The document discusses several topics related to philosophy and reasoning. It defines philosophy as the study of science and its foundations. It explains different types of reasoning like deductive, inductive, abductive, and analogical reasoning. It also discusses concepts like reason, empiricism, and the origins and characteristics of ancient Egyptian philosophy which was believed to be one of the earliest forms of philosophy and was flexible, pragmatic, and considered emotion.

2. Itis the part of philosophy that
studies sciences.
Itis a branch of philosophy which
studies the philosophical
foundations, presumptions and
implications of science both of the
natural sciences and the social
sciences.

3. It seeks to explain such things as: a.
the nature of scientific statements
and concepts;
b. the way in which they are
produced;
c. how science explains, predicts
and harnesses nature;

4. d. the means for determining the
validity of information;
e. the formulation and use of the
scientific method;
f. the types of reasoning used to
arrive at conclusions;

5. g. the implications of scientific
methods and models for the
larger society, and for the
sciences themselves.

6. The origins
of Babylonian philosophy, in the
popular sense of the word, can be
traced back to the wisdom of
early Mesopotamia, which
embodied certain philosophies of
life, particularly ethics.

7. Reason is a term that refers to the
capacity human beings have to
make sense of things, to establish
and verify facts, and to change or
justify practices, institutions, and
beliefs.

8. It is closely associated with such
characteristically human activities
as philosophy, science, language, m
athematics, and art, and is normally
considered to be a definitive
characteristic of human nature.

9. Reason, like habit or intuition, is
one of the ways by which
thinking comes from one idea to
a related idea.

10. For example, it is the means by
which rational beings understand
themselves to think
about cause and effect, truth and f
alsehood, and what is good or
bad.

11. Deductive reasoning
Deduction is generally an inference
by reasoning from the general to the
specific.
Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

12. Inductive reasoning
Induction is a form of inference
producing propositions about
unobserved objects or types, either
specifically or generally, based on
previous observation.
Premise: The sun has risen in the
east every morning up until now.
Conclusion: The sun will also rise in
the east tomorrow.

13. Abductive reasoning
An argument to the best
explanation, is a form of inductive
reasoning, since the conclusion in
an abductive argument does not
follow with certainty from its
premises and concerns something
unobserved.

14. For example, when a patient
displays certain symptoms, there
might be various possible
causes, but one of these is
preferred above others as being
more probable.

15. Analogical reasoning
It is reasoning from the particular
to the particular.
An example follows:
Premise 1: Socrates is human and
Socrates died.
Premise 2: Plato is human.
Conclusion: Plato will die.

16.  It is the exercise of reason.
It is the manner in which people
derive conclusions when
considering things deliberately.

17. The dependence on evidence.
Empiricism is the view that
knowledge derives from experience
of the world.
Inthis sense, scientific statements
are subject to and derived from our
experiences or observations.

18.  It was believed that Egyptian
philosophy had been there even
before the existence of Greek
Philosophies.
 Ancient Egyptian philosophy has been
credited by the ancient Greeks as the
beginning of philosophy.

19. It is characterized by being
flexible, pragmatic, and giving
attention to emotion.

20. Ancient Egyptian answers to
philosophical questions were
flexible. Rather that offering
definite answers, Egyptian
philosophy was pluralistic, and
several explanations for the origin
of the world were considered
equally true.

21. Ancient Egyptian philosophy was
pragmatic, and considered real-life
situations without abstracting to
general laws

22. While Egyptian philosophy
recognized the power of emotion, it
advised against giving in to
transitory feelings.