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9. SOME IMPORTANT QUESTION - ANSWER FOR IGNOU BIOCHEMISTRY [CHE 9]
METABOLISM - I
Q.1. What are the three stages of metabolic breakdown of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins?[Carbohydrates, fats और proteins क
े metabolic breakdown की तीन चरण क्या हैं?]
Ans.
Stage I:The large nutrient molecules are hydrolysed to smaller molecules which are their
building blocks. No metabolic energy is released in this stage.
Carbohydrates → monosaccharides
Fats → glycerol + fatty acids
Proteins → amino acids
[Stage I: इस चरण में बड़े पोषक तत्व अणुओं को छोटे रचक अणुओं, में तोड़ा जाता है I इस चरण में कोई
चयापचयी ऊर्जा (metabolic energy) नहीं निकलती है I
Carbohydrates → monosaccharides
Fats → glycerol + fatty acids
Proteins → amino acids
Stage II: The small molecules produced in stage I are broken down to some common
metabolites e.g. pyruvate and acetyl CoA. A little energy is released.
[Stage II - इस चरण में पहले चरण में उत्पन्न छोटे अणुओ को क
ु छ उभयनिष्ठ (common) metabolites में
तोड़ा जाता है, जैसे - pyruvate और acetyl CoA तथा थोड़ी एनर्जी मुक्त होती है I]
Stage III: The common products obtained in stage II are oxidized to CO2 and water via
tricarboxylic acid cycle. The metabolites transfer their electrons to some coenzymes (NAD and
FAD). The reduced coenzymes are deoxidized through electron transport chain and
concomitant oxidative phosphorylation. Most of the energy released in this stage is in the form
of ATP. This is an aerobic process.
[Stage III - चरण II से प्राप्त common products का tricarboxylic acid cycle द्वारा CO2 और पानी में
ऑक्सीकरण होता है I Metabolites अपने electrons क
ु छ coenzymes (NAD और FAD) को transfer करते हैं
I इस प्रकार reduce हुए coenzymes का electron transport chain और सहगामी oxidative
phosphorylation क
े माध्यम से विऑक्सीकरण (deoxidized) होता है I यह एक aerobic प्रक्रिया है और इस
चरण में ATP क
े रूप में एनर्जी निकलती है I]
Q.2. What does it mean by convergent nature of catabolism of fats, carbohydrates and
proteins and divergent nature of anabolism?[Fats, carbohydrates और proteins की
catabolism convergent स्वभाव की होती है और anabolism divergent स्वभाव की, इसका मतलब
समझायें I]
Ans.2. The catabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins give some common metabolites such
as pyruvate and acetyl CoA. Hence, it is convergent in nature. Since fats, carbohydrates and
proteins are synthesized from a common set of precursors such as acetyl CoA and pyruvate the
anabolism is called divergent in nature.
[Carbohydrates, fats और proteins क
े अपचय (catabolism) से क
ु छ समान metabolites जैसे - pyruvate
और acetyl CoA प्राप्त होते हैं, इसलिए ये catabolism convergent स्वभाव की कही जाती है I दूसरी तरफ,
fats, carbohydrates और proteins precursors क
े एक समान समूह जैसे - acetyl CoA और pyruvate से
synthesize होते हैं, इसलिए इस anabolism का स्वभाव divergent होता है I]
1
Q.3. Write the ATP generating steps of glycolysis. How many ATPs are formed per
molecule of glucose converted into two lactate molecules? Give details of
calculation.[Glycolysis क
े वो steps लिखें जिनमें ATP बनते हैं I एक glucose molecule क
े दो
lactate molecules में बदलने से कितने ATP बनते हैं, गणना को विस्तार में लिखें I]
Ans.
The first ATP generating step in glycolysis is the conversion of 1, 3- bisphosphoglycerate to 3-
phosphoglycerate in presence of enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase.
1,3- bis-p-glycerate + ADP ----------> 3-p-glycerate + ATP
The second ATP generating step is the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate in
presence of pyruvate kinase.
PEP + ADP -----------> pyruvate + ATP
Two ATP molecules are generated per molecule of glucose converted into two lactate molecules
as under:
Gl -------> Gl-6-P. 1 ATP used
Fr-6-P -------> Fr-1,6-bis-P. 1 ATP used
2×[1,3-bis-P-glycerate]-----> 2×[3-P-glycerate] 2 ATP produced
2×[PEP] -----> 2×[pyruvate] 2 ATP produced
Net ATP produced = 4(generated) - 2(used)= 2
Q.4. Compare the activity of glucokinase and hexokinase in relation to conversion of
glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. [Glucose क
े glucose-6-phosphate में परिवर्तन क
े सन्दर्भ में
glucokinase और hexokinase की तुलना करें I]
Ans.
● Glucokinase is found in liver and beta cells of pancreas whereas hexokinase is present
in all the metabolizing cells.
[Glucokinase liver और pancreas की beta cells में पाया जाता है जबकि hexokinase सभी
metabolizing cells में पाया जाता है I]
● Hexokinase is specific for D-glucose, fructose, mannose and glucosamine whereas
Glucokinase is specific for D-glucose only.
[Hexokinase D-glucose, fructose, mannose और glucosamine क
े लिए specific होता है जबकि
glucokinase क
े वल D-glucose क
े लिए specific होता है I]
● Hexokinase has low Km for Glucose i.e. high affinity for glucose and therefore requires
low concentration of Glucose to become fully active whereas the Km of Glucokinase is
very high for Glucose i.e. low affinity for glucose and hence requires very high
concentration of glucose to become fully active. Therefore, hexokinase is a better choice
for conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate.
[Hexokinase का glucose क
े लिए Km कम होता है यानि glucose क
े प्रति आकर्षण (affinity) बहुत
अधिक होता है इसलिए enzyme क
े पूरी तरह active होने क
े लिए glucose क
े बहुत कम
concentration की आवश्यकता होती है जबकि glucokinase का glucose क
े लिए Km बहुत अधिक
होता है जिससे इसे fully active होने क
े लिए glucose क
े अधिक concentration की आवश्यकता होती
है I इसलिए glucose को glucose-6-phosphate में बदलने क
े लिए hexokinase एक बेहतर पसंद है I]
● Hexokinase is inhibited by gl-6-p hence the activity of hexokinase will be inhibited upon
accumulation of gl-6-p whereas Glucokinase is not inhibited by gl-6-p but is stimulated
by insulin in presence of high levels of glucose. Therefore, hexokinase helps in
2
glycolysis in normal body cells whereas glucokinase facilitates gluconeogenesis in the
liver.
[Hexokinase glucose-6-phosphate द्वारा inhibit होता है इसलिए gl-6-पर क
े इकठ्ठा होने पर
hexokinase की activity में रूकावट आ जाती है I दूसरी तरफ glucokinase gl-6-p द्वारा inhibit नहीं
होता है लेकिन insulin इसे उत्तेजित (stimulate) करता है I इसलिए hexokinase सामान्य body cells
में glycolysis में मदद करता है और glucokinase liver में gluconeogenesis को सुगम बनाता है I]
Q.5. Name the two inhibitors of glycolysis and mention how these inhibit
glycolysis?[glycolysis क
े दो अवरोधक (inhibitors) क
े नाम लिखो और ये glycolysis को क
ै से रोकते
हैं?]
Ans. Iodoacetamide and iodoacetate are inhibitors of glycolysis. These two inhibitors inhibit the
conversion of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate by inhibiting the enzyme
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH). These inhibitors block the highly reactive
active site SH group of GPDH resulting in loss of catalytic activity of GPDH.
GPDH
G-3-P + NAD+ ----------> 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate + NADH
**Sodium fluoride is also an inhibitor of glycolysis. It inhibits enzyme enolase which catalyzes
the conversion of 2-phosphoglycerate to Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) in glycolytic pathway and
thus inhibits the breakdown of glucose through glycolytic pathway. That is why it is used in vials
for blood sample collection for blood glucose estimation so that there is no further degradation
of glucose in blood sample after its collection and the actual level of blood glucose could be
estimated.
[Iodoacetamide और iodoacetate glycolysis क
े दो inhibitors हैं I ये दोनों inhibitors enzyme
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) को inhibit करक
े
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate का 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate में परिवर्तन रोकते हैं I ये inhibitors GPDH
की highly reactive active site क
े SH group को block कर देते हैं जिससे GPDH की catalytic में क्षति होती
है I
GPDH
G-3-P + NAD+ ----------> 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate + NADH
**Sodium fluoride भी glycolysis का एक inhibitor है I यह enzyme enolase को inhibit करता है जो
glycolytic pathway में 2-phosphoglycerate क
े Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) में परिवर्तन को catalyze
करता है और इसप्रकार glycolytic pathway द्वारा glucose का breakdown रुक जाता है I इसीलिए सोडियम
fluoride का उपयोग blood glucose estimation हेतु लिए जाने वाले blood sample की vial में किया जाता है
ताकि blood collection क
े बाद उस sample में glucose का breakdown नहीं हो और blood में glucose क
े
वास्तविक स्तर को मापा जा सक
े I]
Q.6. Alcoholic fermentation of yeast is similar to lactate production in skeletal muscles.
Explain.[yeast का alcoholic fermentation skeletal muscles क
े lactate production से मिलता -
जुलता है, इसे समझायें I]
Ans. In alcoholic fermentation of yeast glucose is broken down into two molecules of ethanol
and two molecules of carbon dioxide while in lactate production in skeletal muscles glucose is
degraded to two molecules of lactate but both fermentation and lactate production are anaerobic
process. Moreover, many steps of both are similar e.g. the conversion of glucose to Pyruvate.
Both processes reoxidise NADH produced in glycolysis by donating electrons to pyruvate or to a
product produced from pyruvate (acetaldehyde).
3
[Yeast क
े alcoholic fermentation में glucose ethanol क
े दो molecules और carbon dioxide क
े दो
molecules में टूटता है, जबकि skeletal muscles में lactate production में glucose lactate क
े दो
molecules में टूटता है I हालांकि, fermentation और lactate production दोनों ही anaerobic प्रक्रियायें हैं और
दोनों क
े ही कई steps मिलते - जुलते हैं, जैसे - दोनों प्रक्रियाओं में glycolysis द्वारा बने NADH का oxidation
electrons क
े pyruvate को या pyruvate से बने product (acetaldehyde) को donation द्वारा होता है I]
Glycolysis:
pyruvate + NADH +H+------>lactate + NAD+
Fermentation :
Pyruvate + H+ -----> Acetaldehyde + CO2
Acetaldehyde + NADH + H+-----> ethanol + NAD+
Q.7. Define metabolism and write the metabolic fate of pyruvate.[चयापचय को परिभाषित करें
और pyruvate का चयापचय परिणाम (metabolic fate) लिखें I]
Ans. Metabolism - It is defined as the chemical reactions and pathways, including anabolism
and catabolism, by which living organisms transform chemical substances to provide energy for
vital processes and for synthesizing new organic material.
[चयापचय - चयापचय क
े अंतर्गत जीवों में होने वाली वो सभी रासायनिक प्रतिक्रियायें और pathways आते हैं
जिनमें अपचय और उपचय शामिल हैं और जिनक
े माध्यम से एक जीवित जीव की कोशिकायें रासायनिक पदार्थो
को परिवर्तित करक
े महत्वपूर्ण प्रक्रियाओं और नए कार्बनिक पदार्थों क
े संश्लेषण क
े लिए ऊर्जा प्रदान करती है।]
Metabolic fate of pyruvate :
In skeletal muscles - when oxygen supply is inadequate e.g. intense muscular activity pyruvate
is converted into lactate and NAD+ is regenerated from NADH in limited supply of oxygen and
thus glycolytic breakdown of Glucose continues for supply of energy.
[Skeletal muscles में जब ऑक्सीजन की supply अपर्याप्त होती है, जैसे - अत्यधिक muscular acitivity होने
पर, तो pyruvate lactate में बदल जाता है और NAD+ का NADH से पुनरुत्पादन (regeneration) ऑक्सीजन
की सीमित आपूर्ति में होता है और इसप्रकार energy की अपूर्ति हेतु glucose का glycolytic breakdown चलता
रहता है I]
LDH
Pyruvate + NADH ------> lactate + NAD+
In mitochondria - under aerobic conditions -- Pyruvate is converted into acetyl CoA which enters
TCA cycle.
[Mitochondria में aerobic conditions में pyruvate acetyl CoA में बदल जाता है जो फिर TCA cycle में
प्रवेश कर जाता है I]
Pyruvate + NAD+ --------> acetyl CoA + NADH
In yeasts: in absence of air or oxygen pyruvate is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
[Yeasts में air या ऑक्सीजन की अनुपस्थिति में pyruvate ethanol और carbon dioxide में बदल जाता है I]
Pyruvate + NADH ------> ethanol + CO2 +NAD+
Another fate of pyruvate is the replenishment of TCA cycle intermediates e.g. oxaloacetate.
[Pyruvate का एक और fate (नियति) होता है और वो है TCA cycle क
े intermediates का replenishment
(पुनःपूर्ति) करने में, जैसे - oxaloacetate की पुनःपूर्ति I]
Pyruvate carboxylase
Pyruvate + CO2 -------------------------------> oxaloacetate
4
Q.8. How are sucrose, fructose and lactose metabolised via glycolytic pathway?[sucrose,
fructose और lactose का glycolytic pathway द्वारा किस प्रकार चयापचय होता है?]
Ans.
Sucrose: is broken down into glucose and fructose by enzyme Invertase present in intestinal
mucosa. Then glucose enters the glycolytic pathway. [सुक्रोस intestinal mucosa में उपस्थित
invertase enzyme द्वारा glucose और fructose में तोड़ दिया जाता है और यह ग्लूकोस फिर glycolytic
pathway में प्रवेश करता है I]
Fructose enters glycolytic pathway by two ways [Fructose glycolytic pathway में दो तरीकों से प्रवेश
कर सकता है :
● It is converted into fr-6-phosphate in presence of enzyme Hexokinase which
subsequently enters the glycolytic pathway.
[यह hexokinase enzyme की उपस्थिति में fructose-6-phosphate में बदल जाता है I]
● It is converted into fr-1-phosphate in presence of ATP and enzyme Fructokinase.
Fr-1-phosphate is broken down in presence of enzyme fr-1-p aldolase into
glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate which enter the glycolytic pathway.
[Enzyme fructokinase और ATP की उपस्थिति में यह fructose-1-phosphate में बदल जाता है.
फिर fr-1-p aldolase की उपस्थिति में fr-1-phosphate glyceraldehyde और dihydroxyacetone
phosphate में बदल जाता है जो फिर glycolytic pathway में प्रवेश करते हैं I]
Lactose: is broken down into glucose and galactose in presence of enzyme lactase. Then
glucose enters the glycolytic pathway directly.
Galactose is then metabolized into glucose-6-phosphate via three steps with the help of
enzymes galactokinase, gal-1-p uridyl transferase and phosphoglucomutase. Gl-6-p so formed
enters the glycolytic pathway.
[Lactose lactase enzyme की उपस्थिति में glucose और galactose में तोड़ दिया जाता है और तब glucose
glycolytic pathway में प्रवेश करता है I Galactose फिर तीन चरणों में glucose-6-phosphate में
metabolize होता है और इसक
े लिए तीन enzymes - galactokinase, gal-1-p uridyl transferase और
phosphoglucomutase की आवश्यकता होती है I इस प्रकार बना Gl-6-p फिर glycolytic pathway में प्रवेश
करता है I]
Q.9. What are the three regulatory points of glycolysis? Describe one in detail.[glycolysis
क
े तीन नियामक (regulatory) बिंदु क्या हैं? किसी एक को विस्तार में लिखें I]
Ans. The three regulatory points of glycolysis are:
● Conversion of Glucose to gl-6-p catalyzed by hexokinase.
● Conversion of fructose-6-p to fr-1,6-bis-p catalyzed by phosphofructokinase(PFK).
● Conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate catalyzed by pyruvate kinase.
Conversion of fr-6-p to fr-1,6-bis-p:
This is the most important control point of glycolysis and is called the 'committed step' because
if this step is completed then the process of glycolysis would go to completion. For example if
the conversion of glucose to G-6-P is inhibited, G-6-P can be made available by the breakdown
of glycogen and the glycolytic process would continue. On the other hand, if the conversion of
glucose to G-6-P is activated but PFK is inhibited then in spite of enough G-6-P the glycolytic
pathway does not proceed and G-6-P would be utilized by other metabolic pathways such as
Pentose phosphate pathway and glycogen synthesis.
5
The enzyme PFK catalyzing this reaction is inhibited by ATP and citrate but activated by ADP
and AMP. Its catalytic efficiency and the rate of glycolysis increases when energy charge
decreases i.e. when the concentration of ADP and AMP increases. Another activator of PFK
and glycolysis is Fr-2,6-bis-P. It increases the affinity of the enzyme for its substrate (fr-6-p) and
decreases the affinity for ATP (the inhibitor of PFK).
[fr-6-p का fr-1,6-bis-p में परिवर्तन : यह glycolysis का सबसे अधिक महत्वपूर्ण control point (नियंत्रण बिंदु)
है और इसे 'committed step’ (प्रतिबद्ध चरण) कहते हैं क्योंकि यदि यह चरण पूर्ण हो जाता है तो glycolysis की
प्रक्रिया भी पूर्ण हो जाती है I उदाहरण - यदि glucose का G-6-P में परिवर्तन रुक जाता है तो भी G-6-P
glycogen क
े टूटने से उपलब्ध हो सकता है और इस प्रकार glycolysis की प्रक्रिया जारी रह सकती है I किन्तु यदि
glucose का G-6-P में परिवर्तन बना भी रहता है परन्तु यदि किसी कारणवश PFK inhibit हो जाए तो G-6-P
की पर्याप्त मात्रा उपलब्ध होने पर भी glycolysis की प्रक्रिया आगे नहीं बढ़ पायेगी और बने हुए G-6-P का
उपयोग अन्य metabolic pathways, जैसे - Pentose phosphate pathway और glycogen synthesis,
द्वारा होगा I
इस reaction को catalyze करने वाला enzyme (PFK) ATP और citrate द्वारा inhibit होता है और ADP और
AMP द्वारा activate होता है I PFK की catalytic efficiency और glycolysis की दर energy charge क
े घटने
पर बढ़ती है यानि जब ADP और AMP का concentration बढ़ता है I PFK और glycolysis का एक अन्य
activator है Fr-2,6-bis-P जो PFK की इसक
े substrate (fr-6-p) क
े प्रति affinity को बढ़ाता है और ATP
(PFK का inhibitor) क
े प्रति affinity को कम करता है I]
Q.10. What are the physiological functions of gluconeogenesis?[gluconeogenesis क
े
शारीरिक कार्य क्या हैं?]
Ans.
● To produce glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors such as lactate (a waste product)
produced during strenuous exercise.
[गैर-कार्बोहाइड्रेट पूर्ववर्तियों (precursors), जैसे - ज़ोरदार व्यायाम क
े फलस्वरुप बने lactate (एक
अपशिष्ट उत्पाद), से glucose का संश्लेषण करना ]
● To convert glycerol and some glucogenic amino acids into glucose during starvation.
[Starvation क
े दौरान glycerol और क
ु छ ग्लूकोजनिक अमीनो अम्लों से ग्लूकोस का संश्लेषण करना ]
● To replenish glycogen of liver and muscles.
[Muscles और liver क
े glycogen की पुनः पूर्ति करना ]
Q.11. Define glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. What are the three reaction steps in which
they differ from each other?[glycolysis और gluconeogenesis को परिभाषित करें I वो कौन से तीन
चरण हैं जिनमें ये आपस में भिन्न होते हैं?]
Ans.
Glycolysis: is a pathway of the anaerobic degradation of glucose in the liquid part of the cell
(cytosol) where one molecule of glucose gives two molecules of three carbon pyruvate with
release of some energy in the form of ATP.
[ग्लाइकोलिसिस - यह कोशिकीय श्वसन का प्राथमिक चरण है जो कोशिका द्रव्य में संपन्न होता है I इसमें
ऑक्सीजन की अनुपस्थिति में ग्लूकोज का आंशिक आक्सीकरण होता है, फलस्वरूप ग्लूकोज क
े एक अणु से
पाइरूविक अम्ल क
े 2 अणु बनते हैं तथा ATP क
े रूप में क
ु छ ऊर्जा मुक्त होती है।]
Gluconeogenesis: is the conversion of non-carbohydrate precursors (such as glycerol, lactate,
pyruvate and glucogenic amino acids) into glucose.
[ग्लुकोनियोजेनेसिस (ग्लूकोस नवजनन) एक ऐसा चयापचय मार्ग (metabolic pathway) है जिसक
े द्वारा
गैर-कार्बोहाइड्रेट पूर्ववर्तियों (precursors) जैसे - लैक्टेट, पाइरूवेट, ग्लिसरॉल और ग्लूकोजनिक अमीनो अम्लों से
ग्लूकोस का संश्लेषण होता है ।]
6
The three reaction steps in which glycolysis and gluconeogenesis differ are:
1. In glycolysis glucose is converted into glucose-6-phosphate in presence of ATP and enzyme
Hexokinase whereas in gluconeogenesis glucose-6-phosphate is converted into glucose and Pi
in presence of Glucose-6-phosphatase.
[Glycolysis में ATP और enzyme Hexokinase की उपस्थिति में glucose परिवर्तित होता है
glucose-6-phosphate में, जबकि gluconeogenesis में Glucose-6-phosphatase enzyme की उपस्थिति
में glucose-6-phosphate परिवर्तित होता है glucose और Pi में I]
2. In glycolysis fructose-6-phosphate is converted into fructose-1,6-bis-phosphate in presence of
enzyme phosphofructokinase whereas in gluconeogenesis fructose-1,6-bis-phosphate is
converted into fructose-6-phosphate and Pi in presence of enzyme
Fructose-1,6-bis-phosphatase.
[Glycolysis में enzyme phosphofructokinase की उपस्थिति में fructose-6-phosphate परिवर्तित होता है
fructose-1,6-bis-phosphate में, जबकि gluconeogenesis में fructose-1,6-bis-phosphate परिवर्तित
होता है fructose-6-phosphate और Pi में और इसक
े लिए enzyme Fructose-1,6-bis-phosphatase की
आवश्यकता होती है I]
3. In glycolysis phosphoenolpyruvate is converted into pyruvate and ATP in presence of ADP
and enzyme Pyruvate kinase whereas in gluconeogenesis pyruvate is converted into
phosphoenolpyruvate in presence of ATP, GTP and CO2 and the reaction is catalyzed by
enzymes Pyruvate carboxylase and Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxy kinase.
[Glycolysis में phosphoenolpyruvate pyruvate और ATP में परिवर्तित होता है, ADP और enzyme
Pyruvate kinase की उपस्थिति में, जबकि gluconeogenesis में pyruvate परिवर्तित होता है
phosphoenolpyruvate में, ATP, GTP और CO2 की उपस्थिति में और यह reaction दो enzymes
Pyruvate carboxylase और Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxy kinase द्वारा catalyze होता है I]
Q.12. What is galactosemia and what causes it?[galactosemia क्या होता है और यह क्यों होता
है?]
Ans. Galactosemia is a genetic disorder and the affected infant can not metabolize galactose
property. This results in accumulation of toxic levels of galactose-1-phosphate in various tissues
resulting in hepatomegaly, cirrhosis, renal failure, cataract, brain damage and ovarian failure.
The three enzymes which may be deficient in such infants are gal-1-p uridyl transferase,
galactokinase and UDP-gal-epimerase. It is best treated by excluding galactose from diet.
However, the patient eventually out grow this problem because other pathways of galactose
utilisation are developed at higher age.
[Galactosemia एक आनुवंशिक (genetic) विकार है और इससे प्रभावित शिशु galactose को ठीक से चयापचय
(metabolize) नहीं कर सकते हैं I इस कारण विभिन्न ऊतकों (tissues) में galactose-1-phosphate क
े
विषाक्त स्तर (toxic levels) एकत्रित होने से hepatomegaly, cirrhosis, renal failure, cataract, brain
damage और ovarian failure हो सकता है I तीन enzymes जिनकी कमी इन शिशुओं हो सकती है, वो हैं -
gal-1-p uridyl transferase, galactokinase और UDP-gal-epimerase. इसका सबसे उचित इलाज यह है
कि इन शिशुओं क
े आहार से galactose हटा दिया जाए I मरीज इस समस्या से अंततः आगे बढ़ जाते हैं क्योंकि
उम्र बढ़ने पर शरीर में galactose क
े उपयोग क
े अन्य pathways विकसित हो जाते हैं I]
Q.13. What are the consequences of genetic deficiency of Pyruvate kinase?[pyruvate
kinase की आनुवंशिक कमी क
े क्या परिणाम होते हैं?]
Ans. Pyruvate kinase (PK) catalyzes the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate and
ATP is generated in this reaction of glycolysis. Hence, the deficiency of PK in RBCs would result
in reduced rate of glycolysis and therefore ATP synthesis would also be inadequate to meet the
7
energy requirements of RBCs for maintaining their structural integrity resulting in cell
destruction. This leads to hemolytic anemia.
[Pyruvate kinase (PK) enzyme glycolysis क
े दौरान phosphoenolpyruvate को pyruvate में परिवर्तित
करता है और ATP बनता है I इसलिए, RBCs में इस enzyme की कमी होने पर RBCs में glycolysis की दर
कम हो जाती है और परिणामस्वरुप RBCs की संरचनात्मक अखंडता को बनाए रखने क
े लिए आवश्यक energy
को पूरा करने हेतु ATP की synthesis भी अपर्याप्त होती है, जिससे RBCs का विनाश होने लगता है I इसक
े
परिणामस्वरुप व्यक्ति में ‘hemolytic anemia’ हो जाता है I]
Q.14. What is lactose intolerance? What are its symptoms?[lactose intolerance क्या होता है
और इसक
े क्या लक्षण होते हैं?]
Ans. Lactose intolerance in adulthood means the body can not easily digest lactose due to
deficiency or inadequate levels of enzyme lactase which hydrolyses lactose to glucose and
galactose in the intestinal mucosa. Therefore, lactose is not broken down and this results in its
accumulation. This increases the osmotic pressure of the intestinal contents which leads to
diffusion of water into the intestine causing flatulence. The intestinal flora can utilize lactose
leading to their increased multiplication and gas formation. The symptoms of lactose intolerance
are gas, belly pain, feeling of fullness, gurgling or rumbling sounds in the belly and diarrhea after
ingestion of lactose rich products such as milk. Such individuals can consume curd as lactose is
converted into lactate during curd formation.
[व्यस्को में Lactose intolerance का अर्थ है कि शरीर lactose को आसानी से digest नहीं कर सकता है I इसका
कारण होता है enzyme lactase की शरीर में कमी या अपर्याप्तता I यह enzyme intestine की mucosa में
lactose को glucose और galactose में hydrolyse करता है I इसलिए lactase enzyme की कमी या
अपर्याप्तता होने पर lactose टूट नहीं पाता और इसका जमाव होने लगता है जिससे intestinal conents का
osmotic pressure बढ़ता है और इसक
े परिणामस्वरूप intestine में water का diffusion (विसरण) बढ़ जाता है
जिससे flatulence (उदरवायु) होती है I Intestinal flora lactose का उपयोग अपने गुणन (multiplication)
करने में करता है जिससे भी उदरवायु होती है I Lactose से भरपूर पदार्थों (जैसे - दूध) को खाने क
े बाद lactose
intolerance क
े लक्षण हैं - gas, belly pain (पेट में दर्द), feeling of fullness (पेट भरे होने का एहसास),
gurgling या rumbling sounds in belly (पेट में गुड़ गुड़ाहट की आवाज़) और diarrhea (दस्त) I ऐसे लोग दही
खा सकते हैं क्योंकि दही बनने क
े दौरान lactose lactate में परिवर्तित हो जाता है I]
Q.15. What are glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids?[glucogenic और ketogenic amino
acids क्या होते हैं?]
Ans. The amino acids which can be converted into glucose are called glucogenic amino acids.
e.g. alanine, glycine, serine and cysteine.
Ketogenic amino acids are those amino acids that can be degraded directly into acetyl-CoA,
which is the precursor of ketone bodies. Leucine and lysine are the only amino acids in humans
that are exclusively ketogenic.
[जो amino acids glucose में परिवर्तित की जा सकती हैं उन्हें glucogenic amino acids कहते हैं, जैसे -
alanine, glycine, serine and cysteine
Ketogenic अमीनो एसिड्स वो अमीनो एसिड्स होते हैं जो टूट कर सीधे acetyl CoA बनाती हैं जो कि ketone
bodies का अग्रदूत (precursor) होता है I मानवों में leucine और lysine दो ketogenic अमीनो एसिड्स होते हैं
I]
Q. 16. Describe the digestion of carbohydrates.[Carbohydrates क
े पाचन प्रक्रिया का वर्णन करें ]
Ans. Our diet includes simple and complex carbohydrates and their digestion begins in our
mouth.
8
Mouth - Salivary glands secrete amylase which hydrolyses starch of food into maltose and
smaller polysaccharides.
Amylase
Starch ------------> maltose + smaller polysaccharides
Stomach - There is hardly any digestion of carbohydrates in the stomach but there is more
mechanical digestion instead(the strong peristaltic contractions of the stomach mix the
carbohydrates into the more uniform mixture of chyme).
Small intestine - When chyme reaches the duodenum the pancreatic amylase secreted by
pancreas breaks the smaller polysaccharides and starch into maltose and
oligosaccharides(consisting of 3-10 glucose molecules).
Pancreatic amylase
Smaller polysaccharides/starch --------------------------> maltose + oligosaccharides
The enzymes (maltose, sucrase, lactase) secreted by the intestinal cells that line the villi act
upon disaccharides to break them into Monosaccharides :
Maltase
Maltose -------------------> 2 Glucose
Sucrase or invertase
Sucrose --------------------------------> Glucose + Fructose
Lactase
Lactose ------------------> Glucose + Galactose
Glucose, fructose, and galactose can now be absorbed across the enterocytes of the small
intestine and into the bloodstream to be transported to the liver. Fructose and galactose are
converted to glucose in the liver. The main form of carbohydrates circulating in blood is glucose.
Large intestine/colon - The food digested in the small intestine and any left over food reaches
the large intestine/colon. Since our digestive tract can not digest fibres present in our diet due to
lack of the required enzymes, the microbes present in our large intestine ferment these fibres
and finally the digested food is then eliminated in the form of stool via rectum and through anus.
[हमारे आहार में simple और complex carbohydrates शामिल होते हैं और इनका digestion मुँह से ही शुरू हो
जाता है I
मुँह (mouth) - मुँह की salivary glands से amylase enzyme स्रावित होता है जो भोजन क
े स्टार्च को
maltose और smaller polysaccharides में hydrolyze करता है I
Amylase
Starch ------------> maltose + smaller polysaccharides
आमाशय (stomach) - यहाँ carbohydrates का मुश्किल से ही कोई पाचन होता है, बल्कि stomach में एक
प्रकार का यांत्रिक पाचन (mechanical digestion) होता है जिसमें stomach क
े तीव्र क्रमाक
ुं चक संक
ु चन
(strong peristaltic contractions) क
े कारण carbohydrates का एक समरूप (uniform) मिश्रण बन जाता है
जिसे chyme (काइम) कहते हैं I
छोटी आंत (small intestine) - जब chyme duodenum (छोटी आंत का ऊपरी हिस्सा) में पहुँचता है तो
pancreas द्वारा स्रावित pancreatic amylase छोटे polysaccharides और स्टार्च को maltose और
oligosaccharides (3-10 ग्लूकोस molecules से बने) में तोड़ देता है I
Pancreatic amylase
Smaller polysaccharides/starch --------------------------> maltose + oligosaccharides
9
Intestine क
े villi (विलाई ) की cells द्वारा स्रावित enzymes (maltose, sucrase, lactase) disaccharides
को monosaccharides में तोड़ देते हैं :
Maltase
Maltose -------------------> 2 Glucose
Sucrase or invertase
Sucrose --------------------------------> Glucose + Fructose
Lactase
Lactose ------------------> Glucose + Galactose
Glucose, fructose, और galactose small intestine की enterocytes द्वारा absorb होकर रक्तप्रवाह क
े
माध्यम से liver में ट्रांसपोर्ट हो जाते हैं I Fructose और galactose liver में ग्लूकोस में परिवर्तित हो जाते हैं I
Carbohydrates रक्त में मुख्य रूप से ग्लूकोस क
े रूप में ही परिसंचारित (circulate) होते हैं I
Large intestine/colon - छोटी आंत में पचा हुआ और बचा खुचा खाना बड़ी आंत (large intestine)/ colon में
पहुँचता है I चूंकि हमारी पाचन नली (digestive tract) हमारे भोजन में उपस्थित fibres को, आवश्यक enzymes
की अनुपस्थिति क
े कारण, नहीं पचा सकती, इसलिए बड़ी आंत में उपस्थित जीवाणु (microbes) इन fibres को
ferment कर देते हैं और अंत में पचा हुआ खाना मलाशय (rectum) से होते हुए शरीर से बाहर मल क
े रूप में
मालद्वार (anus) से बाहर निकल जाता है I]
Q.17. Fill in the blanks :
(i) The catabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins is _______ in nature.
(ii) The anabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins is _______ in nature.
(iii) The degradation of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate in absence of
molecular oxygen occurs through _______ pathway.
(iv) Alcoholic fermentation is the characteristic of ______.
(v) In alcoholic fermentation glucose molecule is broken down into CO2 and _____.
(vi) Enzyme phosphofructokinase is inhibited by _____ and _____ and activated by _____ and
_____.
(vii) The breakdown of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate through glycolysis
produces ______ molecules of ATP.
(viii) The conversion of two molecules of pyruvate into one molecule of glucose by
gluconeogenesis pathway requires the consumption of ____ ATP molecules and ____ GTP
molecules
(ix) During intense muscular activity of muscles pyruvate is converted into ______ in presence
of enzyme _____________ to generate ______ from NADH.
(x) Sucrose is hydrolyzed by enzyme ______ present in intestinal mucosa.
(xi) Lactose is hydrolyzed to glucose and _______ by the enzyme ______.
(xii) Maltose is hydrolyzed into two molecules of _______ by the enzyme ________.
(xiii) Galactosemia results in accumulation of ________.
(xiv) Hemolytic anemia results due to the deficiency of the enzyme _________.
(xv) People with lactose intolerance lack the enzyme _______ and can not digest ______.
(xvi) Enzyme amylase secreted by _______ glands hydrolyses starch of food into maltose and
smaller polysaccharides.
(xvii) The generation of ATP by glycolysis occurs by ________ phosphorylation.
(xviii) Under aerobic conditions pyruvate is converted into ______ which is oxidized to CO2 via
_______ cycle.
10
(xix) The conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate is an irreversible reaction because delta
∆G°’ is _______ (positive or negative)
(xx) The Km of hexokinase for glucose is _____ and that of glucokinase for glucose is ______.
Ans. (i) convergent, (ii) divergent, (iii) glycolytic, (iv) yeasts, (v) ethanol, (vi) ATP, citrate, ADP,
AMP, (vii) 2, (viii) 4, 2, (ix) lactate, lactate dehydrogenase, NAD+, (x) sucrase or invertase (xi)
galactose, lactase, (xii) glucose, maltase, (xiii) galactose, (xiv) pyruvate kinase, (xv) lactase,
milk, (xvi) salivary, (xvii) substrate level, (xviii) acetyl CoA, TCA, (xix) negative, (xx) low, high
REFERENCES:
1. IGNOU, CHE - 9 Biochemistry, Block 3
2. Lehninger Principles of biochemistry, seventh edition ; David L. Nelson & Michael M. Cox.
Disclaimer : The pictures given in the text have been downloaded from Google images and I am
thankful to the persons who have uploaded these pictures.
Dr. P. K. Nigam (Retired Biochemist)
11

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Some Q & A Metabolism - I | IGNOU Biochemistry CHE-09 (in English /Hinglish)

  • 1. 9. SOME IMPORTANT QUESTION - ANSWER FOR IGNOU BIOCHEMISTRY [CHE 9] METABOLISM - I Q.1. What are the three stages of metabolic breakdown of carbohydrates, fats and proteins?[Carbohydrates, fats और proteins क े metabolic breakdown की तीन चरण क्या हैं?] Ans. Stage I:The large nutrient molecules are hydrolysed to smaller molecules which are their building blocks. No metabolic energy is released in this stage. Carbohydrates → monosaccharides Fats → glycerol + fatty acids Proteins → amino acids [Stage I: इस चरण में बड़े पोषक तत्व अणुओं को छोटे रचक अणुओं, में तोड़ा जाता है I इस चरण में कोई चयापचयी ऊर्जा (metabolic energy) नहीं निकलती है I Carbohydrates → monosaccharides Fats → glycerol + fatty acids Proteins → amino acids Stage II: The small molecules produced in stage I are broken down to some common metabolites e.g. pyruvate and acetyl CoA. A little energy is released. [Stage II - इस चरण में पहले चरण में उत्पन्न छोटे अणुओ को क ु छ उभयनिष्ठ (common) metabolites में तोड़ा जाता है, जैसे - pyruvate और acetyl CoA तथा थोड़ी एनर्जी मुक्त होती है I] Stage III: The common products obtained in stage II are oxidized to CO2 and water via tricarboxylic acid cycle. The metabolites transfer their electrons to some coenzymes (NAD and FAD). The reduced coenzymes are deoxidized through electron transport chain and concomitant oxidative phosphorylation. Most of the energy released in this stage is in the form of ATP. This is an aerobic process. [Stage III - चरण II से प्राप्त common products का tricarboxylic acid cycle द्वारा CO2 और पानी में ऑक्सीकरण होता है I Metabolites अपने electrons क ु छ coenzymes (NAD और FAD) को transfer करते हैं I इस प्रकार reduce हुए coenzymes का electron transport chain और सहगामी oxidative phosphorylation क े माध्यम से विऑक्सीकरण (deoxidized) होता है I यह एक aerobic प्रक्रिया है और इस चरण में ATP क े रूप में एनर्जी निकलती है I] Q.2. What does it mean by convergent nature of catabolism of fats, carbohydrates and proteins and divergent nature of anabolism?[Fats, carbohydrates और proteins की catabolism convergent स्वभाव की होती है और anabolism divergent स्वभाव की, इसका मतलब समझायें I] Ans.2. The catabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins give some common metabolites such as pyruvate and acetyl CoA. Hence, it is convergent in nature. Since fats, carbohydrates and proteins are synthesized from a common set of precursors such as acetyl CoA and pyruvate the anabolism is called divergent in nature. [Carbohydrates, fats और proteins क े अपचय (catabolism) से क ु छ समान metabolites जैसे - pyruvate और acetyl CoA प्राप्त होते हैं, इसलिए ये catabolism convergent स्वभाव की कही जाती है I दूसरी तरफ, fats, carbohydrates और proteins precursors क े एक समान समूह जैसे - acetyl CoA और pyruvate से synthesize होते हैं, इसलिए इस anabolism का स्वभाव divergent होता है I] 1
  • 2. Q.3. Write the ATP generating steps of glycolysis. How many ATPs are formed per molecule of glucose converted into two lactate molecules? Give details of calculation.[Glycolysis क े वो steps लिखें जिनमें ATP बनते हैं I एक glucose molecule क े दो lactate molecules में बदलने से कितने ATP बनते हैं, गणना को विस्तार में लिखें I] Ans. The first ATP generating step in glycolysis is the conversion of 1, 3- bisphosphoglycerate to 3- phosphoglycerate in presence of enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase. 1,3- bis-p-glycerate + ADP ----------> 3-p-glycerate + ATP The second ATP generating step is the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate in presence of pyruvate kinase. PEP + ADP -----------> pyruvate + ATP Two ATP molecules are generated per molecule of glucose converted into two lactate molecules as under: Gl -------> Gl-6-P. 1 ATP used Fr-6-P -------> Fr-1,6-bis-P. 1 ATP used 2×[1,3-bis-P-glycerate]-----> 2×[3-P-glycerate] 2 ATP produced 2×[PEP] -----> 2×[pyruvate] 2 ATP produced Net ATP produced = 4(generated) - 2(used)= 2 Q.4. Compare the activity of glucokinase and hexokinase in relation to conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. [Glucose क े glucose-6-phosphate में परिवर्तन क े सन्दर्भ में glucokinase और hexokinase की तुलना करें I] Ans. ● Glucokinase is found in liver and beta cells of pancreas whereas hexokinase is present in all the metabolizing cells. [Glucokinase liver और pancreas की beta cells में पाया जाता है जबकि hexokinase सभी metabolizing cells में पाया जाता है I] ● Hexokinase is specific for D-glucose, fructose, mannose and glucosamine whereas Glucokinase is specific for D-glucose only. [Hexokinase D-glucose, fructose, mannose और glucosamine क े लिए specific होता है जबकि glucokinase क े वल D-glucose क े लिए specific होता है I] ● Hexokinase has low Km for Glucose i.e. high affinity for glucose and therefore requires low concentration of Glucose to become fully active whereas the Km of Glucokinase is very high for Glucose i.e. low affinity for glucose and hence requires very high concentration of glucose to become fully active. Therefore, hexokinase is a better choice for conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. [Hexokinase का glucose क े लिए Km कम होता है यानि glucose क े प्रति आकर्षण (affinity) बहुत अधिक होता है इसलिए enzyme क े पूरी तरह active होने क े लिए glucose क े बहुत कम concentration की आवश्यकता होती है जबकि glucokinase का glucose क े लिए Km बहुत अधिक होता है जिससे इसे fully active होने क े लिए glucose क े अधिक concentration की आवश्यकता होती है I इसलिए glucose को glucose-6-phosphate में बदलने क े लिए hexokinase एक बेहतर पसंद है I] ● Hexokinase is inhibited by gl-6-p hence the activity of hexokinase will be inhibited upon accumulation of gl-6-p whereas Glucokinase is not inhibited by gl-6-p but is stimulated by insulin in presence of high levels of glucose. Therefore, hexokinase helps in 2
  • 3. glycolysis in normal body cells whereas glucokinase facilitates gluconeogenesis in the liver. [Hexokinase glucose-6-phosphate द्वारा inhibit होता है इसलिए gl-6-पर क े इकठ्ठा होने पर hexokinase की activity में रूकावट आ जाती है I दूसरी तरफ glucokinase gl-6-p द्वारा inhibit नहीं होता है लेकिन insulin इसे उत्तेजित (stimulate) करता है I इसलिए hexokinase सामान्य body cells में glycolysis में मदद करता है और glucokinase liver में gluconeogenesis को सुगम बनाता है I] Q.5. Name the two inhibitors of glycolysis and mention how these inhibit glycolysis?[glycolysis क े दो अवरोधक (inhibitors) क े नाम लिखो और ये glycolysis को क ै से रोकते हैं?] Ans. Iodoacetamide and iodoacetate are inhibitors of glycolysis. These two inhibitors inhibit the conversion of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate by inhibiting the enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH). These inhibitors block the highly reactive active site SH group of GPDH resulting in loss of catalytic activity of GPDH. GPDH G-3-P + NAD+ ----------> 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate + NADH **Sodium fluoride is also an inhibitor of glycolysis. It inhibits enzyme enolase which catalyzes the conversion of 2-phosphoglycerate to Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) in glycolytic pathway and thus inhibits the breakdown of glucose through glycolytic pathway. That is why it is used in vials for blood sample collection for blood glucose estimation so that there is no further degradation of glucose in blood sample after its collection and the actual level of blood glucose could be estimated. [Iodoacetamide और iodoacetate glycolysis क े दो inhibitors हैं I ये दोनों inhibitors enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) को inhibit करक े glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate का 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate में परिवर्तन रोकते हैं I ये inhibitors GPDH की highly reactive active site क े SH group को block कर देते हैं जिससे GPDH की catalytic में क्षति होती है I GPDH G-3-P + NAD+ ----------> 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate + NADH **Sodium fluoride भी glycolysis का एक inhibitor है I यह enzyme enolase को inhibit करता है जो glycolytic pathway में 2-phosphoglycerate क े Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) में परिवर्तन को catalyze करता है और इसप्रकार glycolytic pathway द्वारा glucose का breakdown रुक जाता है I इसीलिए सोडियम fluoride का उपयोग blood glucose estimation हेतु लिए जाने वाले blood sample की vial में किया जाता है ताकि blood collection क े बाद उस sample में glucose का breakdown नहीं हो और blood में glucose क े वास्तविक स्तर को मापा जा सक े I] Q.6. Alcoholic fermentation of yeast is similar to lactate production in skeletal muscles. Explain.[yeast का alcoholic fermentation skeletal muscles क े lactate production से मिलता - जुलता है, इसे समझायें I] Ans. In alcoholic fermentation of yeast glucose is broken down into two molecules of ethanol and two molecules of carbon dioxide while in lactate production in skeletal muscles glucose is degraded to two molecules of lactate but both fermentation and lactate production are anaerobic process. Moreover, many steps of both are similar e.g. the conversion of glucose to Pyruvate. Both processes reoxidise NADH produced in glycolysis by donating electrons to pyruvate or to a product produced from pyruvate (acetaldehyde). 3
  • 4. [Yeast क े alcoholic fermentation में glucose ethanol क े दो molecules और carbon dioxide क े दो molecules में टूटता है, जबकि skeletal muscles में lactate production में glucose lactate क े दो molecules में टूटता है I हालांकि, fermentation और lactate production दोनों ही anaerobic प्रक्रियायें हैं और दोनों क े ही कई steps मिलते - जुलते हैं, जैसे - दोनों प्रक्रियाओं में glycolysis द्वारा बने NADH का oxidation electrons क े pyruvate को या pyruvate से बने product (acetaldehyde) को donation द्वारा होता है I] Glycolysis: pyruvate + NADH +H+------>lactate + NAD+ Fermentation : Pyruvate + H+ -----> Acetaldehyde + CO2 Acetaldehyde + NADH + H+-----> ethanol + NAD+ Q.7. Define metabolism and write the metabolic fate of pyruvate.[चयापचय को परिभाषित करें और pyruvate का चयापचय परिणाम (metabolic fate) लिखें I] Ans. Metabolism - It is defined as the chemical reactions and pathways, including anabolism and catabolism, by which living organisms transform chemical substances to provide energy for vital processes and for synthesizing new organic material. [चयापचय - चयापचय क े अंतर्गत जीवों में होने वाली वो सभी रासायनिक प्रतिक्रियायें और pathways आते हैं जिनमें अपचय और उपचय शामिल हैं और जिनक े माध्यम से एक जीवित जीव की कोशिकायें रासायनिक पदार्थो को परिवर्तित करक े महत्वपूर्ण प्रक्रियाओं और नए कार्बनिक पदार्थों क े संश्लेषण क े लिए ऊर्जा प्रदान करती है।] Metabolic fate of pyruvate : In skeletal muscles - when oxygen supply is inadequate e.g. intense muscular activity pyruvate is converted into lactate and NAD+ is regenerated from NADH in limited supply of oxygen and thus glycolytic breakdown of Glucose continues for supply of energy. [Skeletal muscles में जब ऑक्सीजन की supply अपर्याप्त होती है, जैसे - अत्यधिक muscular acitivity होने पर, तो pyruvate lactate में बदल जाता है और NAD+ का NADH से पुनरुत्पादन (regeneration) ऑक्सीजन की सीमित आपूर्ति में होता है और इसप्रकार energy की अपूर्ति हेतु glucose का glycolytic breakdown चलता रहता है I] LDH Pyruvate + NADH ------> lactate + NAD+ In mitochondria - under aerobic conditions -- Pyruvate is converted into acetyl CoA which enters TCA cycle. [Mitochondria में aerobic conditions में pyruvate acetyl CoA में बदल जाता है जो फिर TCA cycle में प्रवेश कर जाता है I] Pyruvate + NAD+ --------> acetyl CoA + NADH In yeasts: in absence of air or oxygen pyruvate is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. [Yeasts में air या ऑक्सीजन की अनुपस्थिति में pyruvate ethanol और carbon dioxide में बदल जाता है I] Pyruvate + NADH ------> ethanol + CO2 +NAD+ Another fate of pyruvate is the replenishment of TCA cycle intermediates e.g. oxaloacetate. [Pyruvate का एक और fate (नियति) होता है और वो है TCA cycle क े intermediates का replenishment (पुनःपूर्ति) करने में, जैसे - oxaloacetate की पुनःपूर्ति I] Pyruvate carboxylase Pyruvate + CO2 -------------------------------> oxaloacetate 4
  • 5. Q.8. How are sucrose, fructose and lactose metabolised via glycolytic pathway?[sucrose, fructose और lactose का glycolytic pathway द्वारा किस प्रकार चयापचय होता है?] Ans. Sucrose: is broken down into glucose and fructose by enzyme Invertase present in intestinal mucosa. Then glucose enters the glycolytic pathway. [सुक्रोस intestinal mucosa में उपस्थित invertase enzyme द्वारा glucose और fructose में तोड़ दिया जाता है और यह ग्लूकोस फिर glycolytic pathway में प्रवेश करता है I] Fructose enters glycolytic pathway by two ways [Fructose glycolytic pathway में दो तरीकों से प्रवेश कर सकता है : ● It is converted into fr-6-phosphate in presence of enzyme Hexokinase which subsequently enters the glycolytic pathway. [यह hexokinase enzyme की उपस्थिति में fructose-6-phosphate में बदल जाता है I] ● It is converted into fr-1-phosphate in presence of ATP and enzyme Fructokinase. Fr-1-phosphate is broken down in presence of enzyme fr-1-p aldolase into glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate which enter the glycolytic pathway. [Enzyme fructokinase और ATP की उपस्थिति में यह fructose-1-phosphate में बदल जाता है. फिर fr-1-p aldolase की उपस्थिति में fr-1-phosphate glyceraldehyde और dihydroxyacetone phosphate में बदल जाता है जो फिर glycolytic pathway में प्रवेश करते हैं I] Lactose: is broken down into glucose and galactose in presence of enzyme lactase. Then glucose enters the glycolytic pathway directly. Galactose is then metabolized into glucose-6-phosphate via three steps with the help of enzymes galactokinase, gal-1-p uridyl transferase and phosphoglucomutase. Gl-6-p so formed enters the glycolytic pathway. [Lactose lactase enzyme की उपस्थिति में glucose और galactose में तोड़ दिया जाता है और तब glucose glycolytic pathway में प्रवेश करता है I Galactose फिर तीन चरणों में glucose-6-phosphate में metabolize होता है और इसक े लिए तीन enzymes - galactokinase, gal-1-p uridyl transferase और phosphoglucomutase की आवश्यकता होती है I इस प्रकार बना Gl-6-p फिर glycolytic pathway में प्रवेश करता है I] Q.9. What are the three regulatory points of glycolysis? Describe one in detail.[glycolysis क े तीन नियामक (regulatory) बिंदु क्या हैं? किसी एक को विस्तार में लिखें I] Ans. The three regulatory points of glycolysis are: ● Conversion of Glucose to gl-6-p catalyzed by hexokinase. ● Conversion of fructose-6-p to fr-1,6-bis-p catalyzed by phosphofructokinase(PFK). ● Conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate catalyzed by pyruvate kinase. Conversion of fr-6-p to fr-1,6-bis-p: This is the most important control point of glycolysis and is called the 'committed step' because if this step is completed then the process of glycolysis would go to completion. For example if the conversion of glucose to G-6-P is inhibited, G-6-P can be made available by the breakdown of glycogen and the glycolytic process would continue. On the other hand, if the conversion of glucose to G-6-P is activated but PFK is inhibited then in spite of enough G-6-P the glycolytic pathway does not proceed and G-6-P would be utilized by other metabolic pathways such as Pentose phosphate pathway and glycogen synthesis. 5
  • 6. The enzyme PFK catalyzing this reaction is inhibited by ATP and citrate but activated by ADP and AMP. Its catalytic efficiency and the rate of glycolysis increases when energy charge decreases i.e. when the concentration of ADP and AMP increases. Another activator of PFK and glycolysis is Fr-2,6-bis-P. It increases the affinity of the enzyme for its substrate (fr-6-p) and decreases the affinity for ATP (the inhibitor of PFK). [fr-6-p का fr-1,6-bis-p में परिवर्तन : यह glycolysis का सबसे अधिक महत्वपूर्ण control point (नियंत्रण बिंदु) है और इसे 'committed step’ (प्रतिबद्ध चरण) कहते हैं क्योंकि यदि यह चरण पूर्ण हो जाता है तो glycolysis की प्रक्रिया भी पूर्ण हो जाती है I उदाहरण - यदि glucose का G-6-P में परिवर्तन रुक जाता है तो भी G-6-P glycogen क े टूटने से उपलब्ध हो सकता है और इस प्रकार glycolysis की प्रक्रिया जारी रह सकती है I किन्तु यदि glucose का G-6-P में परिवर्तन बना भी रहता है परन्तु यदि किसी कारणवश PFK inhibit हो जाए तो G-6-P की पर्याप्त मात्रा उपलब्ध होने पर भी glycolysis की प्रक्रिया आगे नहीं बढ़ पायेगी और बने हुए G-6-P का उपयोग अन्य metabolic pathways, जैसे - Pentose phosphate pathway और glycogen synthesis, द्वारा होगा I इस reaction को catalyze करने वाला enzyme (PFK) ATP और citrate द्वारा inhibit होता है और ADP और AMP द्वारा activate होता है I PFK की catalytic efficiency और glycolysis की दर energy charge क े घटने पर बढ़ती है यानि जब ADP और AMP का concentration बढ़ता है I PFK और glycolysis का एक अन्य activator है Fr-2,6-bis-P जो PFK की इसक े substrate (fr-6-p) क े प्रति affinity को बढ़ाता है और ATP (PFK का inhibitor) क े प्रति affinity को कम करता है I] Q.10. What are the physiological functions of gluconeogenesis?[gluconeogenesis क े शारीरिक कार्य क्या हैं?] Ans. ● To produce glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors such as lactate (a waste product) produced during strenuous exercise. [गैर-कार्बोहाइड्रेट पूर्ववर्तियों (precursors), जैसे - ज़ोरदार व्यायाम क े फलस्वरुप बने lactate (एक अपशिष्ट उत्पाद), से glucose का संश्लेषण करना ] ● To convert glycerol and some glucogenic amino acids into glucose during starvation. [Starvation क े दौरान glycerol और क ु छ ग्लूकोजनिक अमीनो अम्लों से ग्लूकोस का संश्लेषण करना ] ● To replenish glycogen of liver and muscles. [Muscles और liver क े glycogen की पुनः पूर्ति करना ] Q.11. Define glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. What are the three reaction steps in which they differ from each other?[glycolysis और gluconeogenesis को परिभाषित करें I वो कौन से तीन चरण हैं जिनमें ये आपस में भिन्न होते हैं?] Ans. Glycolysis: is a pathway of the anaerobic degradation of glucose in the liquid part of the cell (cytosol) where one molecule of glucose gives two molecules of three carbon pyruvate with release of some energy in the form of ATP. [ग्लाइकोलिसिस - यह कोशिकीय श्वसन का प्राथमिक चरण है जो कोशिका द्रव्य में संपन्न होता है I इसमें ऑक्सीजन की अनुपस्थिति में ग्लूकोज का आंशिक आक्सीकरण होता है, फलस्वरूप ग्लूकोज क े एक अणु से पाइरूविक अम्ल क े 2 अणु बनते हैं तथा ATP क े रूप में क ु छ ऊर्जा मुक्त होती है।] Gluconeogenesis: is the conversion of non-carbohydrate precursors (such as glycerol, lactate, pyruvate and glucogenic amino acids) into glucose. [ग्लुकोनियोजेनेसिस (ग्लूकोस नवजनन) एक ऐसा चयापचय मार्ग (metabolic pathway) है जिसक े द्वारा गैर-कार्बोहाइड्रेट पूर्ववर्तियों (precursors) जैसे - लैक्टेट, पाइरूवेट, ग्लिसरॉल और ग्लूकोजनिक अमीनो अम्लों से ग्लूकोस का संश्लेषण होता है ।] 6
  • 7. The three reaction steps in which glycolysis and gluconeogenesis differ are: 1. In glycolysis glucose is converted into glucose-6-phosphate in presence of ATP and enzyme Hexokinase whereas in gluconeogenesis glucose-6-phosphate is converted into glucose and Pi in presence of Glucose-6-phosphatase. [Glycolysis में ATP और enzyme Hexokinase की उपस्थिति में glucose परिवर्तित होता है glucose-6-phosphate में, जबकि gluconeogenesis में Glucose-6-phosphatase enzyme की उपस्थिति में glucose-6-phosphate परिवर्तित होता है glucose और Pi में I] 2. In glycolysis fructose-6-phosphate is converted into fructose-1,6-bis-phosphate in presence of enzyme phosphofructokinase whereas in gluconeogenesis fructose-1,6-bis-phosphate is converted into fructose-6-phosphate and Pi in presence of enzyme Fructose-1,6-bis-phosphatase. [Glycolysis में enzyme phosphofructokinase की उपस्थिति में fructose-6-phosphate परिवर्तित होता है fructose-1,6-bis-phosphate में, जबकि gluconeogenesis में fructose-1,6-bis-phosphate परिवर्तित होता है fructose-6-phosphate और Pi में और इसक े लिए enzyme Fructose-1,6-bis-phosphatase की आवश्यकता होती है I] 3. In glycolysis phosphoenolpyruvate is converted into pyruvate and ATP in presence of ADP and enzyme Pyruvate kinase whereas in gluconeogenesis pyruvate is converted into phosphoenolpyruvate in presence of ATP, GTP and CO2 and the reaction is catalyzed by enzymes Pyruvate carboxylase and Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxy kinase. [Glycolysis में phosphoenolpyruvate pyruvate और ATP में परिवर्तित होता है, ADP और enzyme Pyruvate kinase की उपस्थिति में, जबकि gluconeogenesis में pyruvate परिवर्तित होता है phosphoenolpyruvate में, ATP, GTP और CO2 की उपस्थिति में और यह reaction दो enzymes Pyruvate carboxylase और Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxy kinase द्वारा catalyze होता है I] Q.12. What is galactosemia and what causes it?[galactosemia क्या होता है और यह क्यों होता है?] Ans. Galactosemia is a genetic disorder and the affected infant can not metabolize galactose property. This results in accumulation of toxic levels of galactose-1-phosphate in various tissues resulting in hepatomegaly, cirrhosis, renal failure, cataract, brain damage and ovarian failure. The three enzymes which may be deficient in such infants are gal-1-p uridyl transferase, galactokinase and UDP-gal-epimerase. It is best treated by excluding galactose from diet. However, the patient eventually out grow this problem because other pathways of galactose utilisation are developed at higher age. [Galactosemia एक आनुवंशिक (genetic) विकार है और इससे प्रभावित शिशु galactose को ठीक से चयापचय (metabolize) नहीं कर सकते हैं I इस कारण विभिन्न ऊतकों (tissues) में galactose-1-phosphate क े विषाक्त स्तर (toxic levels) एकत्रित होने से hepatomegaly, cirrhosis, renal failure, cataract, brain damage और ovarian failure हो सकता है I तीन enzymes जिनकी कमी इन शिशुओं हो सकती है, वो हैं - gal-1-p uridyl transferase, galactokinase और UDP-gal-epimerase. इसका सबसे उचित इलाज यह है कि इन शिशुओं क े आहार से galactose हटा दिया जाए I मरीज इस समस्या से अंततः आगे बढ़ जाते हैं क्योंकि उम्र बढ़ने पर शरीर में galactose क े उपयोग क े अन्य pathways विकसित हो जाते हैं I] Q.13. What are the consequences of genetic deficiency of Pyruvate kinase?[pyruvate kinase की आनुवंशिक कमी क े क्या परिणाम होते हैं?] Ans. Pyruvate kinase (PK) catalyzes the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate and ATP is generated in this reaction of glycolysis. Hence, the deficiency of PK in RBCs would result in reduced rate of glycolysis and therefore ATP synthesis would also be inadequate to meet the 7
  • 8. energy requirements of RBCs for maintaining their structural integrity resulting in cell destruction. This leads to hemolytic anemia. [Pyruvate kinase (PK) enzyme glycolysis क े दौरान phosphoenolpyruvate को pyruvate में परिवर्तित करता है और ATP बनता है I इसलिए, RBCs में इस enzyme की कमी होने पर RBCs में glycolysis की दर कम हो जाती है और परिणामस्वरुप RBCs की संरचनात्मक अखंडता को बनाए रखने क े लिए आवश्यक energy को पूरा करने हेतु ATP की synthesis भी अपर्याप्त होती है, जिससे RBCs का विनाश होने लगता है I इसक े परिणामस्वरुप व्यक्ति में ‘hemolytic anemia’ हो जाता है I] Q.14. What is lactose intolerance? What are its symptoms?[lactose intolerance क्या होता है और इसक े क्या लक्षण होते हैं?] Ans. Lactose intolerance in adulthood means the body can not easily digest lactose due to deficiency or inadequate levels of enzyme lactase which hydrolyses lactose to glucose and galactose in the intestinal mucosa. Therefore, lactose is not broken down and this results in its accumulation. This increases the osmotic pressure of the intestinal contents which leads to diffusion of water into the intestine causing flatulence. The intestinal flora can utilize lactose leading to their increased multiplication and gas formation. The symptoms of lactose intolerance are gas, belly pain, feeling of fullness, gurgling or rumbling sounds in the belly and diarrhea after ingestion of lactose rich products such as milk. Such individuals can consume curd as lactose is converted into lactate during curd formation. [व्यस्को में Lactose intolerance का अर्थ है कि शरीर lactose को आसानी से digest नहीं कर सकता है I इसका कारण होता है enzyme lactase की शरीर में कमी या अपर्याप्तता I यह enzyme intestine की mucosa में lactose को glucose और galactose में hydrolyse करता है I इसलिए lactase enzyme की कमी या अपर्याप्तता होने पर lactose टूट नहीं पाता और इसका जमाव होने लगता है जिससे intestinal conents का osmotic pressure बढ़ता है और इसक े परिणामस्वरूप intestine में water का diffusion (विसरण) बढ़ जाता है जिससे flatulence (उदरवायु) होती है I Intestinal flora lactose का उपयोग अपने गुणन (multiplication) करने में करता है जिससे भी उदरवायु होती है I Lactose से भरपूर पदार्थों (जैसे - दूध) को खाने क े बाद lactose intolerance क े लक्षण हैं - gas, belly pain (पेट में दर्द), feeling of fullness (पेट भरे होने का एहसास), gurgling या rumbling sounds in belly (पेट में गुड़ गुड़ाहट की आवाज़) और diarrhea (दस्त) I ऐसे लोग दही खा सकते हैं क्योंकि दही बनने क े दौरान lactose lactate में परिवर्तित हो जाता है I] Q.15. What are glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids?[glucogenic और ketogenic amino acids क्या होते हैं?] Ans. The amino acids which can be converted into glucose are called glucogenic amino acids. e.g. alanine, glycine, serine and cysteine. Ketogenic amino acids are those amino acids that can be degraded directly into acetyl-CoA, which is the precursor of ketone bodies. Leucine and lysine are the only amino acids in humans that are exclusively ketogenic. [जो amino acids glucose में परिवर्तित की जा सकती हैं उन्हें glucogenic amino acids कहते हैं, जैसे - alanine, glycine, serine and cysteine Ketogenic अमीनो एसिड्स वो अमीनो एसिड्स होते हैं जो टूट कर सीधे acetyl CoA बनाती हैं जो कि ketone bodies का अग्रदूत (precursor) होता है I मानवों में leucine और lysine दो ketogenic अमीनो एसिड्स होते हैं I] Q. 16. Describe the digestion of carbohydrates.[Carbohydrates क े पाचन प्रक्रिया का वर्णन करें ] Ans. Our diet includes simple and complex carbohydrates and their digestion begins in our mouth. 8
  • 9. Mouth - Salivary glands secrete amylase which hydrolyses starch of food into maltose and smaller polysaccharides. Amylase Starch ------------> maltose + smaller polysaccharides Stomach - There is hardly any digestion of carbohydrates in the stomach but there is more mechanical digestion instead(the strong peristaltic contractions of the stomach mix the carbohydrates into the more uniform mixture of chyme). Small intestine - When chyme reaches the duodenum the pancreatic amylase secreted by pancreas breaks the smaller polysaccharides and starch into maltose and oligosaccharides(consisting of 3-10 glucose molecules). Pancreatic amylase Smaller polysaccharides/starch --------------------------> maltose + oligosaccharides The enzymes (maltose, sucrase, lactase) secreted by the intestinal cells that line the villi act upon disaccharides to break them into Monosaccharides : Maltase Maltose -------------------> 2 Glucose Sucrase or invertase Sucrose --------------------------------> Glucose + Fructose Lactase Lactose ------------------> Glucose + Galactose Glucose, fructose, and galactose can now be absorbed across the enterocytes of the small intestine and into the bloodstream to be transported to the liver. Fructose and galactose are converted to glucose in the liver. The main form of carbohydrates circulating in blood is glucose. Large intestine/colon - The food digested in the small intestine and any left over food reaches the large intestine/colon. Since our digestive tract can not digest fibres present in our diet due to lack of the required enzymes, the microbes present in our large intestine ferment these fibres and finally the digested food is then eliminated in the form of stool via rectum and through anus. [हमारे आहार में simple और complex carbohydrates शामिल होते हैं और इनका digestion मुँह से ही शुरू हो जाता है I मुँह (mouth) - मुँह की salivary glands से amylase enzyme स्रावित होता है जो भोजन क े स्टार्च को maltose और smaller polysaccharides में hydrolyze करता है I Amylase Starch ------------> maltose + smaller polysaccharides आमाशय (stomach) - यहाँ carbohydrates का मुश्किल से ही कोई पाचन होता है, बल्कि stomach में एक प्रकार का यांत्रिक पाचन (mechanical digestion) होता है जिसमें stomach क े तीव्र क्रमाक ुं चक संक ु चन (strong peristaltic contractions) क े कारण carbohydrates का एक समरूप (uniform) मिश्रण बन जाता है जिसे chyme (काइम) कहते हैं I छोटी आंत (small intestine) - जब chyme duodenum (छोटी आंत का ऊपरी हिस्सा) में पहुँचता है तो pancreas द्वारा स्रावित pancreatic amylase छोटे polysaccharides और स्टार्च को maltose और oligosaccharides (3-10 ग्लूकोस molecules से बने) में तोड़ देता है I Pancreatic amylase Smaller polysaccharides/starch --------------------------> maltose + oligosaccharides 9
  • 10. Intestine क े villi (विलाई ) की cells द्वारा स्रावित enzymes (maltose, sucrase, lactase) disaccharides को monosaccharides में तोड़ देते हैं : Maltase Maltose -------------------> 2 Glucose Sucrase or invertase Sucrose --------------------------------> Glucose + Fructose Lactase Lactose ------------------> Glucose + Galactose Glucose, fructose, और galactose small intestine की enterocytes द्वारा absorb होकर रक्तप्रवाह क े माध्यम से liver में ट्रांसपोर्ट हो जाते हैं I Fructose और galactose liver में ग्लूकोस में परिवर्तित हो जाते हैं I Carbohydrates रक्त में मुख्य रूप से ग्लूकोस क े रूप में ही परिसंचारित (circulate) होते हैं I Large intestine/colon - छोटी आंत में पचा हुआ और बचा खुचा खाना बड़ी आंत (large intestine)/ colon में पहुँचता है I चूंकि हमारी पाचन नली (digestive tract) हमारे भोजन में उपस्थित fibres को, आवश्यक enzymes की अनुपस्थिति क े कारण, नहीं पचा सकती, इसलिए बड़ी आंत में उपस्थित जीवाणु (microbes) इन fibres को ferment कर देते हैं और अंत में पचा हुआ खाना मलाशय (rectum) से होते हुए शरीर से बाहर मल क े रूप में मालद्वार (anus) से बाहर निकल जाता है I] Q.17. Fill in the blanks : (i) The catabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins is _______ in nature. (ii) The anabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins is _______ in nature. (iii) The degradation of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate in absence of molecular oxygen occurs through _______ pathway. (iv) Alcoholic fermentation is the characteristic of ______. (v) In alcoholic fermentation glucose molecule is broken down into CO2 and _____. (vi) Enzyme phosphofructokinase is inhibited by _____ and _____ and activated by _____ and _____. (vii) The breakdown of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate through glycolysis produces ______ molecules of ATP. (viii) The conversion of two molecules of pyruvate into one molecule of glucose by gluconeogenesis pathway requires the consumption of ____ ATP molecules and ____ GTP molecules (ix) During intense muscular activity of muscles pyruvate is converted into ______ in presence of enzyme _____________ to generate ______ from NADH. (x) Sucrose is hydrolyzed by enzyme ______ present in intestinal mucosa. (xi) Lactose is hydrolyzed to glucose and _______ by the enzyme ______. (xii) Maltose is hydrolyzed into two molecules of _______ by the enzyme ________. (xiii) Galactosemia results in accumulation of ________. (xiv) Hemolytic anemia results due to the deficiency of the enzyme _________. (xv) People with lactose intolerance lack the enzyme _______ and can not digest ______. (xvi) Enzyme amylase secreted by _______ glands hydrolyses starch of food into maltose and smaller polysaccharides. (xvii) The generation of ATP by glycolysis occurs by ________ phosphorylation. (xviii) Under aerobic conditions pyruvate is converted into ______ which is oxidized to CO2 via _______ cycle. 10
  • 11. (xix) The conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate is an irreversible reaction because delta ∆G°’ is _______ (positive or negative) (xx) The Km of hexokinase for glucose is _____ and that of glucokinase for glucose is ______. Ans. (i) convergent, (ii) divergent, (iii) glycolytic, (iv) yeasts, (v) ethanol, (vi) ATP, citrate, ADP, AMP, (vii) 2, (viii) 4, 2, (ix) lactate, lactate dehydrogenase, NAD+, (x) sucrase or invertase (xi) galactose, lactase, (xii) glucose, maltase, (xiii) galactose, (xiv) pyruvate kinase, (xv) lactase, milk, (xvi) salivary, (xvii) substrate level, (xviii) acetyl CoA, TCA, (xix) negative, (xx) low, high REFERENCES: 1. IGNOU, CHE - 9 Biochemistry, Block 3 2. Lehninger Principles of biochemistry, seventh edition ; David L. Nelson & Michael M. Cox. Disclaimer : The pictures given in the text have been downloaded from Google images and I am thankful to the persons who have uploaded these pictures. Dr. P. K. Nigam (Retired Biochemist) 11