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12. SOME IMPORTANT QUESTION - ANSWER FOR IGNOU BIOCHEMISTRY [CHE 9]
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Q.1. Name the site of photosynthesis in plants and explain the Hill reaction. How is the
electron transfer in Hill reaction different from the mitochondrial electron transport?[पौधों
में प्रकाश संश्लेषण कहाँ होता है और Hill reaction को समझायें I Hill reaction में होने वाला electron
transfer mitochondria में होने वाले electron transport से किस प्रकार भिन्न है?]
Ans. Photosynthesis in plants takes place in chloroplasts. The light reactions of photosynthesis
take place in the membrane part (thylakoids) whereas the dark reactions take place in the
stroma of the chloroplasts.
Hill Reaction: Hill reaction is defined as the reduction of an electron acceptor (A) by electrons
and protons from water with the evolution of oxygen when chloroplasts are exposed to light.
Light
H2O + A -------------------> AH2 + ½ O2
Chloroplast
The acceptor A is called the Hill reagent and the naturally occurring counterpart of the Hill
reagent was identified as NADP+.
hv
2NADP+ + 2H2O ---->2NADPH + O2 + 2H+
The direction of electron flow in Hill reaction is opposite to mitochondrial electron transport:
● In Hill reaction the electrons are induced to flow away from water molecules to the
acceptor, thus yielding molecular oxygen from water. Whereas in mitochondria electrons
arising from organic molecules flow towards molecular oxygen which is reduced to water.
● The flow of electrons in photosynthesis is uphill i.e. from oxidant to a reductant and this
is made possible by the input of light energy while in mitochondrial electron transport the
electrons flow downhill from a stronger reductant (NAD+/NADH pair) to a stronger
oxidant (O2/H2O pair).
[पौधों में प्रकाश संश्लेषण (Photosynthesis) chloroplasts में होता है जिसमें light reactions chloroplast क
े
membrane हिस्से (thylakoids) में और dark reactions chloroplast क
े stroma में होते हैं I
Hill Reaction: Hill reaction में chloroplasts पर प्रकाश पड़ने पर एक electron acceptor (A) का water से
प्राप्त electrons and protons द्वारा reduction होता है और ऑक्सीजन का निकास होता है I
Light
H2O + A -------------------> AH2 + ½ O2
Chloroplast
इस acceptor A को Hill reagent कहते हैं और स्वाभाविक रूप से पाए जाने वाले Hill reagent की पहचान
NADP+ क
े रूप में की गई है I
hv
2NADP+ + 2H2O ---->2NADPH + O2 + 2H+
Hill reaction में electrons क
े प्रवाह की दिशा mitochondria में होने वाले electron transport की दिशा क
े
विपरीत होता है :
● Hill reaction में electrons water molecules से acceptor की तरफ प्रवाहित होने क
े लिए प्रेरित किये
जाते हैं और इस प्रकार water से ऑक्सीजन molecule प्राप्त होता है I जबकि mitochondria में
1
organic molecules से प्राप्त electrons का प्रवाह molecular ऑक्सीजन की तरफ होता है जिससे
ऑक्सीजन reduce होकर water बनाती है I
● प्रकाश संश्लेषण में electrons का प्रवाह चढ़ाई की भांति कठिन यानि oxidant से reductant की तरफ
होता है और इसक
े लिए light energy क
े निवेश की आवश्यकता होती है, जबकि mitochondria में
electrons का transport ढलान की भांति आसान होता है क्योंकि electrons एक मजबूत reductant
(NAD+/NADH pair) से एक मजबूत oxidant (O2/H2O pair) की ओर प्रवाहित होते हैं I]
Q.2. Give the experimental evidence to prove that CO2 is incorporated in carbohydrates
synthesized in photosynthesis.[प्रकाश संश्लेषण में संश्लेषित carbohydrates में CO2 समाविष्ट होती
है, इसका प्रयोगात्मकप्रमाण दें I]
Ans. Melvin Calvin & his co-workers in late 1940s illuminated a suspension of green algae in the
presence of
14
C-labeled carbon dioxide (
14
CO2) and found that the first detectable product
formed was
14
C- labeled 3-phosphoglycerate with
14
C at its carboxyl group. Further, it was
shown that this 3-phosphoglycerate was converted into carbohydrates by plant extract. This
experiment showed that CO2 is incorporated into carbohydrates in photosynthesis.
[Melvin Calvin और उसक
े सहयोगियों ने 1940 क
े दशक क
े अंत में हरी शैवाल (green algae) क
े निलंबन
(suspension) को
14
C-labelled कार्बन डाइऑक्साइड की उपस्थिति में प्रकाशित किया और यह पाया कि पहला
पता लगाने योग्य बना उत्पाद
14
C- labeled 3-phosphoglycerate था जिसमें 14
C
इसक
े carboxyl group पर था I आगे यह भी दिखाया गया कि यह 3-phosphoglycerate पौधे क
े अर्क
(plant extract) द्वारा carbohydrates में परिवर्तित हो गया था I यह प्रयोग ने यह दर्शाया कि प्रकाश
संश्लेषण में संश्लेषित carbohydrates में CO2 समाविष्ट होती है I
Q.3(A). Write the structure of chloroplast. [Chloroplast की संरचना लिखें I]
Ans. Chloroplasts are green coloured organelles in plant cells which contain
green-coloured pigment chlorophyll. These oval shaped structures are surrounded by
an outer and an inner membrane. The inner membrane encloses many flattened and
membrane enclosed sacs or vesicles called thylakoids, which are arranged in stacks or
grana which are the site of light reaction during photosynthesis. These grana are linked
by extensions of the thylakoid membranes called lamella. The medium surrounding the
thylakoid and enclosed by the inner membrane is called stroma which is the site of a
dark reaction during photosynthesis. The stroma is a matrix containing dissolved
enzymes, starch granules and copies of the chloroplast genome.
[Chloroplasts हरे रंग क
े plant cell में पाए जाने वाले organelles हैं जिनमें हरे रंग का pigment
chlorophyll होता है I ये oval shape क
े होते हैं जो एक बाहरी और एक भीतरी झिल्ली से घिरे रहते हैं I
भीतरी झिल्ली कई चपटे और झिल्ली द्वारा घिरे पुटिका या थैलियों जैसी रचनाओं,जिन्हे थायलाकोइड
(thylakoids) कहते हैं, को घेरे रहती है I ये थायलाकोइड क्रमबद्ध ढेर क
े रूप में व्यवस्थित रहते हैं
जिन्हे ग्रेना (grana) कहते हैं और ये प्रकाश संश्लेषण क
े दौरान light reactions का स्थान होते हैं I ये
ग्रेना आपस में thylakoid membrane क
े फ
ै लाव (extensions) द्वारा जुड़े रहते हैं और इन्हें लमेला
(lamella) कहते हैं I Thylakoid क
े चारों तरफ क
े पदार्थ (medium) को स्ट्रोमा (stroma) कहते हैं और
यह भीतरी झिल्ली से घिरा रहता है I यह स्ट्रोमा एक matrix होता है जिसमें घुले हुए enzymes, starch
granules और chloroplast genome की copies होती हैं तथा यह प्रकाश संश्लेषण क
े दौरान dark
reactions का स्थान होता है I]
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Chloroplast structure
Q.3(B). Why is the Calvin cycle or reductive pentose cycle called the C3 cycle?[Calvin
cycle या reductive pentose cycle को C3 cycle क्यों कहते हैं?]
Ans. The Calvin cycle or reductive pentose cycle is called the C3 cycle because the first stable
product in this cycle is 3-phosphoglycerate which is a three carbon molecule.
[Calvin cycle या reductive pentose cycle को C3 cycle इसलिए कहते हैं क्योंकि इस cycle में बनने वाला
पहला स्थाई उत्पाद 3-phosphoglycerate है जो एक तीन carbon वाला molecule है I]
Q.4. What is red drop ?[लाल पतन क्या है?]
Ans. The action spectrum (a measure of the efficiency of photosynthesis at different
wavelengths/photochemical efficiency) and the absorption spectra (the relative absorption of
light at different wavelengths of chlorophyll a, b and a leaf extract), run parallel to each other
except when the wavelength of light exceeds 680 nm and there the action spectrum shows a
sudden and steep decrease compared to the absorption spectrum. The sudden decrease in
action spectrum is called red drop as it happens in the red part of the spectrum (680 nm).
This phenomenon was observed by Robert Emerson while studying the quantum yield of
photosynthesis by using monochromatic light of different wavelengths. He found that the
quantum yield (molecules of oxygen evolved per quantum of light absorbed) decreased sharply
at wavelengths greater than 680 nm.
[Action spectrum (विभिन्न wavelengths पर प्रकाश संश्लेषण की दक्षता का मापदंड) और absorption
spectra [chlorophyll a, b एवं पत्ती क
े एक अर्क (a leaf extract) क
े विभिन्न wavelengths पर light का
सापेक्ष absorption] आपस में समानांतर चलते हैं किन्तु जब प्रकाश की तरंग दैर्ध्य (wavelength of light) 680
nm से अधिक होती है तो action spectrum में absorption spectrum की तुलना में अचानक और तीव्र कमी
दिखाई देती है I Action spectrum में इस अचानक और तीव्र गिरावट को red drop कहते हैं क्योंकि यह
spectrum क
े red part (680 nm) में होता है I
इस परिघटना (phenomenon) को सर्वप्रथम Robert Emerson द्वारा तब देखा गया था जब वो विभिन्न
wavelength की monochromatic light क
े उपयोग से प्रकाश संश्लेषण की quantum yield (अवशोषित प्रकाश
क
े प्रति क्वांटम से निकलें ऑक्सीजन अणु) का अध्ययन कर रहे थे I उन्होंने पाया कि quantum yield में
wavelength क
े 680 nm से अधिक होने पर तीव्र गिरावट होती है I]
3
Q.5. What is the funneling effect in photosynthesis?[प्रकाश संश्लेषण में फन्नेलिंग इफ़
े क्ट क्या
होता है?]
Ans. The funneling effect is a convenient and efficient way of harvesting light energy. The light
energy absorbed by all the chlorophyll molecules or carotenoid molecules is funneled to the
photochemical reaction center(a complex of chlorophyll bound to a protein) and the energy
trapped in the reaction center can not be transferred back.
The funneling is important because pigment molecules are not uniformly distributed in the
thylakoid membrane but occur in clusters called photosystems which may contain chlorophyll
and other accessory pigments. The chlorophyll and other pigments serve as antennas which
upon excitation by absorption of light transfers it's energy to a neighboring pigment molecule by
nonradiative transfer mode(resonance energy transfer). This transfer of energy continues till the
energy is finally trapped by an electron transfer reaction in a photochemical reaction center.
[फन्नेलिंग इफ़
े क्ट light energy का दोहन (harvesting) करने का एक सुविधाजनक और दक्ष तरीका है I सभी
chlorophyll और carotenoid molecules द्वारा अवशोषित प्रकाश ऊर्जा photochemical reaction centre
(प्रोटीन से बंधा chlorophyll molecules का एक complex) को पंहुचा दी जाती है (funneled) और reaction
centre में इस प्रकार फ
ँ सी ऊर्जा वापस नहीं जा सकती है I
इस प्रकार की गई ऊर्जा की funneling इस लिए महत्वपूर्ण है क्योंकि thylakoid membrane में pigment
molecules का वितरण एकसमान नहीं होता है, बल्कि समूहों में होता है जिन्हे photosystems कहते हैं और
जिनमें chlorophyll और अन्य सहायक pigments होते हैं I यह chlorophyll और अन्य pigments एक
antennà का काम करते हैं जो अवशोषित प्रकाश द्वारा उत्तेजित होने पर अपनी ऊर्जा अपने पड़ोसी pigment
molecule को nonradiative transfer mode द्वारा ट्रांसफर कर देते हैं जिसे resonance energy transfer
कहते हैं I यह ऊर्जा का ट्रांसफर तब तक चलता है जबतक कि ऊर्जा अंत में एक photochemical reaction
center में एक electron transfer reaction द्वारा फ
ँ स नहीं जाती I]
Q.6. Differentiate between photosystems I & II. [फोटोसिस्टम I and II में अंतर बतायें ]
Ans.
● Photosystem I (PS I) is located at the outer surface of the grana thylakoid membrane
whereas photosystem II (PS II) is located at the inner surface of the grana thylakoid
membrane.
[Photosystem I (PSI) grana thylakoid membrane की बाहरी सतह पर स्थित होता है जबकि
photosystem II (PSII) grana thylakoid membrane की अंदरूनी सतह पर पाया जाता है I]
● The photocentre of PSI is P700 whereas that of PSII is P680.
[PSI का photocenter P700 है जबकि PSII का P680 है I]
● Pigments of PSI absorb longer wavelengths (>680 nm) than the pigments of PSII (<680
nm).
[PSI क
े pigments longer wavelengths (>680 nm) की light absorb करते हैं जबकि PSII क
े
pigments 680 nm से कम wavelengths की light absorb करते हैं I]
● PSI participates in cyclic as well as non-cyclic photophosphorylation whereas PSII
participates in only non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
4
[PSI cyclic और non-cyclic दोनों photophosphorylation में भाग लेता है जबकि PSII क
े वल
non-cyclic photophosphorylation में भाग लेता है I]
● PSI is not associated with photolysis of water whereas PSII is associated with photolysis
of water.
[PSI water की photolysis से सम्बद्ध नहीं होता जबकि PSII water की photolysis से सम्बद्ध होता
है I]
● PSI is involved in ATP synthesis whereas PSII is involved in ATP synthesis and
hydrolysis of water.
[PSI ATP क
े संश्लेषण में शामिल होता है जबकि PSII ATP क
े संश्लेषण और water की hydrolysis
दोनों में शामिल होता है I]
Q.7(A). Describe light reactions of photosynthesis. [प्रकाश संश्लेषण क
े light reactions का वर्णन
करें I]
Ans. During the light reactions of photosynthesis, generation of NADPH and ATP occurs via
transfer of electrons. This involves photosystems I & II (PSI & PSII) and splitting of water
molecules. The two photosystems work in tandem. The irradiation of PSII results in excited
state of the reaction center of PSII (P680*). The high energy electron from P680* is transferred
to plastocyanin (PC) through a number of electron carriers (pheophytin, plastoquinone,
cytochrome bf). The transfer of electron from P680* results in an electron hole in P680 which
gets filled by electron released from water by the action of manganese containing water splitting
enzyme, a constituent of PS II. Two water molecules split to give an oxygen molecule, 4 protons
and 4 electrons.
When PSI receives a light photon it gets converted into its excited state of reaction center
(P700*). The excited P700* transfers an electron to acceptor Chlorophyll Ao, followed by A1 and
this flow of electron continues through the iron-sulphur protein (FeS), ferredoxin (FD) and finally
to NADP+ to form NADPH in presence of ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase. The transfer of
electron from P700* results in a hole in PSI (P700+) which is filled by transfer of an electron
from the reduced PC.
In addition to generation of reducing power (NADPH) ATP is also formed during electron
transport which is called photophosphorylation. Two types of photophosphorylation occur during
photosynthesis. One is non-cyclic which results from proton gradient build up due to proton
released by water splitting. In this case the interior of the thylakoid is more acidic than stromal
side resulting in a proton concentration gradient. This proton gradient drives the synthesis of
ATP through ATP synthase. The proton gradient is known to occur during electron transfer from
Cyt bf to PC. Cyclic photophosphorylation occurs when an extra ATP is required for synthesis of
organic molecules. This involves only PS I. Here, the energetic electron is simply passed from
FD back to Cyt bf rather than passing to NADP+. The Cyt bf pumps out a proton, adding to
proton gradient, driving the synthesis of ATP as in non-cyclic photophosphorylation. This whole
pathway of PSI and PSII is also called the Z scheme.
At the end of light reaction, reducing power (NADPH) and chemical energy (ATP) are formed
which are needed in the dark reaction for biosynthesis of organic molecules.
[प्रकाश संश्लेषण क
े light reactions क
े दौरान electrons क
े ट्रांसफर क
े माध्यम से NADPH और ATP उत्पन्न
होते हैं I इस प्रक्रिया में photosystems I एवं II (PSI & PSII) शामिल होते हैं और इसमें जल का विभाजन
(splitting of water) होता है I ये दोनों photosystems मिलकर काम करते हैं I PSII क
े विकिरण से PSII का
reaction centre उत्तेजित अवस्था (excited state) P680* में हो जाता है I P680* से high energy electron
5
कई electron वाहकों (pheophytin, plastoquinone, cytochrome bf) क
े माध्यम से plastocyanin (PC) को
ट्रांसफर हो जाता है जिससे P680 में एक छेद हो जाता है जो जल क
े विभाजन से निकले electron द्वारा भरता है I
जल का विभाजन PSII क
े एक अवयव मैंगनीज युक्त water splitting enzyme द्वारा होता है I जल क
े दो
अणुओ क
े विभाजन से ऑक्सीजन का एक अणु, 4 protons, और 4 electrons निकलते हैं I
जब PSI एक light photon प्राप्त करता है तो इसका reaction centre अपनी उत्तेजित अवस्था (P700*) में आ
जाता है I उत्तेजित P700* एक electron acceptor Chlorophyll Ao को, उसक
े बाद A1 को और फिर
iron-sulphur protein (FeS), ferredoxin (FD) से होता हुआ अंत में NADP+ को ट्रांसफर होता है जिससे
enzyme ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase की उपस्थिति में NADPH बनता है I P700* से electron
ट्रांसफर होने क
े कारण PSI में एक छेद हो जाता है (P700+) जो reduced PC द्वारा electron क
े ट्रांसफर से
भरता है I
Reducing power (NADPH) क
े अतिरिक्त electron ट्रांसपोर्ट क
े दौरान ATP भी उत्पन्न होती है और इस
प्रक्रिया को photophosphorylation कहते हैं I प्रकाश संश्लेषण क
े दौरान दो प्रकार क
े
photophosphorylation होते हैं I इसमें से एक non-cyclic होता है जो जल क
े विभाजन से निकले proton क
े
कारण बने proton gradient का परिणाम होता है I इस स्थिति में thylakoid का आतंरिक भाग stromal side की
तुलना में अधिक अम्लीय हो जाता है जिसक
े कारण एक proton concentration gradient बनता है I यह proton
gradient ATP synthase क
े माध्यम से ATP संश्लेषण को संचालित करता है I यह proton gradient Cyt bf से
PC को electron क
े ट्रांसफर क
े दौरान होता है I Cyclic photophosphorylation तब होता है जब organic
molecules क
े संश्लेषण हेतु एक अतिरिक्त ATP की आवश्यकता होती है I Cyclic photophosphorylation में
क
े वल PSI शामिल होता है I इसमें energetic electron NADP+ को स्थानांतरित होने क
े बजाए FD से वापस
Cyt bf को चला जाता है I फिर Cyt bf एक proton छोड़ता है जो proton gradient में वृद्धि करता है जिससे
ATP का संश्लेषण उसी प्रकार होता है जैसे कि non-cyclic photophosphorylation में होता है I PSI और PSll
क
े पूरे pathway को Z scheme भी कहते हैं I
Light reaction क
े अंत में NADPH क
े रूप में reducing power और ATP क
े रूप में chemical energy प्राप्त
होती है जिसकी dark reaction में organic molecules क
े संश्लेषण में आवश्यकता होती है I]
Q. 7(B). Describe the role played by PSI & PSII in photosynthesis.[Photosynthesis में PSl
और PSII की भमिका का वर्णन करें I]
Ans. Two photosystems (I & II) are found in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts of plants,
algae, and cyanobacteria. Photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII) are the two
multi-protein complexes that contain the pigments necessary to harvest photons and use light
energy to catalyze the photosynthetic light reactions generating highly reducing compound,
NADPH and high energy compound, ATP, which are utilized by the chloroplast to fix carbon
dioxide in the dark reactions to make carbohydrates. Both photosystems are highly organized
membrane supercomplexes composed of a core complex, containing the reaction centre where
6
photochemical reactions occur, and of a peripheral antenna system, which is important for light
harvesting and photosynthetic activity regulation. The PSII has a quinone type reaction center,
while PSI has an iron-sulphur type reaction center. The light absorption peak of PSI is at
wavelength 700 nm, while the PSII has the light absorption peak at wavelength 680 nm. Hence
their reaction centers are named P700 and P680 respectively.
The two photosystems work in tandem during photosynthesis. The irradiation of PSII results in
excited state of the reaction center of PSII (P680*). The high energy electron from P680* is
transferred to plastocyanin (PC) through a number of electron carriers (pheophytin,
plastoquinone, cytochrome bf). The transfer of electron from P680* results in an electron hole in
P680 which gets filled by electron released from water by the action of manganese containing
water splitting enzyme, a constituent of PS II. Two water molecules split to give an oxygen
molecule, 4 protons and 4 electrons.
When PSI receives a light photon it gets converted into its excited state of reaction center
(P700*). The excited P700* transfers an electron to acceptor Chlorophyll Ao, followed by A1 and
this flow of electron continues through the iron-sulphur protein (FeS), ferredoxin (FD) and finally
to NADP+ to form NADPH in presence of ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase. The transfer of
electron from P700* results in a hole in PSI (P700+) which is filled by transfer of an electron
from the reduced PC.
In addition to generation of reducing power (NADPH) ATP is also formed during electron
transport which is called photophosphorylation.
[Plants, algae, और cyanobacteria क
े chloroplasts क
े thylakoid membranes में दो photosystems (I &
II) पाए जाते हैं I Photosystem I (PSI) और photosystem II (PSII) multi-protein complexes होते हैं
जिनमें photons का दोहन करक
े light energy का उपयोग photosynthetic light reactions को catalyze
करने हेतु आवश्यक pigments होते हैं I इन photosynthetic light reactions द्वारा उत्पन्न अत्यधिक
reducing compound, NADPH और high energy compound, ATP का उपयोग chloroplast द्वारा dark
reaction में carbon dioxide को fix करक
े carbohydrates क
े संश्लेषण में होता है I दोनों photosystems
अत्यधिक organized membrane supercomplexes होते हैं जिसक
े अंतर्भाग में एक complex reaction
centre होता है जहाँ photochemical reactions होते हैं , और एक परिधीय antenna system होता है जो
प्रकाश का दोहन करने और photosynthetic activity क
े नियंत्रण क
े लिए महत्वपूर्ण होता है I PSII में quinone
type का reaction center होता है जबकि PSI में एक iron-sulphur type का reaction center होता है I PSI
की light absorption peak 700 nm wavelength पर और PSII की light absorption peak 680 nm
wavelength पर होती है I इसीलिए इनक
े reaction centers को क्रमशः P700 और P680 कहते हैं I
ये दोनों photosystems प्रकाश संश्लेषण क
े दौरान मिलकर काम करते हैं I PSII क
े विकिरण से PSII का
reaction centre उत्तेजित अवस्था (excited state) P680* में हो जाता है I P680* से high energy electron
कई electron वाहकों (pheophytin, plastoquinone, cytochrome bf) क
े माध्यम से plastocyanin (PC) को
ट्रांसफर हो जाता है जिससे P680 में एक छेद हो जाता है जो जल क
े विभाजन से निकले electron द्वारा भरता है I
जल का विभाजन PSII क
े एक अवयव मैंगनीज युक्त water splitting enzyme द्वारा होता है I जल क
े दो
अणुओ क
े विभाजन से ऑक्सीजन का एक अणु, 4 protons, और 4 electrons निकलते हैं I
जब PSI एक light photon प्राप्त करता है तो इसका reaction centre अपनी उत्तेजित अवस्था (P700*) में आ
जाता है I उत्तेजित P700* एक electron acceptor Chlorophyll Ao को, उसक
े बाद A1 को और फिर
iron-sulphur protein (FeS), ferredoxin (FD) से होता हुआ अंत में NADP+ को ट्रांसफर होता है जिससे
enzyme ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase की उपस्थिति में NADPH बनता है I P700* से electron
ट्रांसफर होने क
े कारण PSI में एक छेद हो जाता है (P700+) जो reduced PC द्वारा electron क
े ट्रांसफर से
भरता है I
7
Reducing power (NADPH) क
े अतिरिक्त electron ट्रांसपोर्ट क
े दौरान ATP भी उत्पन्न होती है और इस
प्रक्रिया को photophosphorylation कहते हैं I]
Q.8. What is the Z scheme in photosynthesis? How does it work? Why is it so
named?[प्रकाश संश्लेषण में Z स्कीम क्या होती है? यह क
ै से काम करती है? इसे यह नाम क्यों दिया गया है?]
Ans. The Z scheme is the pathway by which plants transform light energy into chemical energy
via electron transfer from water to NADP+ resulting in reduction of NADP+ to NADPH and
release of O2. A high concentration of protons inside the thylakoid lumen builds up creating a
concentration gradient needed for ATP synthesis.
It (light reaction; Z scheme) begins with excitation of photosystems I & II (PSI & PSII) by
absorption of light energy (photons) resulting in excited state of the reaction centre of both PSI
(P700*) & PSII (PS 680*) followed by loss of electron from both P680* and P700*. P680* loses
an electron to pheophytin producing oxidized P680 (P680+) and reduced pheophytin. The
excited P700* loses an electron to acceptor chlorophyll Ao producing oxidized P700 (P700+)
and reduced Ao (Ao-) which passes the electron ultimately to NADP+ via several other
intermediates viz . Chlorophyll A1, FeS, FD, FP. The P700+ is reduced by accepting electron
from reduced plastocyanin via several intermediates viz. QA, QB, cyt bf. The oxidized P680+
recovers its electron from water molecules via an amino acid tyrosine (Z protein) and a
tetra-nuclear manganese cluster (water splitting enzyme). In the whole process of Z scheme a
total of 8 quanta (photons) of light (4 in PSII and 4 in PSI) are required to transfer 4 electrons
from 2 molecules of water to 2 molecules of NADP+ and thus 2 molecules of NADPH and 1
molecule of oxygen are produced.
It is called Z scheme because when its diagram was first drawn it was in the form of letter "Z" .
Now it is turned 90° counterclockwise ("N") so that the energy levels of the components could
be shown clearly.
[प्रकाश संश्लेषण में Z scheme वो pathway है जिसक
े द्वारा पौधे light energy को chemical energy में
परिवर्तित करते हैं और इस प्रक्रिया में जल से electron NADP+ को ट्रांसफर होते हैं जिससे NADP+ का
NADPH में reduction हो जाता है और ऑक्सीजन निकल जाती है I Thylakoid क
े अवकाशिका (lumen) में
protons का concentration बढ़ने से एक concentration gradient बनता है जो ATP क
े संश्लेषण क
े लिए
आवश्यक होता है I
Light reaction (Z scheme) का आरम्भ होता है अवशोषित प्रकाश ऊर्जा (photons) द्वारा photosystems I &
II (PSI & PSII) क
े उत्तेजित (excite) होने से, जिसक
े परिणामस्वरुप PSI एवं PSII दोनों क
े reaction centre
excited state {PSI (P700*) और PSII (PS 680*} में पहुँच जाते हैं I इसक
े उपरांत P680* एवं P700* दोनों से
electron का ह्रास (loss) होता है I P680* से निकला एक electron pheophytin को जाता है जिससे
pheophytin reduce हो जाता है और P680 oxidize (P680+) हो जाता है I इसी प्रकार excited P700* भी एक
electron acceptor chlorophyll Ao को देता है जिससे oxidized P700 (P700+) बनता है और reduced
Ao(Ao-) जो अंत में electron को कई अन्य intermediates (Chlorophyll A1, FeS, FD, FP) क
े माध्यम से
NADP+ को देता है I Oxidized P700+ reduced plastocyanin से, कई intermediates (QA, QB, QH2,
cyt bf) क
े माध्यम से एक electron स्वीकार करक
े reduce हो जाता है I इसी प्रकार oxidised P680+ अपने
खोय हुए electron की पुनः प्राप्ति जल अणु से एक amino acid tyrosine (Z protein) और एक tetra-nuclear
manganese cluster (water splitting enzyme) क
े माध्यम से करता है I Z scheme की इस पूरी प्रक्रिया में
जल क
े दो अणुओ से 4 electrons क
े NADP+ को स्थानांतरित करने हेतु light क
े क
ु ल 8 quanta (photons) (4
PSII में और 4 PSI में ) की आवश्यकता होती है और इस तरह NADPH क
े 2 अणु और ऑक्सीजन का एक अणु
उत्पन्न होते हैं I
8
इसे Z scheme इसलिए कहा जाता है क्योंकि जब इसका चित्र पहली बार बनाया गया था तो यह letter "Z" की
तरह था I अब इसे 90° वामावर्त (counterclockwise) घुमा दिया गया है जिससे इसक
े अव्यवों क
े ऊर्जा स्तर को
ठीक से दर्शाया जा सक
े , इसलिए अब यह "N" क
े रूप में दिखता है I]
Q.9. Differentiate between cyclic and noncyclic photophosphorylation. (cyclic और
noncyclic photophosphorylation में अंतर बतायें I]
Ans.
● In cyclic photophosphorylation only PSI is involved whereas in noncyclic
photophosphorylation both PSI and PSII are involved.
[Cyclic photophosphorylation में क
े वल PSl शामिल होता है जबकि noncyclic
photophosphorylation में PSl और PSll दोनों शामिल होते हैं I]
● The active reaction center for cyclic photophosphorylation is P700 whereas it is P680 in
noncyclic.
[Cyclic photophosphorylation में active reaction center P700 होता है जबकि noncyclic में
active reaction center P680 होता है I]
● Electrons travel in a cyclic manner in cyclic photophosphorylation whereas it is noncyclic
manner in noncyclic photophosphorylation.
[Cyclic photophosphorylation में electrons cyclic तरीक
े से travel करते हैं जबकि noncyclic
photophosphorylation में noncyclic तरीक
े से I]
● In cyclic photophosphorylation the electron travels back to PSI whereas in noncyclic
electron from PSI is accepted by NADP.
[Cyclic photophosphorylation में electron वापस PSI को जाता है जबकि noncyclic में electron
PSI से NADP द्वारा स्वीकार किया जाता है I]
● In cyclic photophosphorylation only ATP is produced whereas in noncyclic both ATP and
NADPH are produced.
[Cyclic photophosphorylation में क
े वल ATP बनता है जबकि noncyclic में ATP और NADPH
दोनों बनते हैं I]
● In cyclic photophosphorylation no photolysis or water splitting enzyme is present but it is
present in noncyclic photophosphorylation.
[Cyclic photophosphorylation में photolysis या water splitting enzyme अनुपस्थित होता है
जबकि noncyclic photophosphorylation में यह उपस्थित होता है I]
● Oxygen does not evolve in cyclic photophosphorylation but it evolves as a by-product in
noncyclic.
9
[Cyclic photophosphorylation में ऑक्सीजन नहीं निकलती है जबकि noncyclic में ऑक्सीजन एक
उप-उत्पाद क
े रूप में निकलती है I]
● Cyclic photophosphorylation is prominent in bacteria but the noncyclic is prominent in
green plants.
[Cyclic photophosphorylation मुख्यरूप से bacteria में होता है जबकि noncyclic मुख्यरूप से हरे
पौधों में होता है I]
Q.10. Describe the dark reactions of photosynthesis.[प्रकाश संश्लेषण क
े dark reaction का
वर्णन करें I]
Ans. The energy (ATP) and reducing power (NADPH) captured by the light reactions is used in
dark reactions to fix CO2 into organic molecules. The first reaction of dark reactions or Calvin
cycle is the formation of 3-phosphoglycerate by reaction of CO2 with ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate.
This reaction is catalyzed by enzyme ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco) localised
on the stromal surface of thylakoid.
[Light reactions द्वारा प्राप्त ATP क
े रूप में ऊर्जा और NADPH क
े रूप में reducing power का उपयोग dark
reactions में CO2 को organic molecules में fix करने हेतु होता है I Dark reactions या Calvin cycle का
पहले reaction में CO2 ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate से react करक
े 3-phosphoglycerate क
े दो
molecules बनते है I इस reaction को thylakoid की stromal surface में उपस्थित enzyme ribulose
1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco) catalyze करता है I]
Rubisco
ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate --------> 3-phosphoglycerate (2 molecules)
CO2
2 molecules of 3- phosphoglycerate are converted into one molecule of fructose-6-phosphate
through a series of reactions [3-phosphoglycerate क
े दो अणु प्रतिक्रियाओं की एक श्रृंखला द्वारा
fructose 6-phosphate क
े एक अणु में परिवर्तित हो जाते हैं ]:
3-phosphoglycerate → 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate → Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate →
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate → Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate → Fructose-6-phosphate
Fructose-6-phosphate is then converted into other carbohydrates such as glucose, sucrose and
starch.[Fructose 6- phosphate फिर अन्य carbohydrates जैसे - ग्लूकोस, सुक्रोस और स्टार्च में परिवर्तित
होता है I]
To continue the process of Fr-6-p synthesis the starting substrate ribulose 1,5-bis phosphate
should be regenerated. This is accomplished by a series of reactions. One molecule of ribulose
1,5-bis phosphate is regenerated for each molecule of CO2 reduced. Therefore, 6 molecules of
CO2 and 6 molecules of ribulose 1,5-bis phosphate are utilized to synthesize one molecule of
glucose and to regenerate 6 molecules of ribulose-1,5-bis phosphate.
10
[Fructose 6-phosphate क
े संश्लेषण को जारी रखने हेतु starting substrate ribulose 1,5-bis phosphate
को पुनर्जनित होना चाहिए और यह प्रतिक्रियाओं की एक श्रृंखला द्वारा संपन्न होता है I एक CO2 अणु क
े
reduce होने पर ribulose 1,5-bis phosphate का एक अणु पुनर्जनित होता है I इसलिए CO2 क
े 6 अणुओं और
ribulose 1,5-bis phosphate क
े 6 अणुओं का उपयोग ग्लूकोस क
े एक अणु क
े संश्लेषण और ribulose-1,5-bis
phosphate क
े 6 अणुओ को पुनर्जनित करने हेतु होता है I]
The overall reaction is:
6CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ + 12 H2O → Hexose + 18 Pi + 18 ADP + 12 NADP +
Q.11. Write a short note on C 4 cycle.[C4 cycle पर एक संक्षिप्त टिप्पणी लिखें I]
Ans. In tropical plants such as sugarcane and maize, the earliest products of CO2 fixation are
4-carbon dicarboxylic acids viz. oxaloacetic acid, malic acid and aspartic acid. Such plants are,
therefore, called C4 plants. Such plants are adapted to hot and dry climates because they can
make a more efficient use of CO2 through the C4 cycle (Hatch-Slack pathway). In this cycle
CO2 is first fixed into oxaloacetate in mesophyll cells in presence of phosphoenolpyruvate.
Oxaloacetate is then converted into malate or aspartate which diffuse into bundle sheath cells.
In bundle sheath cells malate is converted into pyruvate and CO2 is released and then CO2 is
refixed into 3-phosphoglycerate via the Calvin cycle. The pyruvate diffuses back to mesophyll
cells where it is converted into phosphoenolpyruvate to continue the C4 cycle.
The C4 cycle requires more ATP but hexose is synthesized much faster per unit leaf area as
compared to that in the C3 cycle and the C4 plants grow much faster even at much higher light
intensities.
Overall reaction of C4 cycle photosynthesis :
6 CO2 + 30 ATP + 24 H2O + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ → Hexose + 30 ADP + 30 Pi + 12 NADP+
[उष्णकटिबंधीय पौधों (tropical plants) जैसे - गन्ना (sugarcane) और मक्का (maize), में CO2 fixation क
े
प्रारंभिक उत्पाद 4-carbon वाले dicarboxylic acids जैसे - oxaloacetic acid, malic acid और aspartic acid
होते हैं, इसीलिए ऐसे पौधों को C4 plants कहते हैं I ऐसे पौधे गर्म और शुष्क जलवायु क
े अनुक
ू लित होते है क्योंकि
वे C4 cycle (Hatch-Slack pathway) द्वारा CO2 का अधिक दक्षता से उपयोग कर सकते हैं I इस cycle में
CO2 सर्वप्रथम mesophyll cells में phosphoenolpyruvate की उपस्थिति में oxaloacetate में fix होती है I
यह Oxaloacetate फिर malate या aspartate में परिवर्तित होकर bundle sheath cells में विसारित
(diffuse) हो जाता है I Bundle sheath cells में malate pyruvate में परिवर्तित हो जाता है और CO2
निकलकर Calvin cycle क
े माध्यम से 3-phosphoglycerate में पुनः fix हो जाती है I यह pyruvate वापस
विसारित होकर mesophyll cells में चला जाता है और वहाँ phosphoenolpyruvate में परिवर्तित हो जाता है
ताकि C4 cycle जारी रह सक
े I
हालांकि C4 cycle में अधिक ATP की आवश्यकता होती है किन्तु C3 cycle क
े मुकाबले पत्ती क
े प्रति इकाई क्षेत्र
में hexose का संश्लेषण अधिक तेजी से होता है और इसलिए अधिक तीव्रता की light में भी C4 पौधे अधिक तेजी
से बढ़ते हैं I]
6 CO2 + 30 ATP + 24 H2O + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ → Hexose + 30 ADP + 30 Pi + 12 NADP+
11
Q.12. Compare the C3 cycle and the C4 cycle.[C3 cycle और C4 cycle की तुलना करें I]
Ans.
● C3 cycle fixes CO2 directly into 3-carbon compound 3-phosphoglycerate whereas C4
cycle fixes CO2 first into 4-carbon compound oxaloacetic acid in mesophyll and then
refixes CO2 into 3-carbon 3-phosphoglycerate in bundle sheath cells.
[ C3 cycle CO2 को सीधे 3-carbon compound 3-phosphoglycerate में fix करती है जबकि C4
cycle CO2 को पहले mesophyll में एक 4-carbon compound oxaloacetic acid में fix करती है,
फिर CO2 को bundle sheath cells में 3-carbon 3-phosphoglycerate में refix करती है I]
● Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (the CO2 fixing enzyme in C3 cycle) has low
affinity for CO2 whereas in C4 cycle the CO2 fixing enzyme, Phosphoenolpyruvate
carboxylase has very high affinity for CO2. This enables the bundle sheath cells to fix
CO2 very efficiently by ribulose-1,5-bis-phosphate.
[Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (C3 cycle में CO2 fixing enzyme) की CO2 क
े लिए
affinity कम होती है जबकि C4 cycle में CO2 fixing enzyme, Phosphoenolpyruvate
carboxylase की CO2 क
े लिए affinity अत्याधिक होती है I जिससे bundle sheath cells
ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate द्वारा CO2 को fix करने में अधिक सक्षम होती हैं I
● C3 cycle requires less ATP but is less efficient whereas C4 cycle requires more ATP but
hexose synthesis is much faster per unit area of leaf resulting in higher growth of plants
even in high light intensity.
[C3 cycle क
े लिए कम ATP की आवश्यकता होती है किन्तु इसकी दक्षता कम होती है जबकि C4 cycle
क
े लिए अधिक ATP की आवश्यकता होती है किन्तु hexose का प्रति unit area संश्लेषण काफ़ी तेज़
होता है जिससे plants की growth high light intensity में भी अधिक होती है I
● Overall reaction :
C3 cycle
6CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ + 12 H2O → Hexose + 18 Pi + 18 ADP + 12 NADP +
C4 cycle
6 CO2 + 30 ATP + 24 H2O + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ → Hexose + 30 ADP + 30 Pi + 12 NADP+
Q.13. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Photosynthesis in plants takes place in the cell organelle _________.
(ii) The naturally occurring counterpart of the Hill reagent was identified as ______.
(iii) The flattened and membrane enclosed sacs or vesicles called ______, which are arranged
in stacks or grana.
(iv) The light reactions of photosynthesis take place in the _______ of chloroplast.
(v) The stroma of the chloroplast is the site for ______ reactions of photosynthesis.
12
(vi) The major light absorbing pigments of thylakoid membrane are _______.
(vii) The ion present in chlorophyll is _____.
(viii) The accessory pigments present in thylakoid are ______ and _____.
(ix) The yellow color in plants is due to the pigment _______.
(x) The red color in plants is due to the pigment ________.
(xi) The relative absorption of light at different wavelengths of chlorophyll is called _____
______.
(xii) The measure of the efficiency of photosynthesis at different wavelengths is called ______
_______.
(xiii) The process in which the energy absorbed by all the chlorophyll molecules is funnelled to
the reaction center is called ______ effect.
(xiv) The photochemical reaction center is a complex of chlorophyll bound to a _____.
(xv) P700 is a photosystem ____.
(xvi) P680 is a photosystem ____.
(xvii) _____ quanta (photons) are required for completion of this reaction :
2H2O + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + 2 NADP+ → O2 + 2 ATP + 2 NADPH
(xviii) Calvin cycle is also called _____ pentose cycle.
(xix) Calvin cycle is also called C3 cycle because the first stable products in this are molecules
with _____ carbon atoms.
(xx) The first detectable product formed in a dark reaction is _____.
(xxi) Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase is commonly abbreviated as _______.
(xxii) Human beings cannot synthesize glucose from CO2 and H2O because they lack the
enzyme ___________.
(xxiii) Plants in tropical region use another pathway for photosynthesis called the _____
pathway.
(xxiv) C4 cycle fixes CO2 first into _______ compounds.
(xxv) 6 CO2 + 12 H2O → ______ + 6 H2O + 6 O2
Ans. (i) chloroplast, (ii) NADP+, (iii) thylakoids, (iv) grana, (v) dark, (vi) chlorophyll, (vii)
magnesium, (viii) carotenoids, phycobilins, (ix) xanthophyll, (x) phycoerythrobilin, (xi) absorption
spectrum, (xii) action spectrum, (xiii) funneling, (xiv) protein, (xv) I, (xvi) II, (xvii) 8, (xviii)
reductive, (xix) three, (xx) 3-phosphoglycerate, (xxi) Rubisco, (xxii) Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase, (xxiii) C4, (xxiv) 4-carbon, (xxv) C6H12O6
REFERENCES:
1. IGNOU, CHE - 9 Biochemistry, Block 3
2. Lehninger Principles of biochemistry, seventh edition ; David L. Nelson & Michael M. Cox.
Disclaimer : The picture given in the text has been downloaded from Google image and I am
thankful to the person who has uploaded this picture.
Dr. P. K. Nigam
Ph. D. (Retired Biochemist)
13
14

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Some Q & A Photosynthesis | IGNOU Biochemistry CHE-09 (in English /Hinglish)

  • 1. 12. SOME IMPORTANT QUESTION - ANSWER FOR IGNOU BIOCHEMISTRY [CHE 9] PHOTOSYNTHESIS Q.1. Name the site of photosynthesis in plants and explain the Hill reaction. How is the electron transfer in Hill reaction different from the mitochondrial electron transport?[पौधों में प्रकाश संश्लेषण कहाँ होता है और Hill reaction को समझायें I Hill reaction में होने वाला electron transfer mitochondria में होने वाले electron transport से किस प्रकार भिन्न है?] Ans. Photosynthesis in plants takes place in chloroplasts. The light reactions of photosynthesis take place in the membrane part (thylakoids) whereas the dark reactions take place in the stroma of the chloroplasts. Hill Reaction: Hill reaction is defined as the reduction of an electron acceptor (A) by electrons and protons from water with the evolution of oxygen when chloroplasts are exposed to light. Light H2O + A -------------------> AH2 + ½ O2 Chloroplast The acceptor A is called the Hill reagent and the naturally occurring counterpart of the Hill reagent was identified as NADP+. hv 2NADP+ + 2H2O ---->2NADPH + O2 + 2H+ The direction of electron flow in Hill reaction is opposite to mitochondrial electron transport: ● In Hill reaction the electrons are induced to flow away from water molecules to the acceptor, thus yielding molecular oxygen from water. Whereas in mitochondria electrons arising from organic molecules flow towards molecular oxygen which is reduced to water. ● The flow of electrons in photosynthesis is uphill i.e. from oxidant to a reductant and this is made possible by the input of light energy while in mitochondrial electron transport the electrons flow downhill from a stronger reductant (NAD+/NADH pair) to a stronger oxidant (O2/H2O pair). [पौधों में प्रकाश संश्लेषण (Photosynthesis) chloroplasts में होता है जिसमें light reactions chloroplast क े membrane हिस्से (thylakoids) में और dark reactions chloroplast क े stroma में होते हैं I Hill Reaction: Hill reaction में chloroplasts पर प्रकाश पड़ने पर एक electron acceptor (A) का water से प्राप्त electrons and protons द्वारा reduction होता है और ऑक्सीजन का निकास होता है I Light H2O + A -------------------> AH2 + ½ O2 Chloroplast इस acceptor A को Hill reagent कहते हैं और स्वाभाविक रूप से पाए जाने वाले Hill reagent की पहचान NADP+ क े रूप में की गई है I hv 2NADP+ + 2H2O ---->2NADPH + O2 + 2H+ Hill reaction में electrons क े प्रवाह की दिशा mitochondria में होने वाले electron transport की दिशा क े विपरीत होता है : ● Hill reaction में electrons water molecules से acceptor की तरफ प्रवाहित होने क े लिए प्रेरित किये जाते हैं और इस प्रकार water से ऑक्सीजन molecule प्राप्त होता है I जबकि mitochondria में 1
  • 2. organic molecules से प्राप्त electrons का प्रवाह molecular ऑक्सीजन की तरफ होता है जिससे ऑक्सीजन reduce होकर water बनाती है I ● प्रकाश संश्लेषण में electrons का प्रवाह चढ़ाई की भांति कठिन यानि oxidant से reductant की तरफ होता है और इसक े लिए light energy क े निवेश की आवश्यकता होती है, जबकि mitochondria में electrons का transport ढलान की भांति आसान होता है क्योंकि electrons एक मजबूत reductant (NAD+/NADH pair) से एक मजबूत oxidant (O2/H2O pair) की ओर प्रवाहित होते हैं I] Q.2. Give the experimental evidence to prove that CO2 is incorporated in carbohydrates synthesized in photosynthesis.[प्रकाश संश्लेषण में संश्लेषित carbohydrates में CO2 समाविष्ट होती है, इसका प्रयोगात्मकप्रमाण दें I] Ans. Melvin Calvin & his co-workers in late 1940s illuminated a suspension of green algae in the presence of 14 C-labeled carbon dioxide ( 14 CO2) and found that the first detectable product formed was 14 C- labeled 3-phosphoglycerate with 14 C at its carboxyl group. Further, it was shown that this 3-phosphoglycerate was converted into carbohydrates by plant extract. This experiment showed that CO2 is incorporated into carbohydrates in photosynthesis. [Melvin Calvin और उसक े सहयोगियों ने 1940 क े दशक क े अंत में हरी शैवाल (green algae) क े निलंबन (suspension) को 14 C-labelled कार्बन डाइऑक्साइड की उपस्थिति में प्रकाशित किया और यह पाया कि पहला पता लगाने योग्य बना उत्पाद 14 C- labeled 3-phosphoglycerate था जिसमें 14 C इसक े carboxyl group पर था I आगे यह भी दिखाया गया कि यह 3-phosphoglycerate पौधे क े अर्क (plant extract) द्वारा carbohydrates में परिवर्तित हो गया था I यह प्रयोग ने यह दर्शाया कि प्रकाश संश्लेषण में संश्लेषित carbohydrates में CO2 समाविष्ट होती है I Q.3(A). Write the structure of chloroplast. [Chloroplast की संरचना लिखें I] Ans. Chloroplasts are green coloured organelles in plant cells which contain green-coloured pigment chlorophyll. These oval shaped structures are surrounded by an outer and an inner membrane. The inner membrane encloses many flattened and membrane enclosed sacs or vesicles called thylakoids, which are arranged in stacks or grana which are the site of light reaction during photosynthesis. These grana are linked by extensions of the thylakoid membranes called lamella. The medium surrounding the thylakoid and enclosed by the inner membrane is called stroma which is the site of a dark reaction during photosynthesis. The stroma is a matrix containing dissolved enzymes, starch granules and copies of the chloroplast genome. [Chloroplasts हरे रंग क े plant cell में पाए जाने वाले organelles हैं जिनमें हरे रंग का pigment chlorophyll होता है I ये oval shape क े होते हैं जो एक बाहरी और एक भीतरी झिल्ली से घिरे रहते हैं I भीतरी झिल्ली कई चपटे और झिल्ली द्वारा घिरे पुटिका या थैलियों जैसी रचनाओं,जिन्हे थायलाकोइड (thylakoids) कहते हैं, को घेरे रहती है I ये थायलाकोइड क्रमबद्ध ढेर क े रूप में व्यवस्थित रहते हैं जिन्हे ग्रेना (grana) कहते हैं और ये प्रकाश संश्लेषण क े दौरान light reactions का स्थान होते हैं I ये ग्रेना आपस में thylakoid membrane क े फ ै लाव (extensions) द्वारा जुड़े रहते हैं और इन्हें लमेला (lamella) कहते हैं I Thylakoid क े चारों तरफ क े पदार्थ (medium) को स्ट्रोमा (stroma) कहते हैं और यह भीतरी झिल्ली से घिरा रहता है I यह स्ट्रोमा एक matrix होता है जिसमें घुले हुए enzymes, starch granules और chloroplast genome की copies होती हैं तथा यह प्रकाश संश्लेषण क े दौरान dark reactions का स्थान होता है I] 2
  • 3. Chloroplast structure Q.3(B). Why is the Calvin cycle or reductive pentose cycle called the C3 cycle?[Calvin cycle या reductive pentose cycle को C3 cycle क्यों कहते हैं?] Ans. The Calvin cycle or reductive pentose cycle is called the C3 cycle because the first stable product in this cycle is 3-phosphoglycerate which is a three carbon molecule. [Calvin cycle या reductive pentose cycle को C3 cycle इसलिए कहते हैं क्योंकि इस cycle में बनने वाला पहला स्थाई उत्पाद 3-phosphoglycerate है जो एक तीन carbon वाला molecule है I] Q.4. What is red drop ?[लाल पतन क्या है?] Ans. The action spectrum (a measure of the efficiency of photosynthesis at different wavelengths/photochemical efficiency) and the absorption spectra (the relative absorption of light at different wavelengths of chlorophyll a, b and a leaf extract), run parallel to each other except when the wavelength of light exceeds 680 nm and there the action spectrum shows a sudden and steep decrease compared to the absorption spectrum. The sudden decrease in action spectrum is called red drop as it happens in the red part of the spectrum (680 nm). This phenomenon was observed by Robert Emerson while studying the quantum yield of photosynthesis by using monochromatic light of different wavelengths. He found that the quantum yield (molecules of oxygen evolved per quantum of light absorbed) decreased sharply at wavelengths greater than 680 nm. [Action spectrum (विभिन्न wavelengths पर प्रकाश संश्लेषण की दक्षता का मापदंड) और absorption spectra [chlorophyll a, b एवं पत्ती क े एक अर्क (a leaf extract) क े विभिन्न wavelengths पर light का सापेक्ष absorption] आपस में समानांतर चलते हैं किन्तु जब प्रकाश की तरंग दैर्ध्य (wavelength of light) 680 nm से अधिक होती है तो action spectrum में absorption spectrum की तुलना में अचानक और तीव्र कमी दिखाई देती है I Action spectrum में इस अचानक और तीव्र गिरावट को red drop कहते हैं क्योंकि यह spectrum क े red part (680 nm) में होता है I इस परिघटना (phenomenon) को सर्वप्रथम Robert Emerson द्वारा तब देखा गया था जब वो विभिन्न wavelength की monochromatic light क े उपयोग से प्रकाश संश्लेषण की quantum yield (अवशोषित प्रकाश क े प्रति क्वांटम से निकलें ऑक्सीजन अणु) का अध्ययन कर रहे थे I उन्होंने पाया कि quantum yield में wavelength क े 680 nm से अधिक होने पर तीव्र गिरावट होती है I] 3
  • 4. Q.5. What is the funneling effect in photosynthesis?[प्रकाश संश्लेषण में फन्नेलिंग इफ़ े क्ट क्या होता है?] Ans. The funneling effect is a convenient and efficient way of harvesting light energy. The light energy absorbed by all the chlorophyll molecules or carotenoid molecules is funneled to the photochemical reaction center(a complex of chlorophyll bound to a protein) and the energy trapped in the reaction center can not be transferred back. The funneling is important because pigment molecules are not uniformly distributed in the thylakoid membrane but occur in clusters called photosystems which may contain chlorophyll and other accessory pigments. The chlorophyll and other pigments serve as antennas which upon excitation by absorption of light transfers it's energy to a neighboring pigment molecule by nonradiative transfer mode(resonance energy transfer). This transfer of energy continues till the energy is finally trapped by an electron transfer reaction in a photochemical reaction center. [फन्नेलिंग इफ़ े क्ट light energy का दोहन (harvesting) करने का एक सुविधाजनक और दक्ष तरीका है I सभी chlorophyll और carotenoid molecules द्वारा अवशोषित प्रकाश ऊर्जा photochemical reaction centre (प्रोटीन से बंधा chlorophyll molecules का एक complex) को पंहुचा दी जाती है (funneled) और reaction centre में इस प्रकार फ ँ सी ऊर्जा वापस नहीं जा सकती है I इस प्रकार की गई ऊर्जा की funneling इस लिए महत्वपूर्ण है क्योंकि thylakoid membrane में pigment molecules का वितरण एकसमान नहीं होता है, बल्कि समूहों में होता है जिन्हे photosystems कहते हैं और जिनमें chlorophyll और अन्य सहायक pigments होते हैं I यह chlorophyll और अन्य pigments एक antennà का काम करते हैं जो अवशोषित प्रकाश द्वारा उत्तेजित होने पर अपनी ऊर्जा अपने पड़ोसी pigment molecule को nonradiative transfer mode द्वारा ट्रांसफर कर देते हैं जिसे resonance energy transfer कहते हैं I यह ऊर्जा का ट्रांसफर तब तक चलता है जबतक कि ऊर्जा अंत में एक photochemical reaction center में एक electron transfer reaction द्वारा फ ँ स नहीं जाती I] Q.6. Differentiate between photosystems I & II. [फोटोसिस्टम I and II में अंतर बतायें ] Ans. ● Photosystem I (PS I) is located at the outer surface of the grana thylakoid membrane whereas photosystem II (PS II) is located at the inner surface of the grana thylakoid membrane. [Photosystem I (PSI) grana thylakoid membrane की बाहरी सतह पर स्थित होता है जबकि photosystem II (PSII) grana thylakoid membrane की अंदरूनी सतह पर पाया जाता है I] ● The photocentre of PSI is P700 whereas that of PSII is P680. [PSI का photocenter P700 है जबकि PSII का P680 है I] ● Pigments of PSI absorb longer wavelengths (>680 nm) than the pigments of PSII (<680 nm). [PSI क े pigments longer wavelengths (>680 nm) की light absorb करते हैं जबकि PSII क े pigments 680 nm से कम wavelengths की light absorb करते हैं I] ● PSI participates in cyclic as well as non-cyclic photophosphorylation whereas PSII participates in only non-cyclic photophosphorylation. 4
  • 5. [PSI cyclic और non-cyclic दोनों photophosphorylation में भाग लेता है जबकि PSII क े वल non-cyclic photophosphorylation में भाग लेता है I] ● PSI is not associated with photolysis of water whereas PSII is associated with photolysis of water. [PSI water की photolysis से सम्बद्ध नहीं होता जबकि PSII water की photolysis से सम्बद्ध होता है I] ● PSI is involved in ATP synthesis whereas PSII is involved in ATP synthesis and hydrolysis of water. [PSI ATP क े संश्लेषण में शामिल होता है जबकि PSII ATP क े संश्लेषण और water की hydrolysis दोनों में शामिल होता है I] Q.7(A). Describe light reactions of photosynthesis. [प्रकाश संश्लेषण क े light reactions का वर्णन करें I] Ans. During the light reactions of photosynthesis, generation of NADPH and ATP occurs via transfer of electrons. This involves photosystems I & II (PSI & PSII) and splitting of water molecules. The two photosystems work in tandem. The irradiation of PSII results in excited state of the reaction center of PSII (P680*). The high energy electron from P680* is transferred to plastocyanin (PC) through a number of electron carriers (pheophytin, plastoquinone, cytochrome bf). The transfer of electron from P680* results in an electron hole in P680 which gets filled by electron released from water by the action of manganese containing water splitting enzyme, a constituent of PS II. Two water molecules split to give an oxygen molecule, 4 protons and 4 electrons. When PSI receives a light photon it gets converted into its excited state of reaction center (P700*). The excited P700* transfers an electron to acceptor Chlorophyll Ao, followed by A1 and this flow of electron continues through the iron-sulphur protein (FeS), ferredoxin (FD) and finally to NADP+ to form NADPH in presence of ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase. The transfer of electron from P700* results in a hole in PSI (P700+) which is filled by transfer of an electron from the reduced PC. In addition to generation of reducing power (NADPH) ATP is also formed during electron transport which is called photophosphorylation. Two types of photophosphorylation occur during photosynthesis. One is non-cyclic which results from proton gradient build up due to proton released by water splitting. In this case the interior of the thylakoid is more acidic than stromal side resulting in a proton concentration gradient. This proton gradient drives the synthesis of ATP through ATP synthase. The proton gradient is known to occur during electron transfer from Cyt bf to PC. Cyclic photophosphorylation occurs when an extra ATP is required for synthesis of organic molecules. This involves only PS I. Here, the energetic electron is simply passed from FD back to Cyt bf rather than passing to NADP+. The Cyt bf pumps out a proton, adding to proton gradient, driving the synthesis of ATP as in non-cyclic photophosphorylation. This whole pathway of PSI and PSII is also called the Z scheme. At the end of light reaction, reducing power (NADPH) and chemical energy (ATP) are formed which are needed in the dark reaction for biosynthesis of organic molecules. [प्रकाश संश्लेषण क े light reactions क े दौरान electrons क े ट्रांसफर क े माध्यम से NADPH और ATP उत्पन्न होते हैं I इस प्रक्रिया में photosystems I एवं II (PSI & PSII) शामिल होते हैं और इसमें जल का विभाजन (splitting of water) होता है I ये दोनों photosystems मिलकर काम करते हैं I PSII क े विकिरण से PSII का reaction centre उत्तेजित अवस्था (excited state) P680* में हो जाता है I P680* से high energy electron 5
  • 6. कई electron वाहकों (pheophytin, plastoquinone, cytochrome bf) क े माध्यम से plastocyanin (PC) को ट्रांसफर हो जाता है जिससे P680 में एक छेद हो जाता है जो जल क े विभाजन से निकले electron द्वारा भरता है I जल का विभाजन PSII क े एक अवयव मैंगनीज युक्त water splitting enzyme द्वारा होता है I जल क े दो अणुओ क े विभाजन से ऑक्सीजन का एक अणु, 4 protons, और 4 electrons निकलते हैं I जब PSI एक light photon प्राप्त करता है तो इसका reaction centre अपनी उत्तेजित अवस्था (P700*) में आ जाता है I उत्तेजित P700* एक electron acceptor Chlorophyll Ao को, उसक े बाद A1 को और फिर iron-sulphur protein (FeS), ferredoxin (FD) से होता हुआ अंत में NADP+ को ट्रांसफर होता है जिससे enzyme ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase की उपस्थिति में NADPH बनता है I P700* से electron ट्रांसफर होने क े कारण PSI में एक छेद हो जाता है (P700+) जो reduced PC द्वारा electron क े ट्रांसफर से भरता है I Reducing power (NADPH) क े अतिरिक्त electron ट्रांसपोर्ट क े दौरान ATP भी उत्पन्न होती है और इस प्रक्रिया को photophosphorylation कहते हैं I प्रकाश संश्लेषण क े दौरान दो प्रकार क े photophosphorylation होते हैं I इसमें से एक non-cyclic होता है जो जल क े विभाजन से निकले proton क े कारण बने proton gradient का परिणाम होता है I इस स्थिति में thylakoid का आतंरिक भाग stromal side की तुलना में अधिक अम्लीय हो जाता है जिसक े कारण एक proton concentration gradient बनता है I यह proton gradient ATP synthase क े माध्यम से ATP संश्लेषण को संचालित करता है I यह proton gradient Cyt bf से PC को electron क े ट्रांसफर क े दौरान होता है I Cyclic photophosphorylation तब होता है जब organic molecules क े संश्लेषण हेतु एक अतिरिक्त ATP की आवश्यकता होती है I Cyclic photophosphorylation में क े वल PSI शामिल होता है I इसमें energetic electron NADP+ को स्थानांतरित होने क े बजाए FD से वापस Cyt bf को चला जाता है I फिर Cyt bf एक proton छोड़ता है जो proton gradient में वृद्धि करता है जिससे ATP का संश्लेषण उसी प्रकार होता है जैसे कि non-cyclic photophosphorylation में होता है I PSI और PSll क े पूरे pathway को Z scheme भी कहते हैं I Light reaction क े अंत में NADPH क े रूप में reducing power और ATP क े रूप में chemical energy प्राप्त होती है जिसकी dark reaction में organic molecules क े संश्लेषण में आवश्यकता होती है I] Q. 7(B). Describe the role played by PSI & PSII in photosynthesis.[Photosynthesis में PSl और PSII की भमिका का वर्णन करें I] Ans. Two photosystems (I & II) are found in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts of plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. Photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII) are the two multi-protein complexes that contain the pigments necessary to harvest photons and use light energy to catalyze the photosynthetic light reactions generating highly reducing compound, NADPH and high energy compound, ATP, which are utilized by the chloroplast to fix carbon dioxide in the dark reactions to make carbohydrates. Both photosystems are highly organized membrane supercomplexes composed of a core complex, containing the reaction centre where 6
  • 7. photochemical reactions occur, and of a peripheral antenna system, which is important for light harvesting and photosynthetic activity regulation. The PSII has a quinone type reaction center, while PSI has an iron-sulphur type reaction center. The light absorption peak of PSI is at wavelength 700 nm, while the PSII has the light absorption peak at wavelength 680 nm. Hence their reaction centers are named P700 and P680 respectively. The two photosystems work in tandem during photosynthesis. The irradiation of PSII results in excited state of the reaction center of PSII (P680*). The high energy electron from P680* is transferred to plastocyanin (PC) through a number of electron carriers (pheophytin, plastoquinone, cytochrome bf). The transfer of electron from P680* results in an electron hole in P680 which gets filled by electron released from water by the action of manganese containing water splitting enzyme, a constituent of PS II. Two water molecules split to give an oxygen molecule, 4 protons and 4 electrons. When PSI receives a light photon it gets converted into its excited state of reaction center (P700*). The excited P700* transfers an electron to acceptor Chlorophyll Ao, followed by A1 and this flow of electron continues through the iron-sulphur protein (FeS), ferredoxin (FD) and finally to NADP+ to form NADPH in presence of ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase. The transfer of electron from P700* results in a hole in PSI (P700+) which is filled by transfer of an electron from the reduced PC. In addition to generation of reducing power (NADPH) ATP is also formed during electron transport which is called photophosphorylation. [Plants, algae, और cyanobacteria क े chloroplasts क े thylakoid membranes में दो photosystems (I & II) पाए जाते हैं I Photosystem I (PSI) और photosystem II (PSII) multi-protein complexes होते हैं जिनमें photons का दोहन करक े light energy का उपयोग photosynthetic light reactions को catalyze करने हेतु आवश्यक pigments होते हैं I इन photosynthetic light reactions द्वारा उत्पन्न अत्यधिक reducing compound, NADPH और high energy compound, ATP का उपयोग chloroplast द्वारा dark reaction में carbon dioxide को fix करक े carbohydrates क े संश्लेषण में होता है I दोनों photosystems अत्यधिक organized membrane supercomplexes होते हैं जिसक े अंतर्भाग में एक complex reaction centre होता है जहाँ photochemical reactions होते हैं , और एक परिधीय antenna system होता है जो प्रकाश का दोहन करने और photosynthetic activity क े नियंत्रण क े लिए महत्वपूर्ण होता है I PSII में quinone type का reaction center होता है जबकि PSI में एक iron-sulphur type का reaction center होता है I PSI की light absorption peak 700 nm wavelength पर और PSII की light absorption peak 680 nm wavelength पर होती है I इसीलिए इनक े reaction centers को क्रमशः P700 और P680 कहते हैं I ये दोनों photosystems प्रकाश संश्लेषण क े दौरान मिलकर काम करते हैं I PSII क े विकिरण से PSII का reaction centre उत्तेजित अवस्था (excited state) P680* में हो जाता है I P680* से high energy electron कई electron वाहकों (pheophytin, plastoquinone, cytochrome bf) क े माध्यम से plastocyanin (PC) को ट्रांसफर हो जाता है जिससे P680 में एक छेद हो जाता है जो जल क े विभाजन से निकले electron द्वारा भरता है I जल का विभाजन PSII क े एक अवयव मैंगनीज युक्त water splitting enzyme द्वारा होता है I जल क े दो अणुओ क े विभाजन से ऑक्सीजन का एक अणु, 4 protons, और 4 electrons निकलते हैं I जब PSI एक light photon प्राप्त करता है तो इसका reaction centre अपनी उत्तेजित अवस्था (P700*) में आ जाता है I उत्तेजित P700* एक electron acceptor Chlorophyll Ao को, उसक े बाद A1 को और फिर iron-sulphur protein (FeS), ferredoxin (FD) से होता हुआ अंत में NADP+ को ट्रांसफर होता है जिससे enzyme ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase की उपस्थिति में NADPH बनता है I P700* से electron ट्रांसफर होने क े कारण PSI में एक छेद हो जाता है (P700+) जो reduced PC द्वारा electron क े ट्रांसफर से भरता है I 7
  • 8. Reducing power (NADPH) क े अतिरिक्त electron ट्रांसपोर्ट क े दौरान ATP भी उत्पन्न होती है और इस प्रक्रिया को photophosphorylation कहते हैं I] Q.8. What is the Z scheme in photosynthesis? How does it work? Why is it so named?[प्रकाश संश्लेषण में Z स्कीम क्या होती है? यह क ै से काम करती है? इसे यह नाम क्यों दिया गया है?] Ans. The Z scheme is the pathway by which plants transform light energy into chemical energy via electron transfer from water to NADP+ resulting in reduction of NADP+ to NADPH and release of O2. A high concentration of protons inside the thylakoid lumen builds up creating a concentration gradient needed for ATP synthesis. It (light reaction; Z scheme) begins with excitation of photosystems I & II (PSI & PSII) by absorption of light energy (photons) resulting in excited state of the reaction centre of both PSI (P700*) & PSII (PS 680*) followed by loss of electron from both P680* and P700*. P680* loses an electron to pheophytin producing oxidized P680 (P680+) and reduced pheophytin. The excited P700* loses an electron to acceptor chlorophyll Ao producing oxidized P700 (P700+) and reduced Ao (Ao-) which passes the electron ultimately to NADP+ via several other intermediates viz . Chlorophyll A1, FeS, FD, FP. The P700+ is reduced by accepting electron from reduced plastocyanin via several intermediates viz. QA, QB, cyt bf. The oxidized P680+ recovers its electron from water molecules via an amino acid tyrosine (Z protein) and a tetra-nuclear manganese cluster (water splitting enzyme). In the whole process of Z scheme a total of 8 quanta (photons) of light (4 in PSII and 4 in PSI) are required to transfer 4 electrons from 2 molecules of water to 2 molecules of NADP+ and thus 2 molecules of NADPH and 1 molecule of oxygen are produced. It is called Z scheme because when its diagram was first drawn it was in the form of letter "Z" . Now it is turned 90° counterclockwise ("N") so that the energy levels of the components could be shown clearly. [प्रकाश संश्लेषण में Z scheme वो pathway है जिसक े द्वारा पौधे light energy को chemical energy में परिवर्तित करते हैं और इस प्रक्रिया में जल से electron NADP+ को ट्रांसफर होते हैं जिससे NADP+ का NADPH में reduction हो जाता है और ऑक्सीजन निकल जाती है I Thylakoid क े अवकाशिका (lumen) में protons का concentration बढ़ने से एक concentration gradient बनता है जो ATP क े संश्लेषण क े लिए आवश्यक होता है I Light reaction (Z scheme) का आरम्भ होता है अवशोषित प्रकाश ऊर्जा (photons) द्वारा photosystems I & II (PSI & PSII) क े उत्तेजित (excite) होने से, जिसक े परिणामस्वरुप PSI एवं PSII दोनों क े reaction centre excited state {PSI (P700*) और PSII (PS 680*} में पहुँच जाते हैं I इसक े उपरांत P680* एवं P700* दोनों से electron का ह्रास (loss) होता है I P680* से निकला एक electron pheophytin को जाता है जिससे pheophytin reduce हो जाता है और P680 oxidize (P680+) हो जाता है I इसी प्रकार excited P700* भी एक electron acceptor chlorophyll Ao को देता है जिससे oxidized P700 (P700+) बनता है और reduced Ao(Ao-) जो अंत में electron को कई अन्य intermediates (Chlorophyll A1, FeS, FD, FP) क े माध्यम से NADP+ को देता है I Oxidized P700+ reduced plastocyanin से, कई intermediates (QA, QB, QH2, cyt bf) क े माध्यम से एक electron स्वीकार करक े reduce हो जाता है I इसी प्रकार oxidised P680+ अपने खोय हुए electron की पुनः प्राप्ति जल अणु से एक amino acid tyrosine (Z protein) और एक tetra-nuclear manganese cluster (water splitting enzyme) क े माध्यम से करता है I Z scheme की इस पूरी प्रक्रिया में जल क े दो अणुओ से 4 electrons क े NADP+ को स्थानांतरित करने हेतु light क े क ु ल 8 quanta (photons) (4 PSII में और 4 PSI में ) की आवश्यकता होती है और इस तरह NADPH क े 2 अणु और ऑक्सीजन का एक अणु उत्पन्न होते हैं I 8
  • 9. इसे Z scheme इसलिए कहा जाता है क्योंकि जब इसका चित्र पहली बार बनाया गया था तो यह letter "Z" की तरह था I अब इसे 90° वामावर्त (counterclockwise) घुमा दिया गया है जिससे इसक े अव्यवों क े ऊर्जा स्तर को ठीक से दर्शाया जा सक े , इसलिए अब यह "N" क े रूप में दिखता है I] Q.9. Differentiate between cyclic and noncyclic photophosphorylation. (cyclic और noncyclic photophosphorylation में अंतर बतायें I] Ans. ● In cyclic photophosphorylation only PSI is involved whereas in noncyclic photophosphorylation both PSI and PSII are involved. [Cyclic photophosphorylation में क े वल PSl शामिल होता है जबकि noncyclic photophosphorylation में PSl और PSll दोनों शामिल होते हैं I] ● The active reaction center for cyclic photophosphorylation is P700 whereas it is P680 in noncyclic. [Cyclic photophosphorylation में active reaction center P700 होता है जबकि noncyclic में active reaction center P680 होता है I] ● Electrons travel in a cyclic manner in cyclic photophosphorylation whereas it is noncyclic manner in noncyclic photophosphorylation. [Cyclic photophosphorylation में electrons cyclic तरीक े से travel करते हैं जबकि noncyclic photophosphorylation में noncyclic तरीक े से I] ● In cyclic photophosphorylation the electron travels back to PSI whereas in noncyclic electron from PSI is accepted by NADP. [Cyclic photophosphorylation में electron वापस PSI को जाता है जबकि noncyclic में electron PSI से NADP द्वारा स्वीकार किया जाता है I] ● In cyclic photophosphorylation only ATP is produced whereas in noncyclic both ATP and NADPH are produced. [Cyclic photophosphorylation में क े वल ATP बनता है जबकि noncyclic में ATP और NADPH दोनों बनते हैं I] ● In cyclic photophosphorylation no photolysis or water splitting enzyme is present but it is present in noncyclic photophosphorylation. [Cyclic photophosphorylation में photolysis या water splitting enzyme अनुपस्थित होता है जबकि noncyclic photophosphorylation में यह उपस्थित होता है I] ● Oxygen does not evolve in cyclic photophosphorylation but it evolves as a by-product in noncyclic. 9
  • 10. [Cyclic photophosphorylation में ऑक्सीजन नहीं निकलती है जबकि noncyclic में ऑक्सीजन एक उप-उत्पाद क े रूप में निकलती है I] ● Cyclic photophosphorylation is prominent in bacteria but the noncyclic is prominent in green plants. [Cyclic photophosphorylation मुख्यरूप से bacteria में होता है जबकि noncyclic मुख्यरूप से हरे पौधों में होता है I] Q.10. Describe the dark reactions of photosynthesis.[प्रकाश संश्लेषण क े dark reaction का वर्णन करें I] Ans. The energy (ATP) and reducing power (NADPH) captured by the light reactions is used in dark reactions to fix CO2 into organic molecules. The first reaction of dark reactions or Calvin cycle is the formation of 3-phosphoglycerate by reaction of CO2 with ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate. This reaction is catalyzed by enzyme ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco) localised on the stromal surface of thylakoid. [Light reactions द्वारा प्राप्त ATP क े रूप में ऊर्जा और NADPH क े रूप में reducing power का उपयोग dark reactions में CO2 को organic molecules में fix करने हेतु होता है I Dark reactions या Calvin cycle का पहले reaction में CO2 ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate से react करक े 3-phosphoglycerate क े दो molecules बनते है I इस reaction को thylakoid की stromal surface में उपस्थित enzyme ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco) catalyze करता है I] Rubisco ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate --------> 3-phosphoglycerate (2 molecules) CO2 2 molecules of 3- phosphoglycerate are converted into one molecule of fructose-6-phosphate through a series of reactions [3-phosphoglycerate क े दो अणु प्रतिक्रियाओं की एक श्रृंखला द्वारा fructose 6-phosphate क े एक अणु में परिवर्तित हो जाते हैं ]: 3-phosphoglycerate → 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate → Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate → Dihydroxyacetone phosphate → Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate → Fructose-6-phosphate Fructose-6-phosphate is then converted into other carbohydrates such as glucose, sucrose and starch.[Fructose 6- phosphate फिर अन्य carbohydrates जैसे - ग्लूकोस, सुक्रोस और स्टार्च में परिवर्तित होता है I] To continue the process of Fr-6-p synthesis the starting substrate ribulose 1,5-bis phosphate should be regenerated. This is accomplished by a series of reactions. One molecule of ribulose 1,5-bis phosphate is regenerated for each molecule of CO2 reduced. Therefore, 6 molecules of CO2 and 6 molecules of ribulose 1,5-bis phosphate are utilized to synthesize one molecule of glucose and to regenerate 6 molecules of ribulose-1,5-bis phosphate. 10
  • 11. [Fructose 6-phosphate क े संश्लेषण को जारी रखने हेतु starting substrate ribulose 1,5-bis phosphate को पुनर्जनित होना चाहिए और यह प्रतिक्रियाओं की एक श्रृंखला द्वारा संपन्न होता है I एक CO2 अणु क े reduce होने पर ribulose 1,5-bis phosphate का एक अणु पुनर्जनित होता है I इसलिए CO2 क े 6 अणुओं और ribulose 1,5-bis phosphate क े 6 अणुओं का उपयोग ग्लूकोस क े एक अणु क े संश्लेषण और ribulose-1,5-bis phosphate क े 6 अणुओ को पुनर्जनित करने हेतु होता है I] The overall reaction is: 6CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ + 12 H2O → Hexose + 18 Pi + 18 ADP + 12 NADP + Q.11. Write a short note on C 4 cycle.[C4 cycle पर एक संक्षिप्त टिप्पणी लिखें I] Ans. In tropical plants such as sugarcane and maize, the earliest products of CO2 fixation are 4-carbon dicarboxylic acids viz. oxaloacetic acid, malic acid and aspartic acid. Such plants are, therefore, called C4 plants. Such plants are adapted to hot and dry climates because they can make a more efficient use of CO2 through the C4 cycle (Hatch-Slack pathway). In this cycle CO2 is first fixed into oxaloacetate in mesophyll cells in presence of phosphoenolpyruvate. Oxaloacetate is then converted into malate or aspartate which diffuse into bundle sheath cells. In bundle sheath cells malate is converted into pyruvate and CO2 is released and then CO2 is refixed into 3-phosphoglycerate via the Calvin cycle. The pyruvate diffuses back to mesophyll cells where it is converted into phosphoenolpyruvate to continue the C4 cycle. The C4 cycle requires more ATP but hexose is synthesized much faster per unit leaf area as compared to that in the C3 cycle and the C4 plants grow much faster even at much higher light intensities. Overall reaction of C4 cycle photosynthesis : 6 CO2 + 30 ATP + 24 H2O + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ → Hexose + 30 ADP + 30 Pi + 12 NADP+ [उष्णकटिबंधीय पौधों (tropical plants) जैसे - गन्ना (sugarcane) और मक्का (maize), में CO2 fixation क े प्रारंभिक उत्पाद 4-carbon वाले dicarboxylic acids जैसे - oxaloacetic acid, malic acid और aspartic acid होते हैं, इसीलिए ऐसे पौधों को C4 plants कहते हैं I ऐसे पौधे गर्म और शुष्क जलवायु क े अनुक ू लित होते है क्योंकि वे C4 cycle (Hatch-Slack pathway) द्वारा CO2 का अधिक दक्षता से उपयोग कर सकते हैं I इस cycle में CO2 सर्वप्रथम mesophyll cells में phosphoenolpyruvate की उपस्थिति में oxaloacetate में fix होती है I यह Oxaloacetate फिर malate या aspartate में परिवर्तित होकर bundle sheath cells में विसारित (diffuse) हो जाता है I Bundle sheath cells में malate pyruvate में परिवर्तित हो जाता है और CO2 निकलकर Calvin cycle क े माध्यम से 3-phosphoglycerate में पुनः fix हो जाती है I यह pyruvate वापस विसारित होकर mesophyll cells में चला जाता है और वहाँ phosphoenolpyruvate में परिवर्तित हो जाता है ताकि C4 cycle जारी रह सक े I हालांकि C4 cycle में अधिक ATP की आवश्यकता होती है किन्तु C3 cycle क े मुकाबले पत्ती क े प्रति इकाई क्षेत्र में hexose का संश्लेषण अधिक तेजी से होता है और इसलिए अधिक तीव्रता की light में भी C4 पौधे अधिक तेजी से बढ़ते हैं I] 6 CO2 + 30 ATP + 24 H2O + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ → Hexose + 30 ADP + 30 Pi + 12 NADP+ 11
  • 12. Q.12. Compare the C3 cycle and the C4 cycle.[C3 cycle और C4 cycle की तुलना करें I] Ans. ● C3 cycle fixes CO2 directly into 3-carbon compound 3-phosphoglycerate whereas C4 cycle fixes CO2 first into 4-carbon compound oxaloacetic acid in mesophyll and then refixes CO2 into 3-carbon 3-phosphoglycerate in bundle sheath cells. [ C3 cycle CO2 को सीधे 3-carbon compound 3-phosphoglycerate में fix करती है जबकि C4 cycle CO2 को पहले mesophyll में एक 4-carbon compound oxaloacetic acid में fix करती है, फिर CO2 को bundle sheath cells में 3-carbon 3-phosphoglycerate में refix करती है I] ● Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (the CO2 fixing enzyme in C3 cycle) has low affinity for CO2 whereas in C4 cycle the CO2 fixing enzyme, Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase has very high affinity for CO2. This enables the bundle sheath cells to fix CO2 very efficiently by ribulose-1,5-bis-phosphate. [Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (C3 cycle में CO2 fixing enzyme) की CO2 क े लिए affinity कम होती है जबकि C4 cycle में CO2 fixing enzyme, Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase की CO2 क े लिए affinity अत्याधिक होती है I जिससे bundle sheath cells ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate द्वारा CO2 को fix करने में अधिक सक्षम होती हैं I ● C3 cycle requires less ATP but is less efficient whereas C4 cycle requires more ATP but hexose synthesis is much faster per unit area of leaf resulting in higher growth of plants even in high light intensity. [C3 cycle क े लिए कम ATP की आवश्यकता होती है किन्तु इसकी दक्षता कम होती है जबकि C4 cycle क े लिए अधिक ATP की आवश्यकता होती है किन्तु hexose का प्रति unit area संश्लेषण काफ़ी तेज़ होता है जिससे plants की growth high light intensity में भी अधिक होती है I ● Overall reaction : C3 cycle 6CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ + 12 H2O → Hexose + 18 Pi + 18 ADP + 12 NADP + C4 cycle 6 CO2 + 30 ATP + 24 H2O + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ → Hexose + 30 ADP + 30 Pi + 12 NADP+ Q.13. Fill in the blanks: (i) Photosynthesis in plants takes place in the cell organelle _________. (ii) The naturally occurring counterpart of the Hill reagent was identified as ______. (iii) The flattened and membrane enclosed sacs or vesicles called ______, which are arranged in stacks or grana. (iv) The light reactions of photosynthesis take place in the _______ of chloroplast. (v) The stroma of the chloroplast is the site for ______ reactions of photosynthesis. 12
  • 13. (vi) The major light absorbing pigments of thylakoid membrane are _______. (vii) The ion present in chlorophyll is _____. (viii) The accessory pigments present in thylakoid are ______ and _____. (ix) The yellow color in plants is due to the pigment _______. (x) The red color in plants is due to the pigment ________. (xi) The relative absorption of light at different wavelengths of chlorophyll is called _____ ______. (xii) The measure of the efficiency of photosynthesis at different wavelengths is called ______ _______. (xiii) The process in which the energy absorbed by all the chlorophyll molecules is funnelled to the reaction center is called ______ effect. (xiv) The photochemical reaction center is a complex of chlorophyll bound to a _____. (xv) P700 is a photosystem ____. (xvi) P680 is a photosystem ____. (xvii) _____ quanta (photons) are required for completion of this reaction : 2H2O + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + 2 NADP+ → O2 + 2 ATP + 2 NADPH (xviii) Calvin cycle is also called _____ pentose cycle. (xix) Calvin cycle is also called C3 cycle because the first stable products in this are molecules with _____ carbon atoms. (xx) The first detectable product formed in a dark reaction is _____. (xxi) Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase is commonly abbreviated as _______. (xxii) Human beings cannot synthesize glucose from CO2 and H2O because they lack the enzyme ___________. (xxiii) Plants in tropical region use another pathway for photosynthesis called the _____ pathway. (xxiv) C4 cycle fixes CO2 first into _______ compounds. (xxv) 6 CO2 + 12 H2O → ______ + 6 H2O + 6 O2 Ans. (i) chloroplast, (ii) NADP+, (iii) thylakoids, (iv) grana, (v) dark, (vi) chlorophyll, (vii) magnesium, (viii) carotenoids, phycobilins, (ix) xanthophyll, (x) phycoerythrobilin, (xi) absorption spectrum, (xii) action spectrum, (xiii) funneling, (xiv) protein, (xv) I, (xvi) II, (xvii) 8, (xviii) reductive, (xix) three, (xx) 3-phosphoglycerate, (xxi) Rubisco, (xxii) Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase, (xxiii) C4, (xxiv) 4-carbon, (xxv) C6H12O6 REFERENCES: 1. IGNOU, CHE - 9 Biochemistry, Block 3 2. Lehninger Principles of biochemistry, seventh edition ; David L. Nelson & Michael M. Cox. Disclaimer : The picture given in the text has been downloaded from Google image and I am thankful to the person who has uploaded this picture. Dr. P. K. Nigam Ph. D. (Retired Biochemist) 13
  • 14. 14