive object, its waves (or photons) undergo continuous stretching, thereby shifting towards lower frequencies. Gravity redshifts light irrespective of whether its source is in motion or static with respect to its observer. An equation is derived for gravitational redshift, and a formula for combined redshift is presented by considering both the velocity, and gravity redshifts. Also explained is how frequencies of electromagnetic spectrum continuously downgrade as a light beam of mix frequencies passes towards a black hole. Further, a clear methodology is provided to figure out whether expansion of the universe is accelerating or decelerating, or alternatively, the universe is contracting.
This article seeks to present the future of the Universe, as well as to point out the measures that lead to the survival of humanity in the face of the numerous threats that may occur at the level of the solar system and the Universe as a whole.
This article aims to present the origin and evolution of Universe, Sun and Earth as well as alternative solutions for the survival of humanity with the end of Earth planet, Sun and Universe.
Gravity Also Redshifts Light – the Missing Phenomenon That Could Resolve Most...ijrap
In this paper I discover that gravity also redshifts light like the velocity of its source does. When light travels towards a supermassive object, its waves (or photons) undergo continuous stretching, thereby shifting towards lower frequencies. Gravity redshifts light irrespective of whether its source is in motion or static with respect to its observer. An equation is derived for gravitational redshift, and a formula for combined redshift is presented by considering both the velocity, and gravity redshifts. Also explained is how frequencies of electromagnetic spectrum continuously downgrade as a light beam of mix frequencies passes towards a black hole. Further, a clear methodology is provided to figure out whether expansion of the universe is accelerating or decelerating, or alternatively, the universe is contracting.
This article seeks to present the future of the Universe, as well as to point out the measures that lead to the survival of humanity in the face of the numerous threats that may occur at the level of the solar system and the Universe as a whole.
This article aims to present the origin and evolution of Universe, Sun and Earth as well as alternative solutions for the survival of humanity with the end of Earth planet, Sun and Universe.
Unification theory with no extra dimensions. The first part unifies the strong nuclear force with the gravitational force in a mathematical way; the quantum vacuum is treated as a deformable system by the strong nuclear force. The second part unifies the nuclear force with the quantum vacuum in a hypothetical structure; the quantum vacuum is treated as a supersymmetric and metastable system with properties related to the different types of particles’ motion.
Space lattice theory a grand unification of physicsslpr2013
Space Lattice Theory presents a radically new theory of the universe that describes how matter, energy, force at a distance, space and time can be explained by one single principle - a Grand Unification. Many cosmic puzzles are finally explained.
This theory, not so much to unify the gravitational field, but gives us a theoretical concept of the universe can be correlated, hence derives DEPENDABILITY universal, by the fact that unifies all the theories that exist, notably Einstein's general relativity and the theory of dynamic gravity of tesla, and among others.
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER)ijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) is dedicated to protecting personal information and will make every reasonable effort to handle collected information appropriately. All information collected, as well as related requests, will be handled as carefully and efficiently as possible in accordance with IJCER standards for integrity and objectivity.
Based on Einstein’s field equations (Fig. 1), mass curves space time and curvature of space-time dictates the gravitational field around the mass. This article tries to show a paradox that leads to the conclusion that if the gravitational field increases in a local region of the universe ,anti –gravity must increase throughout the universe to prevent a catastrophe that might lead to the end of space-time and information.
Publication at gpcpublishing. Gravity explained by a new theory, ‘Superconducting String Theory (SST)’, completely opposite from current field emission based and inspired on originals string theories. Strengths are decomposed to make strings behave as one-dimensional structure with universe acting as a superconductor where resistance is near 0 and the matter moves inside. Strong nuclear force, with an attraction of 10.000 Newtons is which makes space to curve, generating acceleration, more matter more acceleration. Electromagnetic moves in 8 decimals, gravity is moved to more than 30 decimals to work as a superconductor.
In this talk I explain (a) what observations speak
for the hypothesis of dark matter, (b) what observations speak for the hypothesis of modified gravity, and (c) why it is a mistake
to insist that either hypothesis on its own must explain all
the available data. The right explanation, I will argue,
is instead a suitable combination of dark matter and modified
gravity, which can be realized by the idea that dark matter
has a superfluid phase.
Neuro Quantology is an international, interdisciplinary, open-access, peer-reviewed journal that publishes original research and review articles on the interface between quantum physics and neuroscience. The journal focuses on the exploration of the neural mechanisms underlying consciousness, cognition, perception, and behavior from a quantum perspective. Neuro Quantology is published monthly.
Energy in form of space may solve the dark energy problemPremier Publishers
A review of recent observations suggests a universe that is light weight (matter density is 1/3rd of the critical value), accelerating and flat. This implies the existence of a cosmic Dark Energy that overcomes the gravitational self-attraction force of matter and causes the accelerating expansion. Finding out the cause of expansion and acceleration of the universe is a challenging job in present day cosmology. Cosmological models with different types of dark energy are becoming viable standard models to analyze and simulate experimental data from a number of high red shift supernovae. In this article, physical significance and analytical expression for dark energy related to total energy (or energy density) and matter (or matter density) in the universe is presented. It is assumed that 'space' or 'vacuum' is another form of energy (other form is mass which is related as E = mc2). With this assumption new cosmological equation of state is constructed which is in very good agreement with present observations. Thus energy evolves from matter to radiation to space. It is also predicted that the existence of a fundamental particle with mass less than the mass of a quark is possible.
On the Unification of Physic and the Elimination of Unbound Quantitiesijrap
This paper supports Descartes' idea of a constant quantity of motion, modernized by Leibniz. Unlike Leibniz, the paper emphasizes that the idea is not realized by forms of energy, but by energy itself. It remains constant regardless of the form, type, or speed of motion, even that of light. Through force, energy is only transformed. Here it is proved that force is its derivative. It exists even at rest, representing the object's minimal energy state. With speed, we achieve its multiplication up to the maximum energy state, from which a maximum force is derived from the object. From this point, corresponding to Planck's Length, we find the value of the force wherever we want. Achieving this removes the differences between various natural forces. The new idea eliminates infinite magnitudes. The process allows the laws to transition from simple to complex forms and vice versa, through differentiation-integration. For this paper, this means achieving the Unification Theory.
International Journal on Soft Computing, Artificial Intelligence and Applicat...ijrap
International Journal on Soft Computing, Artificial Intelligence and Applications (IJSCAI)
is an open access peer-reviewed journal that provides an excellent international forum for sharing
knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of Artificial Intelligence, Soft
Computing. The Journal looks for significant contributions to all major fields of the Artificial
Intelligence, Soft Computing in theoretical and practical aspects. The aim of the Journal is to
provide a platform to the researchers and practitioners from both academia as well as industry to
meet and share cutting-edge development in the field.
Authors are solicited to contribute to the journal by submitting articles that illustrate research
results, projects, surveying works and industrial experiences that describe significant advances in
the areas of Database management systems.
Unification theory with no extra dimensions. The first part unifies the strong nuclear force with the gravitational force in a mathematical way; the quantum vacuum is treated as a deformable system by the strong nuclear force. The second part unifies the nuclear force with the quantum vacuum in a hypothetical structure; the quantum vacuum is treated as a supersymmetric and metastable system with properties related to the different types of particles’ motion.
Space lattice theory a grand unification of physicsslpr2013
Space Lattice Theory presents a radically new theory of the universe that describes how matter, energy, force at a distance, space and time can be explained by one single principle - a Grand Unification. Many cosmic puzzles are finally explained.
This theory, not so much to unify the gravitational field, but gives us a theoretical concept of the universe can be correlated, hence derives DEPENDABILITY universal, by the fact that unifies all the theories that exist, notably Einstein's general relativity and the theory of dynamic gravity of tesla, and among others.
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER)ijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) is dedicated to protecting personal information and will make every reasonable effort to handle collected information appropriately. All information collected, as well as related requests, will be handled as carefully and efficiently as possible in accordance with IJCER standards for integrity and objectivity.
Based on Einstein’s field equations (Fig. 1), mass curves space time and curvature of space-time dictates the gravitational field around the mass. This article tries to show a paradox that leads to the conclusion that if the gravitational field increases in a local region of the universe ,anti –gravity must increase throughout the universe to prevent a catastrophe that might lead to the end of space-time and information.
Publication at gpcpublishing. Gravity explained by a new theory, ‘Superconducting String Theory (SST)’, completely opposite from current field emission based and inspired on originals string theories. Strengths are decomposed to make strings behave as one-dimensional structure with universe acting as a superconductor where resistance is near 0 and the matter moves inside. Strong nuclear force, with an attraction of 10.000 Newtons is which makes space to curve, generating acceleration, more matter more acceleration. Electromagnetic moves in 8 decimals, gravity is moved to more than 30 decimals to work as a superconductor.
In this talk I explain (a) what observations speak
for the hypothesis of dark matter, (b) what observations speak for the hypothesis of modified gravity, and (c) why it is a mistake
to insist that either hypothesis on its own must explain all
the available data. The right explanation, I will argue,
is instead a suitable combination of dark matter and modified
gravity, which can be realized by the idea that dark matter
has a superfluid phase.
Neuro Quantology is an international, interdisciplinary, open-access, peer-reviewed journal that publishes original research and review articles on the interface between quantum physics and neuroscience. The journal focuses on the exploration of the neural mechanisms underlying consciousness, cognition, perception, and behavior from a quantum perspective. Neuro Quantology is published monthly.
Energy in form of space may solve the dark energy problemPremier Publishers
A review of recent observations suggests a universe that is light weight (matter density is 1/3rd of the critical value), accelerating and flat. This implies the existence of a cosmic Dark Energy that overcomes the gravitational self-attraction force of matter and causes the accelerating expansion. Finding out the cause of expansion and acceleration of the universe is a challenging job in present day cosmology. Cosmological models with different types of dark energy are becoming viable standard models to analyze and simulate experimental data from a number of high red shift supernovae. In this article, physical significance and analytical expression for dark energy related to total energy (or energy density) and matter (or matter density) in the universe is presented. It is assumed that 'space' or 'vacuum' is another form of energy (other form is mass which is related as E = mc2). With this assumption new cosmological equation of state is constructed which is in very good agreement with present observations. Thus energy evolves from matter to radiation to space. It is also predicted that the existence of a fundamental particle with mass less than the mass of a quark is possible.
On the Unification of Physic and the Elimination of Unbound Quantitiesijrap
This paper supports Descartes' idea of a constant quantity of motion, modernized by Leibniz. Unlike Leibniz, the paper emphasizes that the idea is not realized by forms of energy, but by energy itself. It remains constant regardless of the form, type, or speed of motion, even that of light. Through force, energy is only transformed. Here it is proved that force is its derivative. It exists even at rest, representing the object's minimal energy state. With speed, we achieve its multiplication up to the maximum energy state, from which a maximum force is derived from the object. From this point, corresponding to Planck's Length, we find the value of the force wherever we want. Achieving this removes the differences between various natural forces. The new idea eliminates infinite magnitudes. The process allows the laws to transition from simple to complex forms and vice versa, through differentiation-integration. For this paper, this means achieving the Unification Theory.
International Journal on Soft Computing, Artificial Intelligence and Applicat...ijrap
International Journal on Soft Computing, Artificial Intelligence and Applications (IJSCAI)
is an open access peer-reviewed journal that provides an excellent international forum for sharing
knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of Artificial Intelligence, Soft
Computing. The Journal looks for significant contributions to all major fields of the Artificial
Intelligence, Soft Computing in theoretical and practical aspects. The aim of the Journal is to
provide a platform to the researchers and practitioners from both academia as well as industry to
meet and share cutting-edge development in the field.
Authors are solicited to contribute to the journal by submitting articles that illustrate research
results, projects, surveying works and industrial experiences that describe significant advances in
the areas of Database management systems.
SOME THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF HYDROGEN DIFFUSION IN BCC METALS AT LOW TEMPERATURESijrap
Purpose of the work is to discuss some theoretical aspects of the diffusion of hydrogen atoms in the crystal
lattice of BCC metals at low temperatures using the methods of statistical thermodynamics. The values of
the statistical model calculations of H diffusion coefficients in α-Fe, V, Ta, Nb, K are in good agreement
with the experimental data. The statistical model can also explain deviations from the Arrhenius equation
at temperatures 300-100 K in α-Fe, V, Nb and K. It was suggested that thermally activated fast tunnelling
transition of hydrogen atoms through the potential barrier at a temperature below 300 K provides an
almost free movement of H atoms in the α-Fe and V lattice at these temperatures. The results show that
quantum-statistical effects play a decisive role in the H diffusion in BCC metals at low temperatures. Using
the statistical model allows for the prediction of the diffusion coefficient for H in BCC metals at low
temperatures, where it’s necessary to consider quantum effects.
MASSIVE PHOTON HYPOTHESIS OPENS DOORS TO NEW FIELDS OF RESEARCHijrap
Mass, an inherent property of matter, is calculated directly for the photon particle from the very classical
principles of the kinetic theory of gases. It is not an end result with no perspective nor other outcome.
Quite the opposite, a single ponderable tiny photon frees the mind of old ways of thinking and opens up
new paths to a broad field of investigation where the very large can then be described and explained by the
very small. This reality of a non-zero mass suddenly shows up in the interpretation of many experiments
which become clear and simple to comprehend. Besides, that same key particle has the potential to unlock
and solve some long lasting major observational issues or enigmas. All this converges upon its
acknowledgement and acceptance.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD REGARDING A THIRD THEORY OF PHYSICS “THE EVENT:THE TH...ijrap
The quest for a third theory uniting macro-cosmos (relativity) and micro-cosmos (quantum mechanics) has coexisted with the denial of feminine/subjective polarity to masculine/objective. The dismissal of electromagnetism as the tension of opposites in quest of inner/outer unity is sourced in the denial of the feminine qualia -- the negative force field attributed to dark energy/dark matter. However, a conversion philosophy sourced in the hieros gamos and signified by the Mobius strip has formulated an integral consciousness methodology producing quantum objects by means of embracing the shadow haunting contemporary physics. This Self-reflecting process integrating subject/object comprises an ontology of kairos as the “quantum leap.” An interdisciplinary quest to create a phenomenological narrative is disclosed via a holistic apparatus of hermeneutics manifesting image/text of a contemporary grail journey. Reflected in this Third space is the sacred reality of autonomous number unifying polarities of feminine/subjective (quality) and objective/masculine (quantity) as new measurement apparatus for the quantum wave collapse.
3rd International Conference on Integrating Technology in Education (ITE 2022)ijrap
3rd International Conference on Integrating Technology in Education (ITE 2022) This forum also aims to provide a platform for exchanging ideas in new emerging trends that needs more focus and exposure and will attempt to publish proposals that strengthen our goals.
A SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MATTER, ENERGY, INFORMATION, AND CONSCIOUSNESSijrap
This paper discusses the advantages of describing the universe, or nature, in terms of information and consciousness. Some problems encountered by theoretical physicists in the quest for the theory of everything stem from the limitations of trying to understand everything in terms of matter and energy only. However, if everything, including matter, energy, life, and mental processes, is described in terms of information and consciousness, much progress can be made in the search for the ultimate theory of the universe. As brilliant and successful as physics and chemistry have been over the last two centuries, it is important that nature is not viewed solely in terms of matter and energy. Two additional components are needed to unlock her secrets. While extensive writing exists that describes the connection between matter and energy and their physical basis, little work has been done to learn the special relationship between matter, energy, information, and consciousness.
This paper discusses the advantages of describing the universe, or nature, in terms of information and consciousness. Some problems encountered by theoretical physicists in the quest for the theory of everything stem from the limitations of trying to understand everything in terms of matter and energy only. However, if everything, including matter, energy, life, and mental processes, is described in terms of information and consciousness, much progress can be made in the search for the ultimate theory of the universe. As brilliant and successful as physics and chemistry have been over the last two centuries, it is important that nature is not viewed solely in terms of matter and energy. Two additional components are needed to unlock her secrets. While extensive writing exists that describes the connection between matter and energy and their physical basis, little work has been done to learn the special relationship between matter, energy, information, and
consciousness.
THE CONCEPT OF SPACE AND TIME: AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVEijrap
Understanding the concept of space and time is critical, essential, and fundamental in searching for theall-encompassing theory or the theory of everything (ToE). Some physicists argue that time exists, whileothers posit that time is only a social or mental construct. The author presents an African thought systemon space and time conception, focusing on the African (Bantu) view of space and time. The author arguesthat before the advent of the Western linear view of space and time, Africans had their own visionregarding these two concepts. Their conception of time appears to be holistic, highly philosophical, non-linear, and thought-provoking. The author hopes that exploring these two concepts from an African perspective will provide a new and more in-depth insight into reality's nature. A scientific investigation of space and time from an African-centered perspective is a worthy and necessary endeavor in the quest forthe ToE
Learning to Pronounce as Measuring Cross Lingual Joint Orthography Phonology ...ijrap
Machine learning models allow us to compare languages by showing how hard a task in each language might be to learn and perform well on. Following this line of investigation, we explore what makes a language “hard to pronounce” by modelling the task of grapheme-to-phoneme (g2p) transliteration. By training a character-level transformer model on this task across 22 languages and measuring the model’s proficiency against its grapheme and phoneme inventories, we show that certain characteristics emerge that separate easier and harder languages with respect to learning to pronounce. Namely the complexity of a language's pronunciation from its orthography is due to the expressive or simplicity of its grapheme-to phoneme mapping. Further discussion illustrates how future studies should consider relative data sparsity per language to design fairer cross-lingual comparison tasks.
THE CONCEPT OF SPACE AND TIME: AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVEijrap
Understanding the concept of space and time is critical, essential, and fundamental in searching for the all-encompassing theory or the theory of everything (ToE). Some physicists argue that time exists, while others posit that time is only a social or mental construct. The author presents an African thought system on space and time conception, focusing on the African (Bantu) view of space and time. The author argues
that before the advent of the Western linear view of space and time, Africans had their own vision
regarding these two concepts. Their conception of time appears to be holistic, highly philosophical, nonlinear, and thought-provoking. The author hopes that exploring these two concepts from an African
perspective will provide a new and more in-depth insight into reality's nature. A scientific investigation of space and time from an African-centered perspective is a worthy and necessary endeavor in the quest for the ToE.
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed, open access journal, addresses the impacts and challenges of Physics. The journal documents practical and theoretical results which make a fundamental contribution for the development of Physics.
The Concept of Space and Time: An African Perspectiveijrap
Understanding the concept of space and time is critical, essential, and fundamental in searching for the all-encompassing theory or the theory of everything (ToE). Some physicists argue that time exists, while others posit that time is only a social or mental construct. The author presents an African thought system on space and time conception, focusing on the African (Bantu) view of space and time. The author argues that before the advent of the Western linear view of space and time, Africans had their own vision regarding these two concepts. Their conception of time appears to be holistic, highly philosophical, nonlinear, and thought-provoking. The author hopes that exploring these two concepts from an African perspective will provide a new and more in-depth insight into reality's nature. A scientific investigation of space and time from an African-centered perspective is a worthy and necessary endeavor in the quest for the ToE.
The majority of physicists take it for granted that the universe is made up of matter. In turn, matter is composed of atoms; atoms are made up of particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. Also, protons
and neutrons are composed of quarks, etc. Furthermore, that everything in nature is governed by the known laws of physics and chemistry. The author only partially shares this view. He argues that many phenomena in the universe may depend on rules or factors as yet incorporated by the physical sciences.
The last few years have led him to reflect on the many unsolved physics problems, such as the quest for the theory of everything (ToE), the arrow of time, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, the fine-tuned
universe, etc. to mention just a few. The author posits that a field carries information, performs various mathematical and computational operations, and behaves as an intelligent entity embedded with consciousness.
Call For Papers - International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed, open access journal, addresses the impacts and challenges of Physics. The journal documents practical and theoretical results which make a fundamental contribution for the development of Physics.
Call For Papers - International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed, open access journal, addresses the impacts and challenges of Physics. The journal documents practical and theoretical results which make a fundamental contribution for the development of Physics.
Call For Papers - International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed, open access journal, addresses the impacts and challenges of Physics. The journal documents practical and theoretical results which make a fundamental contribution for the development of Physics.
Call For Papers - International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed, open access journal, addresses the impacts and challenges of Physics. The journal documents practical and theoretical results which make a fundamental contribution for the development of Physics
The majority of physicists take it for granted that the universe is made up of matter. In turn, matter is
composed of atoms; atoms are made up of particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. Also, protons
and neutrons are composed of quarks, etc. Furthermore, that everything in nature is governed by the
known laws of physics and chemistry. The author only partially shares this view. He argues that many
phenomena in the universe may depend on rules or factors as yet incorporated by the physical sciences.
The last few years have led him to reflect on the many unsolved physics problems, such as the quest for the
theory of everything (ToE), the arrow of time, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, the fine-tuned
universe, etc. to mention just a few. The author posits that a field carries information, performs various
mathematical and computational operations, and behaves as an intelligent entity embedded with
consciousness.
MAPPING PAULI’S CRASHING QUANTUM WAVE: THE LEONG YIJING METHOD AS APPARATUSijrap
This paper introduces a hexagonal-based measurement apparatus. The experiment culminates in a quantum
object production. The experiment testing quantum wave collapse was inaugurated under Covid19
quarantine. Leong Yijing methodology informed the production of the measurement. The apparatus uses
the logic of Chance, applying it to produced social media phenomenology commemorating the 83rd solar
return of Wolfgang Pauli’s prophetic dream. In keeping with the predictive timing within the dream, the
throw of coins outcome was confirmed by the biorhythms of the cosmos: the wave collapse taking place on
the 24th anniversary of the January 23, 1997 Seal of Solomon alignment between Heaven & Earth. This
repetition of cyclic timing reflects the physicist’s vision of the hexagonal structure of the hieros gamos icon
arising from under the wave collapse. This birth of the Third produces an ontology of the quantum object
and an understanding of the autonomy of number as unifying energy and matter.
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Get Ahead with YouTube Growth Services....SocioCosmos
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How social media marketing helps businesses in 2024.pdfpramodkumar2310
Social media marketing refers to the process of utilizing social media platforms to promote products, services, or brands. It involves creating and sharing valuable content, engaging with followers, analyzing data, and running targeted advertising campaigns.
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Enhance your social media strategy with the best digital marketing agency in Kolkata. This PPT covers 7 essential tips for effective social media marketing, offering practical advice and actionable insights to help you boost engagement, reach your target audience, and grow your online presence.
Non-Financial Information and Firm Risk Non-Financial Information and Firm RiskAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This research aims to examine how ESG disclosure and risk disclosure affect the total risk of
companies. Using cross section data from 355 companies listed in Indonesia Stock Exchange, data regarding
ESG disclosure and risk was collected. In this research, ESG and risk disclosures are measured based on content
analysis using GRI 4 guidelines for ESG disclosures and COSO ERM for risk disclosures. Using multiple
regression, it is concluded that only risk disclosure can reduce the company's total risk, while ESG disclosure
cannot affect the company's total risk. This shows that only risk disclosure is relevant in determining a
company's total risk.
KEYWORDS: ESG disclosure, risk disclosure, firm risk
Exploring Factors Affecting the Success of TVET-Industry Partnership: A Case ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to explore factors affecting the success of TVET-industry
partnerships. A case study design of the qualitative research method was used to achieve this objective. For the
study, one polytechnic college of Oromia regional state, and two industries were purposively selected. From the
sample polytechnic college and industries, a total of 17 sample respondents were selected. Out of 17
respondents, 10 respondents were selected using the snowball sampling method, and the rest 7 respondents were
selected using the purposive sampling technique. The qualitative data were collected through an in-depth
interview and document analysis. The data were analyzed using thematic approaches. The findings revealed that
TVET-industry partnerships were found weak. Lack of key stakeholder‟s awareness shortage of improved
training equipment and machines in polytechnic colleges, absence of trainee health insurance policy, lack of
incentive mechanisms for private industries, lack of employer industries involvement in designing and
developing occupational standards, and preparation of curriculum were some of the impediments of TVETindustry partnership. Based on the findings it was recommended that the Oromia TVET bureau in collaboration
with other relevant concerned regional authorities and TVET colleges, set new strategies for creating strong
awareness for industries, companies, and other relevant stakeholders on the purpose and advantages of
implementing successful TVET-industry partnership. Finally, the Oromia regional government in collaboration
with the TVET bureau needs to create policy-supported incentive strategies such as giving occasional privileges
of duty-free import, tax reduction, and regional government recognition awards based on the level of partnership
contribution to TVET institutions in promoting TVET-industry partnership.
KEY WORDS: employability skills, industries, and partnership
“To be integrated is to feel secure, to feel connected.” The views and experi...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Although a significant amount of literature exists on Morocco's migration policies and their
successes and failures since their implementation in 2014, there is limited research on the integration of subSaharan African children into schools. This paperis part of a Ph.D. research project that aims to fill this gap. It
reports the main findings of a study conducted with migrant children enrolled in two public schools in Rabat,
Morocco, exploring how integration is defined by the children themselves and identifying the obstacles that they
have encountered thus far. The following paper uses an inductive approach and primarily focuses on the
relationships of children with their teachers and peers as a key aspect of integration for students with a migration
background. The study has led to several crucial findings. It emphasizes the significance of speaking Colloquial
Moroccan Arabic (Darija) and being part of a community for effective integration. Moreover, it reveals that the
use of Modern Standard Arabic as the language of instruction in schools is a source of frustration for students,
indicating the need for language policy reform. The study underlines the importanceof considering the
children‟s agency when being integrated into mainstream public schools.
.
KEYWORDS: migration, education, integration, sub-Saharan African children, public school
The Challenges of Good Governance and Project Implementation in Nigeria: A Re...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : This study reveals that systemic corruption and other factors including poor leadership,
leadership recruitment processes, ethnic and regional politics, tribalism and mediocrity, poor planning, and
variation of project design have been the causative factors that undermine projects implementation in postindependence African states, particularly in Nigeria. The study, thus, argued that successive governments of
African states, using Nigeria as a case study, have been deeply engrossed in this obnoxious practice that has
undermined infrastructure sector development as well as enthroned impoverishment and mass poverty in these
African countries. This study, therefore, is posed to examine the similarities in causative factors, effects and
consequences of corruption and how it affects governance, projects implementation and national growth. To
achieve this, the study adopted historical research design which is qualitative and explorative in nature. The
study among others suggests that the governments of developing countries should shun corruption and other
forms of obnoxious practices in order to operate effective and efficient systems that promote good governance
and ensure there is adequate projects implementation which are the attributes of a responsible government and
good leadership. Policy makers should also prioritize policy objectives and competence to ensure that policies
are fully implemented within stipulated time frame.
KEYWORDS: Developing Countries, Nigeria, Government, Project Implementation, Project Failure
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Dark Energy Discriminant Theory
1. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.12, No.3, August 2023
DOI: 10.14810/ijrap.2023.12301 1
DARK ENERGY DISCRIMINANT THEORY
Cheman Shaik
Independent Researcher, Chicago, USA
ABSTRACT
In this paper I present a new theory that explains as to when and how dark energy is created as mass is
destroyed. The theory extends Einstein’s mass energy equation to a more generic form in order to make it
work even in high gravity conditions. It also explains why dark energy is created. Further, it is proved
Einstein’s mass energy equation holds good only when the destroyed mass has no supermassive object in its
close vicinity. The relationship between dark energy and dark matter is unveiled. An extended
mathematical form of Einstein’s mass energy equation is derived, based on which the conditions leading to
dark energy creation are explained. Three new physical parameters called dark energy discriminant, dark
energy radius and dark energy boundary are introduced to facilitate easy understanding of the theory. It is
explained in detail that an extremely superdense object has two dark energy boundaries, outer and inner.
Mass destroyed only between these two boundaries creates dark energy. Dark energy space, the space
between the two aforementioned boundaries, shrouds visible matter in obscurity from optical and
electromagnetic telescopes. This theory identifies Gargantuan as a superdense black hole currently
creating fresh dark energy, which could be the subject of interest for the astronomical research community
having access to sophisticated telescopes, and working on dark energy. It also upholds dark energy and
denies the existence of dark matter. Dark matter is nothing but the well-known visible matter positioned in
dark energy space. An important relationship is derived between a photon’s frequency and its distance from
a black hole to demonstrate the effect of gravity on light. Another important fact revealed by this theory is
gravity stretches out light, thereby causing redshift, which is unaccounted in the computation of velocities
of outer galaxies. Whether the universe is undergoing accelerated or decelerated expansion, or accelerated
contraction can precisely be determined only after accounting for the redshift caused by gravity.
KEYWORDS
Dark Energy, Dark Energy Discriminant, Dark Energy Radius, Dark Energy Boundary, Supermassive
Object, Superdense Object, Photon Stretching.
1. INTRODUCTION
Dark energy has been an enigma in Astrophysics for the last few decades. Its presence is felt in
the currently ongoing expansion of the universe. However, it is least understood as to how it is
created, and under what conditions.
Earlier, astrophysicists had an opinion universe was expanding at a constant rate. Later, it was
proved the universe is undergoing an accelerated expansion, which is possible only if the it is
densely filled with dark energy. Otherwise, it would have been a decelerated expansion caused by
the retracting gravitational effect of matter. It is hard to prove the presence of dark energy as it
does not interact with light and electromagnetic waves. In 1929 Edwin Hubble provided the first
observational evidence that the universe is not contracting but expanding [1].
Using the largest telescope of that time Hubble noticed that the light from far-away galaxies
appears to be stretched to longer wave lengths, which means the universe is expanding uniformly
in all directions. At this point, even though Hubble had provided the evidence that the universe is
2. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.12, No.3, August 2023
2
expanding, it was not clear whether the expansion was decelerated due to the pull-back effect of
gravity, or accelerated running out of control, defeating gravity.
Based on cosmological observations, Astrophysicists have estimated that dark energy contributes
about 68 percentage of the total energy of the present-day universe [2].
Saul Perlmutter and Brian Schmidt found that expansion of the universe is not slowing down but
accelerating [3].
Black holes form in the core of a massive star when it runs out of fuel causing it to collapse under
its own gravity. As the core collapses under the force of gravity, its density increases. At some
point, if the available mass is huge, that mass will be compressed into such a smaller point that it
forms a gravitational well which sucks other stars passing by [4].
An early assumption in astrophysics was that our solar system, galaxy and clusters of galaxies
were held together by gravity. However, galaxies are rotating with such speed that the gravity
generated by their observable matter could not possibly hold them together. This led scientists to
believe that something we cannot see is at work.
Another strange thing happening in the universe has been spotted by the Hubble Space Telescope.
The observations of a very distant supernova showed that long time ago our universe was
expanding more slowly than it is today. Expansion of the universe has not been slowing down
due to gravity as everyone thought, and instead it has been accelerating. The reason behind this
fact remained unexplainable even by modern theories in astrophysics [5].
One idea is that empty space is full of temporary, virtual particles that spontaneously and
continuously form out of nothing and disappear into nothing again. The energy from those
particles could be dark energy. Or, dark energy could be an unknown kind of dynamic energy
fluid or field which permeates the entire universe but somehow has the opposite effect on the
universe than the normal energy and matter [6].
This research work resolves the mystery of dark energy, explaining as to how and where it is
created. It also sheds light on the dark matter conundrum and clarifies why it is invisible to
electromagnetic telescopes. Further, it explores where dark energy is produced in the universe at
present. This theory makes another big leap in Astrophysics, disclosing the unimaginable fact that
gravity has stretching effect on light, thereby causing it to redshift towards lower frequencies. At
the end of this report, a bold prediction is made of space travel to far off galaxies with the help of
negative gravity created by lateral decompression of light.
2. RELATED WORK
Regarding dark matter, in 1982 Milgrom proposed his theory of Modified Newtonian Dynamics
(MOND) as an alternative to the dark matter hypothesis, wherein he suggested that there is not
much dark matter in galaxies and justified their dynamics with his modified gravity [7].
However, MOND fails to explain the cosmic microwave background (CMB). MOND is also
unable to explain the dynamics of galactic clusters as pointed out by Clowe et al in their study of
a bullet cluster [8].
In 1992, Gerbal et al found that the dynamical mass of some eight clusters of galaxies estimated
with MOND is about 10 times smaller than the normal Newtonian mass, thereby confirming the
shortcoming of MOND [9].
3. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.12, No.3, August 2023
3
Sanders et al also confirmed in 1998 the insufficiency of MOND in explaining the ratio of the
dynamical to observable mass of X-ray emitting clusters of galaxies [10].
Regarding dark energy, recently in 2023, Duncan et al proposed a theory that dark energy
emanates from stellar remnant black holes, based on their measurements of cosmological
coupling of black holes [11].
In 2012, Tian and Shouhong proposed a new theory, deriving a new set of gravitational field
equations. Using the new field equations, they introduced what is called scalar potential energy,
which consists both positive and negative energies. The negative energy produces attraction
whereas the positive part causes repulsive force representing dark energy [12].
Regarding accelerated expansion of the universe, in 1998 Adam et al provided observational
evidence from supernovae that the universe is undergoing an eternally accelerating expansion.
They found luminosity distances to certain supernovae through spectral and photometric
observations. The results were consistent with a currently accelerating expansion [13].
3. NET ENERGY CREATED BY DESTRUCTION OF MASS
Consider a special scenario wherein a mass m is in close vicinity of a supermassive object of
mass M, such as a black hole as shown in Fig.1.
Fig 1. Mass Destruction in Close Vicinity of a Super massive Body
Gravitational potential energy between the two masses, 𝐸G =
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑅
, (1)
where G = the gravitational constant
M = mass of the supermassive object
m = mass of the destroyed object
R = distance between the two objects
Einstein’s energy created by destroying the mass m, EE = mc2
, (2)
Where c = velocity of the light
As the mass m is destroyed, the gravitational potential energy EG between the two masses is lost,
since there is only a single mass left now.
4. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.12, No.3, August 2023
4
Therefore, net energy available,
E = EE – EG = 𝑚c2
−
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑅
(3)
Taking out 𝑚c2
as common factor,
E = 𝑚c2
(1 -
𝐺𝑀
c2𝑅
) = 𝜀mc2
, (4)
Where 𝜀 = (1 -
𝐺𝑀
c2𝑅
) (5)
𝜀 in the above equation can have three possible values:
𝜀 > 0: In this case, visible energy is created.
𝜀 = 0: In this case, no energy is created as the gravitational potential energy and Einstein’s visible
energy nullify each other.
𝜀 < 0: In this case, dark energy is created as the created visible energy is less than the lost
gravitational potential energy.
𝜀 is named Dark Energy Discriminant as its value indicates whether or not dark energy is created.
4. DARK ENERGY RADIUS AND BOUNDARY
Denoting the particular value of R by 𝑅𝑑 at 𝜀 = 0 in equation 5,
1 -
𝐺𝑀
c2𝑅𝑑
= 0. Therefore, 𝑅𝑑 =
𝐺𝑀
c2 (6)
𝑅𝑑 is dark energy radius and the imaginary spherical surface defined by it around the
supermassive object is its dark energy boundary. Any mass destroyed within this boundary
outside the supermassive object creates dark energy as shown in Fig. 2, since the lost
gravitational energy surpasses the created Einstein’s visible energy.
Fig 2. Mass Destruction Outside an Object within its Dark Energy Boundary
As evident from equation 6, an object’s mass can be expressed as
c2
𝐺
𝑅𝑑, where 𝑅𝑑 is its dark
energy radius.
5. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.12, No.3, August 2023
5
5. DESTROYING AN OBJECT’S OWN MASS WITHIN ITS DARK ENERGY
BOUNDARY
When an object’s own mass is destroyed at a distance R from its centre as shown in Fig. 3,
effective mass causing gravitational attraction decreases.
Fig 3. Mass Destruction within an Object's Mass inside Dark Energy Boundary
Expressing mass in terms of density and volume in equation 6, for an object of physical radius 𝑅𝑎
and mass density ρ,
𝑅𝑑 =
𝐺
𝑐2
4
3
𝜋 𝑅𝑎
3
𝜌 (7)
Assuming R = λ𝑅𝑎 , where λ < 1, effective mass attracting m,
M′
=
4
3
𝜋 λ3
𝑅𝑎
3
𝜌 = λ3
𝑀 (8)
Recalculating the effective net energy E′
created when mass m is destroyed,
E′
= 𝑚c2
−
𝐺M′𝑚
R
= 𝑚c2 (1 −
𝐺M′
c2𝑅
) (9)
Substituting M′
= λ3
M in the above,
E′
= 𝑚c2 (1 −
𝐺 λ3𝑀
c2R
) (10)
E′
= 𝜀′
𝑚 c2
, where 𝜀′
= (1 −
𝐺 λ3𝑀
c2R
) (12)
is effective dark energy discriminant.
For E′
= 0, 𝜀′
= 0. Therefore, (1 −
𝐺 λ3𝑀
c2𝑅
) = 0 (13)
Denoting R at 𝜀′
= 0 by R′d, 1 −
𝐺 λ3𝑀
c2 R′d
= 0 (14)
6. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.12, No.3, August 2023
6
From the above, R′d =
λ3𝐺𝑀
c2 (15)
Substituting Rd for
GM
c2 in the above, R′
d = λ3
Rd (16)
As mentioned before, R = λ𝑅𝑎. Therefore λ =
𝑅
𝑅𝑎
(17)
Substituting
𝑅
𝑅𝑎
for λ in equation 16, R′
d =
R3
𝑅𝑎
3 Rd (18)
Since R is denoted by R′d at 𝜀′
= 0, substituting R′d for Rin equation 18,
R′
d =
R′
d
3
𝑅𝑎
3 Rd => R′
d
2
=
Ra
3
𝑅𝑑
=> R′
d =
Ra
3/2
Rd
1/2 (19)
R′
d can also be expressed in terms of λ𝑅𝑎 as
R′
d =
Ra
1/2
Ra
Rd
1/2 = √
𝑅𝑎
Rd
Ra, where λ =√
𝑅𝑎
Rd
(20)
R′
d is inner dark energy boundary of the supermassive object.
6. OUTER AND INNER DARK ENERGY BOUNDARIES
From equation 19, it is clear that if a supermassive object’s dark energy boundary lies outside its
mass at a radius 𝑅𝑑, it also has an associated inner dark energy boundary at a radiusR′
d =
Ra
3/2
Rd
1/2,
where Ra is the physical radius of the object. As shown in Fig. 4, while part of the dark energy
space lies outside its mass, the remaining falls inside. Any mass destroyed between the two
boundaries, either outside or inside the object, creates dark energy.
Fig 4. Outer and Inner Dark Energy Boundaries
Mass destroyed outside the outer dark energy boundary or within the inner dark energy boundary
creates visible energy.
7. COMPUTATION OF DARK ENERGY RADII OF MASSIVE OBJECTS
Tabulated below are the inner and outer dark energy radii of different super massive objects.
7. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.12, No.3, August 2023
7
Table. 1 Inner and Outer Dark Energy Radii of Known Massive Objects
Massive
Object
Mass
(Kg)
Physical
Radius
(meters)
Inner
Dark
Energy
Radius
(meters)
Outer
Dark
Energy
Radius
(meters)
Comments
Earth 5.97 x
1024
6.37 x
106
- 4.42 x 10-3
With a radius of 4.42 mm
Earth’s outer dark energy
boundary almost
coincides with its centre
of gravity.
No scope for dark energy
creation.
Sun 1.99 x
1030
6.96 x
108
- 1.47 x 103
Sun’s dark energy
boundary falls within its
mass very close to its
centre of gravity.
No scope for dark energy
creation.
Sagittarius A*
Black Hole at
the centre of
Milky way
Galaxy
7.96 x
1036
2.36 x
1010
- 5.90 x 109
The black hole’s outer
dark energy boundary lies
within its mass close to
its centre.
No scope for fresh dark
energy creation.
M31 Black
Hole at the
centre of
Andromeda
Galaxy
5.97 x
1037
6.79 x
1011
- 4.41 x 1010
The black hole’s outer
dark energy boundary lies
within its mass close to
its centre.
No scope for fresh dark
energy creation.
M33-X-7
Black Hole at
the centre of
Triangulum
Galaxy
3.11 x
1031
4.59 x
104
- 2.3 x 104
The black hole’s outer
dark energy boundary lies
midway between its
centre and physical
surface.
No scope for fresh dark
energy creation.
GAIA BH1
Black Hole
1.85 x
1030
6.89 x
108
- 1.37 x 103
The GAIA black hole
matches with the Sun in
both mass and radius.
No scope for fresh dark
energy creation. Its outer
dark energy boundary is
very close to its centre.
Gargantuan
Black Hole
5.97 x
1040
1.50 x
1011
8.75 x
109
4.41 x 1013
Gargantuan black hole’s
outer dark energy
boundary falls outside its
mass. Therefore, it also
has an inner dark energy
8. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.12, No.3, August 2023
8
boundary falling within
its mass.
It is a good source of
fresh dark energy.
TON 618 1.31 x
1041
1.95 x
1017
- 9.7 x 1013
TON 618 is the largest
black hole ever
discovered till date. It has
roughly twice the mass of
Gargantuan black hole.
However, it is more than
million times bigger than
Gargantuan in size, with
its mass too diluted. This
has shrunk the outer dark
energy boundary into the
black hole’s mass.
No scope for fresh dark
energy creation, despite
being the biggest known
black hole.
Sagittarius A*, M31 and M33-X-7 are the black holes pertaining to the three largest galaxies of
our local group. These galaxies are not moving away from one another. In fact, they are moving
closer to one another under their gravitational influence. There are theories around asserting that
dark energy is pervasive everywhere in the universe, causing it to expand at an accelerated rated.
In that case, a question that pops up immediately is why the local group of galaxies is an
exception for that.
8. WHEN LIGHT EMANATES IN DARK ENERGY SPACE
Energy of a photon Ep = hf, where h is the Plank’s constant and f is the frequency of the photon.
Suppose a photon appears in the dark energy space of a black hole, its presence may be
considered an outcome of destroying over there a particle of mass equal to hf/c2
so that it would
create the amount of energy equal to hf as per Einstein’s principle. As we understand from section
6, mass destroyed in dark energy space creates dark energy, implying photons are turned into
dark energy as soon as they appear in the dark energy space.
If a photon is present at a radial distance r from the centre of a supermassive object, dark energy
created Ed = Gravitational Energy of the photon – Einstein’s energy.
Therefore, Ed =
𝐺𝑀 ℎ𝑓
r c2 -
ℎ𝑓c2
c2 (21)
Taking out hf as common factor, Ed = hf (
GM
rc2 − 1) (22)
Substituting dark energy radius Rd for
𝐺𝑀
c2 , Ed = hf (
Rd
𝑟
− 1) (23)
From the above equation it is clear that a photon occurring at the dark energy boundary does not
create any dark or visible energy. Photons occurring in the interior of the dark energy space turn
into dark energy. Hence, the darkening effect of a supermassive object, such as black hole, starts
at its dark energy boundary. Light loses its visibility at the dark energy boundary. When r
9. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.12, No.3, August 2023
9
> Rd, photon has positive energy. From equation 23, the effective frequency of photon moving in
a gravitational field,
fe =f (1 −
Rd
𝑟
). (24)
9. PROTON STRETCHING TOWARDS BLACK HOLES
Light slims down towards black holes, shifting to higher wavelengths as shown in Fig.
5.According to equation 24, as light travels towards a black hole, its frequency decreases. At the
black hole’s dark energy radius photons (or light waves) become perfectly flat, completely losing
their energy. Photons carry their full energy only when they are in zero gravity condition, at
infinite distance from a super massive object.
Fig 5. Light Wave Stretching and Reducing its Frequency Towards Black Hole
Gravity creates the effect of a lateral force pressing photons in all directions lateral to their
direction of propagation. The force becomes more and more significant as photons travel towards
the dark energy boundary of a supermassive object, where photons (or light wave) are completely
flattened and rendered energy less.
10. RELATION WITH SCHWARZSCHILD RADIUS
Schwarzschild radius is the radius of a supermassive object at which light is trapped into its
gravity. Schwarzschild radius Rs =
2𝐺𝑀
c2 , is exactly twice the Dark Energy Radius Rd =
𝐺𝑀
c2 . When
light enters the Schwarzschild boundary of a supermassive object, it is only trapped into its
gravitational pull. However, photons still exist in their low energy form until they cross the dark
energy boundary, where they completely lose their energy and go out of existence.
10. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.12, No.3, August 2023
10
Fig 6. Dark Energy and Schwarzschild Radil of Black Hole
As shown in Fig. 6, the dark circle at the centre of the black hole is not Schwarzschild boundary.
It is actually the outer dark energy boundary, and the outer boundary seen in the image is the
Schwarzschild boundary. The inner dark energy boundary is not visible as everything looks dark
inside the outer dark energy boundary. Outer dark energy radius of the black hole is half its
Schwarzschild radius as can be seen in the image.
11. RISING AND DECLINING BLACK HOLES
When a black hole’s dark energy boundary lies outside its mass, it is called a rising black hole.
On the other hand, a declining black hole has its dark energy boundary falling within its mass. A
rising black hole creates fresh dark energy as mass is destroyed in its dark energy space, until its
dark energy boundary somehow recedes back to its mass boundary. There on, gravitational
energy lost is dominated by the Einstein’s energy created when mass is destroyed, resulting in
positive energy.
Most of the known black holes are declining. They might have created dark energy over a time in
the past during their rising phase but are currently out of that activity. Such black holes still retain
their dark energy by their strong gravity. The retained dark energy will be cleared as visible
energy, such as photons, hits it from outside, or any mass gets destroyed in it, creating visible
energy. However, this process may not be complete in a day or two and may take several million
years.
A declining black hole may still have its Schwarzschild boundary falling outside its mass and
may switch back to its rising phase in future. Such a black hole may not, at present, create dark
energy but can accrete mass by pulling cosmic dust from its surroundings or gasses from stars
passing by, thereby increasing its size. During this process the black hole’s mass keeps
increasing, and consequently the dark energy boundary will come out of its mass boundary, again
switching it back to its rising phase.
12. WHY BLACK HOLES KEEP ON ACCRETING MASS
When Schwarzschild boundary of a black hole lies outside its physical mass boundary, it starts
accreting matter such as by sucking cosmic dust or gasses from its surrounding stars. As mass
11. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.12, No.3, August 2023
11
entering Schwarzschild boundary cannot escape the gravitational trap of the black hole, it is
further pulled inwards and deposited at the core of the black hole. As new matter is added,
Schwarzschild radius keeps increasing, further attracting mass much more forcefully. As such,
size of the black hole keeps on increasing.
13. GRAVITY EXISTS BETWEEN MASS AND ENERGY ALSO
According to the theory of relativity, mass attracts not only mass but energy also, which is
evidenced by bending of light near supermassive objects in space. When two masses, M and m,
are placed at a distance R, the gravitational potential energy between the two is
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑅
as per
Newtons law. Assuming the mass m is destroyed and energy is created, it cannot be implied that
the same gravitational energy exists between the mass M and the energy mc2
and equal to
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑅
.
If this is always true, it will lead to absurdity as the value on one side is a variant of R and the one
on the other is a constant, irrespective of the distance R. The relation is satisfied only at one
point, R = Rd =
𝐺𝑀
c2 , which is the dark energy radius as described in section 3. So, the value 𝜀 = (1
–
𝐺𝑀
c2𝑅
) that I derived in section 2 may also be considered mass-to-energy conversion factor in
presence of gravity.
Einstein’s energy mc2
is not absolute in its value. Its value changes with respect to its distance
from a supermassive object. The equivalent energy of mass has its full potential only in zero
gravity conditions. In other words, mc2
is the gravity-free energy of mass. When energy is
carried closer to a high gravity object, its value decreases. Eventually, when it reaches the dark
energy boundary of a superdense, supermassive object, its value will reduce to zero, which is
why photons lose their existence at the dark energy boundary. Even if photons are created by
destroying mass inside the dark energy space of a superdense object, they will be converted into
dark energy.
14. DARK MATTER DOES NOT EXIST, ONLY DARK ENERGY DOES
Dark matter does not exist, only dark energy does. There is only one kind of matter, which is
visible when it is outside dark energy space and goes invisible when positioned in dark energy
space. Dark energy space around matter shrouds it in obscurity as no photons can emanate from
there and render it visible for optical and electromagnetic telescopes.
Astrophysicists observed outer layers of galaxies moving with the same speed as the inner layers,
which is possible only if some invisible matter causing the same effect as the visible matter is
present over there. The invisible matter was named dark matter. If dark matter is a different kind
of matter with different properties it might not be causing the same gravitational effect as the
normal visible matter. The presence or otherwise of dark energy around matter decides whether
or not the matter will interact with electromagnetic radiation and be visible to telescopes.
15. ACCELERATED EXPANSION OF THE UNIVERSE IS EXAGGERATION
Astrophysicists have been interpreting the higher redshift of light emanating from farther galaxies
compared to that of closer galaxies as accelerated expansion of the universe. In fact, it is not
acceleration alone causing the redshift.
Assuming matter started scattering in the universe from its centre point, it is less densely
populated as we go father radially from its centre, because the surface area of the sphere over
12. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.12, No.3, August 2023
12
which matter is spread at a given radius increases as the square of the radius. As mass density of
the universe goes down radially outwards, so does the gravity. Therefore, gravity is weaker at
outer regions of the universe and gets stronger towards its centre. As already discussed in the
previous sections, gravity compresses light laterally, flattening and stretching photons to higher
wave lengths. More the gravity, more the flattening effect. Farther a light beam comes from,
flatter the photons become due to the increasing effect of gravity. This effect is missed by
astrophysicists and they have been attributing the observed redshift completely to the receding
velocity of galaxies. Taking the gravity caused redshift also into account, and recomputing the
actual velocities of galaxies, the correct conclusion can be drawn whether the universe is really
expanding or contracting. In reality, the universe might be undergoing a decelerated expansion
governed by its gravity, if it is still expanding. Alternatively, it might be contracting, if its
expansion is complete and reversed its direction of expansion. What is happening in reality needs
to be confirmed with new redshift figures corrected for the gravity effect.
16. CONCLUSIONS
Using this theory, I have proved Einstein’s mass energy formula holds good only if there is no
supermassive object in close vicinity of the destroyed mass. Under supergravity conditions, net
energy created goes negative, thereby creating dark energy. Dark energy radius is a very
interesting physical parameter of a supermassive object. Mass destroyed within this radius creates
dark energy.
Dark energy radius of most objects falls within their mass, which out rules the chances of dark
energy creation. Dark energy is gravitational potential energy lost beyond Einstein’s energy when
mass is destroyed.
On computing dark energy radius of various supermassive objects, I have identified Gargantuan
as the only black hole currently producing fresh dark energy. Only Gargantuan has its dark
energy boundary falling outside its mass. It is a very promising superdense black hole for
researchers trying to find dark energy and understand more of it. Dark energy might be existing
around a lot of other black holes. However, they might have created it over a period in the past.
The same dark energy might have been held by their gravity.
There is only visible matter and nothing like dark matter. Dark matter goes invisible and becomes
dark matter when it is surrounded by dark energy, as it cannot be detected by electromagnetic
radiation.
Light slims down towards black holes, shifting to upper wave lengths, irrespective of its observer,
and eventually vanishes completely when it hits the dark energy boundary. This is a different
phenomenon than the redshift, which occurs when the source of light and its observer are in
relative motion.
The universe might not be undergoing accelerated expansion. The expansion might, in fact, be
decelerating. Alternatively, it could be even contracting, if its expansion is already complete.
Current state of the universe can be precisely determined only after accounting for the gravity-
based redshift of light from distant galaxies.
17. AN EARLY GUESS ON BIRTH OF THE UNIVERSE AND SPACE TRAVEL
Based on this theory, my assumption on the birth of the universe is that it emerged out of nothing,
that is, an absolute zero energy condition, out of which equal amounts of visible and dark
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energies were created. The visible energy manifested itself as the interchangeable forms of
photons and matter, while the dark energy as gravity. However, what remains to be known is what
caused the nothingness to divide into the visible and dark energies.
Another strong assumption is that artificial gravity can be created by extensive lateral
compression of light. Similarly, zero and negative gravity can be achieved by lateral
decompression of light, which could be the key to launching flying saucers in future by the
humankind.
18. FUTURE WORK
Practical testing and evaluation of the theory has limitations as it requires access to advanced
electromagnetic telescopes and high-performance computing systems. On account of these
limitations, my recommendations for future work include collecting observational data of far off
galaxies, and conduct a thorough data analysis to confirm the redshift effect of gravity on light.
Further recommendation is that astronomy and cosmology researchers having access to
sophisticated telescopes focus them onto the Gargantuan black hole and study it in detail.
Comparison of the data with that of other black holes might provide clear understanding of the
dark energy and its impact on its sourcing black hole and neighbouring celestial bodies.
REFERENCES
[1] Celso Luís Levada, Huemerson Maceti, Ivan José Lautenschleguer, Bruno Zaniboni Saggioro,
Wadley Calegaro de Castro, Edwin Hubble and the Expansion of the Universe, American Journal of
Engineering Research (AJER), Volume-8, Issue-3, pp-288-292.
[2] Dark Energy, Dark Matter, https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-is-dark-energy
[3] 2012 DEBRA KOLAH, MICHAEL T. FOSMIRE, Science Librarians Analysis of the 2011 Nobel
Prize in Physics: The Work of Saul Perlmutter, Brian P. Schmidt, and Adam G. Riess, Science &
Technology Libraries, 31:12–31.
[4] First Evidence Black Holes Source of Dark Energy – EXPLAINED,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hsb7g9_aS34
[5] Neil deGrasse Tyson: What is Dark Matter? What is Dark Energy?,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uBbxXNhZ78c
[6] What is Dark Matter and Dark Energy?, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QAa2O_8wBUQ
[7] Milgrom. M, A MODIFICATION OF THE NEWTONIAN DYNAMICS AS A POSSIBLE
ALTERNATIVE TO THE HIDDEN MASS HYPOTHESIS, The Astrophysical Journal, 270:365-
370, 1983 July 15.
[8] Scott Dodelson, The Real Problem with MOND, Cosmology and Nongalactic Astrophysics,
arXiv:1112.1320 (astro-ph).
[9] Gerbal et al, Analysis of X-ray galaxy clusters in the framework of modified Newtonian dynamics,
Astron. Astrophys. 262, 395 (1992).
[10] R. H. Sanders, THE VIRIAL DISCREPANCY IN CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES IN THE
CONTEXT OF MODIFIED NEWTONIAN DYNAMICS, The Astrophysical Journal, 512:L23–
L26, 1999 February 10.
[11] Duncan Farrah, Observational Evidence for Cosmological Coupling of Black Holes and Its
Implications for an Astrophysical Source of Dark Energy, The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 944:
1.31 (9 pp), 2023 February 20.
[12] TIAN MA AND SHOUHONG WANG, GRAVITATIONAL FIELD EQUATIONS AND THEORY
OF DARK MATTER AND DARK ENERGY, Cornell University - General Physics,
arXiv:1206.5078 [physics.gen-ph]
[13] Adam G. Riess, Alexie G. Filippenko, Observational evidence from supernovae for an accelerating
universe and a cosmological constant, The Astronomical Journal, 116:1009:1038, 1998 September
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AUTHOR
Cheman Shaik has been a Research & Development professional in Aeronautical
Engineering, Space Technology, Computer Science and Information Technology for
the last thirty years. He worked as senior research fellow at the National Aeronautical
Laboratory, Bangalore, India. Later he served the Indian Space Research
Organization as Scientist. He is an inventor in software and information technology,
and achieved eight U.S Patents for his inventions in these areas of technology. He is
the pioneer of the Absolute Public Key Cryptography in 1999. He is well known for
his Password Self Encryption Method which has earned him three U.S Patents. He
has published research papers in the international journals – IJCSEA, IJCIS, IJNSA, AEIJ, CSEIJ and the
proceedings of EC2ND 2006 and CSC 2008